SN Soc Sci (2023) 3:70

https://doi.org/10.1007/s43545-023-00657-z

ORIGINAL PAPER

How Instagram as a MALL tool impacts EAP learners’

technical vocabulary learning and perceptions
in an electronic context

Kobra Tavassoli1   · Setare Beyranvand1

Received: 13 September 2022 / Accepted: 16 March 2023

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023

Abstract
Mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) technology and the link it creates with
language education domains made researchers interested in the plausible effects of
MALL tools on English for academic purposes (EAP) students’ language develop-
ment. Likewise, this study investigated the effect of Instagram as a MALL tool on
technical vocabulary knowledge of Iranian EAP university students (physical educa-
tion major) in an electronic course conducted via Adobe Connect as well as their
perceptions and attitudes toward Instagram. In a pretest–posttest quasi-experimen-
tal research design, 60 EAP university students at the intermediate level were ran-
domly assigned to a control group and an experimental group who practiced techni-
cal vocabulary in physical education via different tasks on Instagram. Both groups
participated in an online pretest and posttest of technical vocabulary, yet only the
experimental group completed a questionnaire about their perceptions and attitudes
toward Instagram. The repeated-measures two-way ANOVA on the test scores indi-
cated that the experimental group outperformed the control group in learning tech-
nical vocabulary. Further, analysis of the responses to the questionnaire revealed
positive perceptions and attitudes toward Instagram as a supplementary MALL tool
for learning technical vocabulary. The findings encourage EAP instructors to use
Instagram as an accessible MALL application to share their teaching materials with
learners.

Keywords  Attitude · EAP · Instagram · MALL · Perception · Technical vocabulary

* Kobra Tavassoli
kobra.tavassoli@kiau.ac.ir
Setare Beyranvand
setare.beyranvand@kiau.ac.ir
1
Department of ELT, Karaj Branch, Islamic Azad University, Karaj, Iran

Vol.:(0123456789)
 70   Page 2 of 22 SN Soc Sci (2023) 3:70

Introduction

Research on mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) has shown that second/for-

eign language (L2) teaching and learning has been revolutionized due to the use of
technology and its potential effects (e.g., Dagdeler et  al. 2020; Kondo et  al. 2012;
Liakin et al. 2015; Ryabkova 2019; Stockwell 2010). Among modern technological
devices, mobile phones are more favored and utilized among young adults. Similarly,
mobile applications have been used as accessory tools to arouse the learners’ motiva-
tion for language learning. Among various mobile applications and social network-
ing services, Instagram has over one billion active users (Instagram Press 2020). The
MALL studies supported the educational values of Instagram since it can create situ-
ations in which the opportunities for target language communication are increased
and the quality of target language input is improved (Erarslan 2019; Fathi 2018; Lail-
iyah and Setiyaningsih 2020; Wahyudin and Mulya Sari, 2018; Yudha Bestari 2020).
Technical vocabulary and complex terminologies such as acronyms and abbrevia-
tions in L2 in any scientific discipline are the types of input that create difficulties for
the majority of university students. Therefore, the mastery of technical vocabulary in
educational settings is a serious concern in English for academic purposes (EAP) set-
tings (Shchitova 2012). A review of the EAP literature (e.g., Beyranvand and Rahmatol-
lahi 2021; Ishtiaq Khan et al. 2019; Lailiyah & Setiyaningsih 2020; Simanjuntak 2020)
indicates a scarcity of research on the impacts of using MALL devices on technical
vocabulary enhancement in EAP settings particularly in the emergency distance educa-
tion (EDE) caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. Hodges et al. (2020) defined EDE as
“the temporary shift of instructional delivery to an alternate delivery mode due to crisis
circumstances” (p. 6). Thus, the objective of EDE is the continuation of education by
offering immediate assistance. Such a rash transition from traditional to distance educa-
tion caused many challenges and difficulties including students’ perceptions and readi-
ness to use advanced technologies and the development of various technology-mediated
course contents during the pandemic era.
Accordingly, evaluating distance language education based on its merits and draw-
backs from the L2 learners’ perspective seems as crucial as their language achievement.
By focusing on an EAP context, the current study intended to examine the mediating
role of Instagram as a MALL tool on learning technical terminologies and its impact on
EAP students’ perceptions and attitudes toward Instagram.

Literature review

Over the past few decades, various researchers have worked on modern technology-
based types of learning such as electronic learning (e-learning), mobile learning
(m-learning), and digital learning (d-learning) (e.g., Almekhlafy and Alzubi 2016;
AlSaidi and Al Shezawi 2020; Chen et al. 2017; Dagdeler et al. 2020; Ryabkova 2019)
and they supported the positive impact of utilizing technology in language education.
Kukulska-Hulme and Shield (2008) defined m-learning as learning mediated by the
assistance of smart portable gadgets accessible most of the time and adaptable to the
SN Soc Sci (2023) 3:70 Page 3 of 22  70

learner’s immediate context. It is noteworthy to mention that mobile-assisted lan-

guage learning (MALL) is different from computer-assisted language learning
(CALL) in the sense that MALL is more personal and allows wireless access and
reciprocal communication across a variety of uses continuously (Kukulska-Hulme
and Shield 2008). Further benefits of MALL are its mobility, the anytime-anywhere
advantage, omnipresence, wireless access, easy communication and engagement,
and arousing high motivation and enjoyment (Mehdipour and Zerehkafi 2013).
Recent MALL studies indicate that learners consider MALL as an effective tech-
nique that can enhance the teaching and learning process (Akhiar et  al. 2017; Laili-
yah and Setiyaningsih 2020; Pourdana et al. 2021; Yudha Bestari 2020). For example,
Al Saidi and Al Shezawi (2020) examined the differential impact of using WhatsApp,
Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter applications on vocabulary learning and retention by
incorporating vocabulary games with Arab English as a foreign language (EFL) learn-
ers and concluded that a large amount of vocabulary might be acquired naturally and
spontaneously. Also, Dagdeler et al. (2020) supported the efficiency of mobile applica-
tions in the vocabulary knowledge enhancement of EFL learners.

Instagram as a MALL tool

A popular social networking platform used by millions of people daily on mobile

phones (Gonulal 2019), Instagram is a photo and video sharing application in which
the administrator of an account can keep the posted images or videos forever. Thus,
Instagram users are allowed to follow various accounts and have access to target lan-
guage materials. They can leave a comment to share their ideas with other follow-
ers. To achieve closer interactions about the shared posts, the followers can mention
other Instagram accounts. Therefore, Instagram provides worldwide opportunities
for its users to interact and improve their L2 learning.
As an L2 teaching platform, Instagram allows teachers to live-stream videos
and share stories on which their students can give feedback. The videos can also
be saved, archived, and shared for future reference. Used as an online teaching plat-
form, Instagram is sometimes regarded as a source of social isolation and anxiety, or
subject to inconsistent and poor internet connection or cheating during the assess-
ment (Lailiyah and Setiyaningsihv 2020).
Concerning the utilization of Instagram in language teaching, researchers have
supported its role in improving the learner’s descriptive writing (Kelly 2015), gram-
matical accuracy (Yadegarfar and Shahla 2016), and speaking ability (Hape 2018),
as well as in creating a positive perception and motivation in L2 learners (Akhiar
et al. 2017; AlGhamdi 2018; Erarslan 2019; Lailiyah and Setiyaningsih 2020; Yudha
Bestari 2020).

Technical vocabulary in ESP/EAP

The origin of English for specific purposes (ESP) can be trackbacked to the end of
the Second World War when it was born as a consequence of the world’s economic
growth and technological progress (Hutchinson and Waters 1987). ESP deals with the
 70   Page 4 of 22 SN Soc Sci (2023) 3:70

particularity of the purposes for which English is learned and used, where terminologies
work as a substantial tool for learning the subject matter, especially in academic settings.
Vocabulary as the heart of ESP/EAP courses (Coxhead 2013) has attracted the atten-
tion of many researchers who have examined the learners’ competency of technical
vocabulary over the years (e.g., Beyranvand and & Rahmatollahi 2021; Farhady and
Harati 2016; Simanjuntak 2020; Xodabande and Atai 2020). The results of such studies
have indicated that technical terms produce problems for university students (Chirobo-
cea Tudor 2018). Such inefficacy of the learners’ terminological knowledge base might
be due to the lack of effective pedagogical techniques or innovative technologies and
their educational capabilities which could otherwise convert boring materials into inter-
esting lessons (Davoudi-Mobarakeh et al. 2014).
The findings of ESP/EAP studies in the EFL context of Iran have revealed that the
dominant techniques in teaching technical vocabulary are traditional, such as the trans-
lation of technical words in a text during the class time without utilizing any contem-
porary supplementary tools such as mobile phone platforms or applications, or audio/
video-based materials that can provide authentic situations (Ahmadi-Azad and Kuhi
2016; Modirkhameneh and Kashef 2009; Xodabande and Atai 2020). However, this
situation can be changed by integrating technology into ESP/EAP settings that offers
various learning/teaching opportunities and benefits such as interactive activities and
the provision of continuous feedback to learners (Asmali 2018; Butler-Pascoe 2009;
Farhady et  al. 2018). The incorporation of technology can modernize the teaching
methods and materials which are used in ESP/EAP contexts (Bloch 2013).
In reality, given the ubiquitous student access to mobile phones and social media,
finding a way to direct the learners’ attention to educational content through these
devices could be a successful instructional technique. In particular, Instagram, as
a popular social platform, has the potential to be used as an educational tool to
enhance the learners’ technical vocabulary. That is why the current study focused on
the integration of technology and EAP. Accordingly, the researchers tried to explore
L2 learners’ perceptions and experiences of using Instagram in learning techni-
cal vocabulary in an electronic EAP setting by raising the following two research
questions:

RQ1 Does Instagram have any significant effect on Iranian EAP learners’ technical
vocabulary learning in an electronic setting?
RQ2 What are Iranian EAP learners’ perceptions and attitudes toward Instagram?

Method

Context and participants

The present study was carried out in Iran in the Fall Semester of 2020 and lasted for
14  weeks. The context was the COVID-19 pandemic era when the universities had
to shift to online classes. A total of 76 university students of physical education who
had passed the general English course participated in an EAP course for their major.
The participants were selected based on convenience sampling and their willingness
SN Soc Sci (2023) 3:70 Page 5 of 22  70

to participate in the study. They belonged to two intact online classes on the basis of
the university course enrollment. Out of these 76 students, 60 individuals whose scores
were at the intermediate level based on an Oxford Placement Test (UCLES, 2001)
and regularly attended all the online sessions were selected. The participants were
both males (N = 32) and females (N = 28) ranging in age from 20 to 38, and their first
language was Persian. One of the classes was randomly assigned as the experimental
group (N = 30, 18 males and 12 females) and the other one as the control group (N = 30,
14 males and 16 females). However, the educational purposes and the instructor of both
classes were the same. The participants were all Instagram users and were required to
follow each other’s as well as their teacher’s accounts.
Both the experimental and control groups attended online classes via the Adobe Con-
nect application which was chosen by the university as the online teaching system for run-
ning students’ educational courses. However, the participants in the experimental group
were required to follow an Instagram page that was made by the instructor, who was one
of the researchers, for the purpose of teaching and learning the technical vocabulary of
their major. Both groups studied similar topics including the primary domains of physical
education, warm-up and cool-down exercises, nutrition, types of muscles and motions,
somatotype, energy systems, evaluating injuries, movements, and directions. However,
the way the topics were taught was different. The experimental group employed Insta-
gram, where the technical vocabularies were taught through different tasks. The instructor
used similar tasks for the control group in the class but in a conventional method and not
via the Instagram platform to cancel out the effect of the tasks. The following shows some
sample tasks from the Instagram page of the experimental group.
 70   Page 6 of 22 SN Soc Sci (2023) 3:70

Instrumentation

OPT was used at the inception of the study to check the participants’ homogeneity and
the ones at the intermediate level were selected (UCLES, 2001). Next, to identify the
students’ knowledge of technical vocabulary, a researcher-made English vocabulary
test was deployed online. The test contained 30 multiple-choice items and it was devel-
oped based on the selected words from the students’ EAP course-book (Beyranvand
and Derakhshan 2020). It assessed the knowledge of physical education terminology.
The test content was based on the studied course book, which has been written by one
of the researchers. The tested words were technical and sub-technical vocabulary of
physical education, which were tested through contextualized items that focused on
semantic meaning of sentences. The vocabulary items were identified in relation to the
learning objectives of the course. The test was monolingual and all the questions and
responses were in English. Considering the format of the items, they were all in multi-
ple-choice format to include an acceptable number of words which could be answered
and scored as objectively and quickly as possible. Some of the items included pictures,
too. The following presents two sample items from the test.

Sprinter’s action can be described as a/an __________ motion.

a. general b. linear
c. angular d. swinging

Which body type is it?

a. ectomorph b. mesomorph
c. endomorph d. fat free

The test was used as both the pretest and posttest to examine the participants’
mastery of the meaning of technical vocabulary in physical education. As the post-
test, the order of items was reshuffled to decrease the chance of memorizing the
items. The specified time for answering the test was 30 min.
SN Soc Sci (2023) 3:70 Page 7 of 22  70

The reliability indices of the pretest and posttest scores were 0.99 and 0.98,
respectively, which were interpreted as highly strong measures (Muijs 2004). The
content validity of the test was checked by two assessment specialists who matched
its content with that of the textbook. In addition, the content validity ratio (CVR)
of the test items was checked which was between 0.5 and 1 for all items, that is, the
number of choosing an item as “essential” was more than half but less than all. The
CVR values are reported in Table 1. Based on the results of CVR, all the items were
kept in the test. Next, the content validity index (CVI) of the whole test was calcu-
lated, which is the mean of the CVR values of the remained items (CVI = 0.93). In
other words, 0.93 overlap existed between the students’ technical knowledge of their
major and their performance on the test (Lawshe 1975).
Moreover, Gonulal’s (2019) Potential of Instagram as a MALL tool questionnaire
was adopted and administered to the experimental group at the end of the semester
to determine the participants’ perceptions and attitudes toward Instagram in learning
technical vocabulary. The questionnaire was composed of three sections, including
12 items about background information, self-rated general English proficiency on a
6-point Likert scale (1 = beginning to 6 = advanced), and Instagram using habits of
the participants “Introduction,” 15 items about perceptions of using Instagram on a
6-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 6 = strongly agree) “Literature review,”
and 3 open-ended questions for further exploration of the students’ attitudes and per-
sonal experiences of Instagram as a MALL tool “Instagram as a MALL Tool.” The
reliability of the questionnaire in Gonulal’s (2019) study was 0.94 and it was 0.73
in this study. The lower reliability index of the questionnaire in this study could be
attributed to the smaller number of respondents to the questionnaire.

Procedure

This study used a quasi-experimental pretest posttest design. The objectives of the
study, the employed strategies, and the research procedures were explained to the
participants before the study began and they signed a consent form to participate
in this research. 76 university students answered an electronic version of UCLES
(2001) and 60 of them who were at the intermediate level (30–37 on OPT) were
selected. To ensure the participants were at the same level of technical vocabulary
knowledge, they were pretested with a researcher-made technical vocabulary test
and they were randomly assigned to equal-size experimental and control groups (30
students in each group). The online EAP classes were conducted via the Adobe Con-
nect application as a remote training software for educational courses in Iran. The
instructor of both classes was one of the researchers.
In addition, the experimental group followed each other’s and their instructor’s
Instagram account on their mobile phones. Teaching technical vocabulary in physi-
cal education was done by sharing posts and stories, employing various tasks, and
providing corrective feedback to the students’ Instagram posts. The shared stories
were archived, highlighted, and categorized with specific titles and pictures to be
used later. So too, several tools such as note-taking, painting, polling, quiz, shar-
ing music videos, and adding stickers and emojis were used through story sharing.
The teacher and the students had digital interactions with each other on Instagram
 70   Page 8 of 22 SN Soc Sci (2023) 3:70

Table 1  Content validity ratio Items Ne* CVR** Interpretation

(CVR) of the items in the
vocabulary test 1 4 1 Remained
2 4 1 Remained
3 4 1 Remained
4 4 1 Remained
5 4 1 Remained
6 4 1 Remained
7 4 1 Remained
8 4 1 Remained
9 4 1 Remained
10 3 .5 Remained
11 3 .5 Remained
12 4 1 Remained
13 4 1 Remained
14 4 1 Remained
15 4 1 Remained
16 4 1 Remained
17 4 1 Remained
18 4 1 Remained
19 4 1 Remained
20 4 1 Remained
21 4 1 Remained
22 4 1 Remained
23 4 1 Remained
24 3 .5 Remained
25 4 1 Remained
26 4 1 Remained
27 4 1 Remained
28 3 .5 Remained
29 4 1 Remained
30 4 1 Remained

*Number of experts who evaluated the item as essential

**CVR = ­(Ne – N/2)/(N/2) with 4 people at the expert panel (N = 4),
the items with the CVR bigger than .49 remained in the rest

as well. Fig. 1 includes two samples of these interactions between the teacher and
students on Instagram.
The experimental group was required to complete the Potential of Instagram as
a MALL tool questionnaire at the end of the course, too. To cancel out the task
effects, the instructor employed similar tasks for the control group and provided cor-
rective feedback to them, not via the Instagram platform but in the class in a conven-
tional way. Overall, each session, half of the class time was spent on learning techni-
cal words in each group. Both groups were re-examined with the online technical
vocabulary posttest at the end of the study.
SN Soc Sci (2023) 3:70 Page 9 of 22  70

It is worth mentioning that in the process of quasi-experimental studies, exter-

nal factors such as exposure to other sources might affect the results of the study.
To minimize the impact of such external factors, the instructor checked whether the
students followed any other Instagram accounts teaching physical education ter-
minology. The conclusion was that the participants did not follow any other Insta-
gram pages which focused on technical vocabularies. Moreover, since the context
was EAP and some of the selected terminologies which were used in the vocabulary
test were collocations specific to physical education, the frequency of such terms
(e.g., Abs exercises) could not be checked. The frequency of the other terms was
checked in BNC/COCA vocabulary list. Due to the technicality of the tested lexi-
con, they were not included in the list. Consequently, the researchers assumed that
the statistical differences that they found were most probably the effect of the used
intervention.

Results

The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 26 was used to ana-
lyze the data from the pretest and posttest of the two groups. First, to determine
whether the pretest and posttest scores of the experimental and control groups
bear normal distribution, and consequently decide about the parametric or non-
parametric formulae to be used for their analysis, the one-sample Kolmogo-
rov–Smirnov test (KS-test) was utilized. The outcomes of the KS-test on the two
sets of data are reported in Table 2.
The statistical results indicated that the assumptions of normal distribution
were met in the pretest and posttest data sets, respectively (p of pretest = 0.29, p
of posttest = 0.53; α = 0.05; p > α) and parametric statistical tests could be run. Further,
the reliability indexes of the pretest and posttest scores of both groups were above
0.98, which showed that the tests were highly reliable.

Fig. 1  Two sample interactions

between the teacher and students
on Instagram
 70   Page 10 of 22 SN Soc Sci (2023) 3:70

Table 2  One-sample N Pretest of the two Posttest of the two

Kolmogorov–Smirnov test of Groups Groups
the pretest and posttest of the
two groups 60 60

Normal parameters
 Mean 14.70 19.03
 SD 2.81 3.06
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .29 .53

The homogeneity of the participants regarding their knowledge of technical

vocabulary at the beginning of the study was the next point checked through an
independent-samples t-test on the pretest scores. First, Table  3 shows the descrip-
tive statistics of the two groups’ pretest and posttest scores and Table 4 presents the
independent-samples t-test on the pretest scores.
According to the information in Table  3, the mean score of the control group
(N = 30) improved from 14.37 on the pretest to 17.10 on the posttest, while the mean
score of the experimental group (N = 30) improved from 15.03 on the pretest to
20.97 on the posttest, which was a greater improvement.
As represented in Table  4, the independent-samples t-test on the pretest scores
showed an insignificant between-groups difference at the beginning of the study
(t(58) = -0.91, p = 0.36; α = 0.05; p > α).

Investigating the impact of Instagram on EAP learners’ technical vocabulary

learning

To address the first research question and to check whether Instagram has any signif-
icant effect on Iranian EAP learners’ technical vocabulary learning in an electronic
setting, a repeated-measures two-way ANOVA (Table 5) was run on the pretest and
posttest scores of both groups. This analysis is appropriate when there is more than
one group being measured on a test repeatedly and the purpose is to check the inter-
action effect of time and group (Hinton et al. 2008).
As Table 5 presents, the statistical results indicated the significant effect of time
as the within-subjects effects. In other words, both groups improved their perfor-
mance considerably from the pretest to the posttest (F = 682.59; p = 0.00; α = 0.05;

Table 3  Descriptive statistics Pretest Posttest

of the pretest and posttest of the
two groups Control Group (N = 30)
 Mean 14.37 17.10
 SD 2.78 2.41
Experimental Group (N = 30)
 Mean 15.03 20.97
 SD 2.84 2.35
SN Soc Sci (2023) 3:70 Page 11 of 22  70

Table 4  Independent-samples T-test on the pretest of the control and experimental groups

Levene’s Test for t-test for Equality of Means
Equality of Vari-
ances
F Sig t df Sig. (2-tailed)

Pretest Equal variances assumed .00 .99 − .91 58 .36

p < α; Partial eta squared = 0.92, representing a strong effect size). The between-
subjects effects value (i.e., group) was also significant to suggest a significant but
small difference between the groups (F = 12.05; p = 0.00; α = 0.05; p < α; Partial
eta squared = 0.17, representing a weak effect size). Finally, the interaction effect
of time and group indicated that the group membership was a determining factor
to achieve a better progress from pretest to posttest (F = 93.05; p = 0.00; α = 0.05;
p < α; Partial eta squared = 0.61, representing a strong effect size). To further explore
the significance of the differences in the posttest scores of both groups, a pairwise
comparison was run (Table 6).
As Table  6 shows, the mean difference indicated that the experimental group
significantly outperformed the control group on the posttest (I–J = 2.26; p = 0.00;
α = 0.05; p < α). Further, Fig.  2 graphically demonstrates the pretest to posttest
improvement of both groups.
To sum up, the two groups performed similarly on the pretest and made notice-
able progress in learning technical vocabulary on the posttest, but the experimen-
tal group’s improvement was more significant, likely due to using Instagram as a
MALL tool to learn technical words.

Investigating the impact of Instagram on EAP learners’ perceptions and attitudes

To address the second research question and make the collected data from the ques-
tionnaire more meaningful, the experimental group was further divided into two
groups: those whose scores were above (Higher Score group) and below (Lower
Score group) the mean on the technical vocabulary posttest. Table 7 summarizes the
collected data from Section 1 of the questionnaire.
The collected data from Section 1 of the questionnaire indicated that both groups
were similar regarding the country of origin, their L1, year in college, and daily

Table 5  Repeated-Measures Effect Value F Sig Partial

Two-way ANOVA on the Pretest Eta
and Posttest of the Two Groups Squared

Time .92 682.59 .00* .92

Group 12.05 .00* .17
Time * Group .61 93.05 .00* .61

*Significant at the .05 level (two-tailed)

 70   Page 12 of 22 SN Soc Sci (2023) 3:70

Table 6  Pairwise comparison of (I) Groups (J) Groups Mean Difference (I-J) Std. Error Sig
the posttest scores
Experimental Control 2.26 .65 .00*

*Significant at the .05 level (two-tailed)

logging into Instagram. The difference between the higher and lower score groups
was significant in terms of (1) self-rated proficiency level as the higher score
group granted higher scores to themselves for all the language skills than the lower
score group (p = 0.00 < α = 0.05), and (2) percentage of language learning follow-
ings on Instagram pages (χ2 = 7.14; p = 0.00 < α = 0.05). However, the difference
between the higher and lower score groups was insignificant in terms of (1) age
difference (t = -0.36; p = 0.72 > α = 0.05), (2) gender (χ2 = 1.33; p = 0.25 > α = 0.05
for females, and χ2 = 2.00; p = 0.15 > α = 0.05 for males), (3) length of being Ins-
tagram users (t = −  1.09; p = 0.28 > α = 0.05), (4) daily use of Instagram (t = 0.47;
p = 0.64 > α = 0.05), (5) the communication language on Instagram (χ2 = 0.28;
p = 0.60 > α = 0.05), and (6) the percentage of using English as the communication
language on Instagram (χ2 = 1.00; p = 0.31 > α = 0.05).
Table 8 summarizes the collected data from Section 2 of the questionnaire on the
higher and lower score group’s perceptions of using Instagram.
As it can be seen in Table  8, the mean scores of the higher score group were
higher than the lower score group on all the items in Section 2 of the questionnaire.

Fig. 2  Pretest to Posttest Progress of the Two Groups

Table 7  Section 1 of the Questionnaire: Demographics of Higher and Lower Score Groups
Characteristic Higher Lower Statistical Test
SN Soc Sci

Score Score group

group

N = 14 N = 16
Age M = 22.71 M = 23.25 t = − .36; p = .72
SD = 4.81 SD = 3.29 (α = .05; p > α)
(2023) 3:70

Gender f = 8 f = 4 χ2 = 1.33; p = .25 (α = .05; p > α)

Female f = 6 f = 12 χ2 = 2.00; p = .15 (α = .05; p > α)
Male
Country of origin Iran Iran
First language Persian Persian
Year in college Sophomore Sophomore
Self-rated proficiency level (on a 6-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = beginning to 6 = advanced)
Reading M = 4.00 M = 3.31 t = 2.93; p = .00*
Writing M = 3.86 M = 2.88 t = 4.19; p = .00*
Listening M = 3.36 M = 2.56 t = 4.29; p = .00*
Speaking M = 2.86 M = 2.00 t = 3.62; p = .00*
(α = .05; p < α)
Length of being Instagram users M = 4.28 Y M = 5.06 Y t = -1.09; p = .28
SD = 1.97 SD = 1.91 (α = .05; p > α)
Logging into Instagram Every day Every day
Time on Instagram per day M = 3.14 h M = 2.87 h t = .47; p = .64
SD = 1.46 SD = 1.62 (α = .05; p > α)
The communication language on Instagram 8 Persian 6 Persian & English χ2 = .28; p = .60
& English 8 Persian χ2 = .28; p = .60 (α = .05; p > α)
6 Persian
Percentage of communication on Instagram in English 15 9.8 χ2 = 1.00; p = .31 (α = .05; p > α)
Page 13 of 22 

Percentage of language learning followings on Instagram 37 17.5 χ2 = 7.14; p = .00* (α = .05; p < α)
70

*
 Significant at the .05 level (two-tailed)
 70   Page 14 of 22 SN Soc Sci (2023) 3:70

In other words, the higher score group showed more positive perceptions of using
Instagram as an effective language learning tool. The total mean score of the 15
items was also higher for the higher score group (3.88) than the lower score group
(3.46). To further probe the difference between the higher and lower score groups,
an independent-samples t-test was run on the total mean scores (Table 9).
The result of the independent-samples t-test (t(28) = 6.91; p = 0.00; α = 0.05;
p < α) indicated that the difference was significant in terms of the higher score
group’s more positive perceptions of Instagram as an effective language learning
tool. It should be noted that although the mean scores of the two groups (3.88 for
the higher score group and 3.46 for the lower score group) look close, the result of
the independent-samples t-test revealed that the difference between them was sta-
tistically significant, showing that the higher score group had more positive percep-
tions of Instagram as an effective language learning tool. Further, since the range of
options in “Literature review” of the questionnaire was from 1 to 6, the difference
between 3.88 and 3.46 may not be as close as it looks.
“Instagram as a MALL Tool” of the questionnaire included three open-ended
questions regarding the participants’ attitudes toward Instagram as a language learn-
ing tool. The responses were content analyzed with the NVivo software version 11
by the two researchers collaboratively to ensure systematicity and consistency. The
extracted themes and subthemes along with their percentages were compared across
the higher score and lower score groups (Table 10).

Table 8  Section 2 of the Questionnaire: Higher and Lower Score Groups’ Perceptions of Instagram
Item (on a 6-point Likert scale ranging from Higher Score Lower Score
1 = strongly disagree to 6 = strongly agree) group group
Mean SD Mean SD

1. Instagram is suitable for educational purposes 3.57 .513 2.68 .478

2. Instagram is a good platform to practice writing in English 3.64 .497 3.25 .683
3. Instagram is a good platform to read in English 3.35 .497 3.25 .577
4. Instagram is a good platform to develop English communication skills 4.07 .730 3.62 .619
5. Instagram is a good platform to overcome language mistakes 4.28 .611 3.62 .500
6. Instagram is a good platform to learn new words in English 3.92 .615 3.43 .512
7. Instagram is a good platform to improve English grammar knowledge 3.57 .513 3.37 .500
8. Instagram is a good platform to improve overall English skills 3.42 .646 3.18 .655
9. Instagram is a good platform to reach authentic English materials 4.00 .679 3.62 .806
10. Instagram makes learning English more interesting 4.14 .534 3.75 .447
11. Instagram makes learning English easier 3.64 .497 3.31 .478
12. Instagram increases my motivation to communicate using English 4.85 .662 4.31 .478
13. Instagram increases my motivation to read English materials 4.35 .497 3.81 .655
14. Instagram increases my motivation to write in English 4.07 .730 3.81 .403
15. Instagram encourages me to spend more time learning English 3.35 .497 2.93 .573
Total Mean 3.88 .580 3.46 .550
SN Soc Sci (2023) 3:70 Page 15 of 22  70

Table 9  Independent-Samples T-Test on Section 2 of the Questionnaire

Levene’s Test t-test for Equality of Means
for Equality of
Variances
F Sig t df Sig. (2-tailed)

Likert-scale items Equal variances assumed .915 .347 6.917 28 .00*

*Significant at the .05 level (two-tailed)

Table 10  Section 3 of the Questionnaire: Higher and Lower Score Groups’ Attitudes toward Instagram
Percentage Chi-square
Attitude toward Instagram Higher Lower
Score Score
group group

Neutral 3 9 χ2 = 3.00; p = .08; α = .05; p > α

Negative 15 48 χ2 = 17.28; p = .00*; α = .05; p < α
1. As an informal language learning tool 6 27 χ2 = 13.36; p = .00*; α = .05; p < α
2. As a formal language learning tool 9 21 χ2 = 4.80; p = .02*; α = .05; p < α
Positive 82 43 χ2 = 12.16; p = .00*; α = .05; p < α
3. As an informal language learning tool 46 22 χ2 = 8.47; p = .00*; α = .05; p < α
4. As a formal language learning tool 36 21 χ2 = 3.94; p = .04*; α = .05; p < α
*
 Significant at the .05 level (two-tailed)

As it can be observed in Table  10, 3% of the respondents in the higher score

group and 9% of the respondents in the lower score group had neutral attitudes
toward Instagram by stating for example, I have no idea about using Instagram or
It seems neither bad nor good. However, the observed difference was insignificant
(χ2 = 3.00; p = 0.08 > α = 0.05).
Holding negative attitudes toward Instagram, 15% of the respondents in the
higher score group and 48% of the lower score group disparaged Instagram either as
an informal language learning tool (6% to 27%, respectively) or as a formal language
learning tool (9% to 21%, respectively). For example, a member of the higher score
group believed that Instagram is for entertainment not learning, or a respondent in
the lower score group criticized Instagram by stating that Other Instagram accounts
and also notifications always distract me. I can’t stop checking new messages. The
observed difference of negative attitudes was significant for both the major theme
(χ2 = 17.28; p = 0.00 < α = 0.05) and its subtheme 1 (χ2 = 13.36; p = 0.00 < α = 0.05)
and subtheme 2 (χ2 = 4.80; p = 0.02 < α = 0.05).
Regarding positive attitudes toward Instagram, 82% of the higher score group and
43% of the lower score group valued Instagram either as an informal language learn-
ing tool (46% to 22%, respectively) or as a formal language learning tool (36% to
21%, respectively). For instance, a member of the higher score group believed that It
is awesome, pictures and videos make learning easier, or It is really good. Instead of
 70   Page 16 of 22 SN Soc Sci (2023) 3:70

searching useless things, we learn English. I love to answer the tests and see the cor-
rect answer. Instagram is like a digital teacher that is always with me. Here again,
the observed difference of positive attitudes was significant for both the major theme
(χ2 = 12.16; p = 0.00 < α = 0.05) and its subtheme 3 (χ2 = 8.47; p = 0.00 < α = 0.05)
and subtheme 4 (χ2 = 3.94; p = 0.04 < α = 0.05).
Generally, the higher score group participants had significantly much higher posi-
tive attitudes toward using Instagram for both informal and formal language learning
purposes, whereas the lower score group had significantly much higher negative atti-
tudes toward using Instagram again for both informal and formal language learning
purposes.
Further, analysis of the obtained data revealed that most respondents in both
higher score and lower score groups regarded Instagram as a useful MALL device
but conditionally. One respondent mentioned that It is better to use Instagram sto-
ries and relate them to the course material. It is really better than Adobe Connect
or WhatsApp but with teacher and class and book. Another respondent favored Ins-
tagram as a formal language learning tool only because of the shared materials on
the instructor’s Instagram account. She emphasized that I only love your page. The
other pages are just for business and advertising. They waste my time. Or another
respondent stated that Just on this page, I learn some new technical words. You know
how to teach even on Instagram. I unfollowed the other pages. They just want follow-
ers. They are not teachers. They are businessmen. Overall, it seems the students do
not consider Instagram as a basic element in the educational system but consider it
as a complementary tool that should be used based on their needs and instructed by
a qualified teacher.

Discussion

The present study attempted to find the effectiveness of Instagram as a MALL tool
that might promote EAP students’ learning of technical vocabulary in an electronic
setting. Based on the findings of this study, it was indicated that there was a signifi-
cant difference between those who used Instagram as a platform to learn technical
words and those who did not. This outcome is in line with previous research findings
(Al-Garawi 2019; AlGhamdi 2018; Aloraini 2018; Hape 2018; Kelly 2015; Lomicka
and Lord 2012; Mitchell 2012; Yadegarfar and Shahla 2016) on the usefulness of
Instagram as an effective language learning tool. It can be explicated by the fact
that Instagram could generate an additional educational context in which learners’
enthusiasm and engagement were considerably aroused. Since many adults, includ-
ing the participants in this study, spend an average of 53  min daily on Instagram
(Instagram Press 2020), it can focus the learners’ attention on their language learn-
ing needs constantly. Moreover, due to its interactive options and popular resources
such as sharing stories, posting videos and pictures, reacting, subscribing, reposting,
and easy access, Instagram has turned into an operative device for EFL learners’
vocabulary learning though it has not been designed for language learning purposes
in the first place (Gonulal 2019).
SN Soc Sci (2023) 3:70 Page 17 of 22  70

Moreover, regarding the EAP learners’ perceptions and attitudes toward Insta-
gram, the questionnaire results revealed that the higher and lower score groups were
significantly different only regarding their self-rated proficiency level and the per-
centage of their language learning followings on Instagram pages. Further, it was
found that the higher score group had significantly more positive perceptions and
attitudes toward Instagram as an effective supplementary language learning tool for
both informal and formal purposes. In other words, it was indicated that the use of
Instagram as a popular platform could be effective and even necessary in the modern
world, yet it is not enough. The results of the present study showed that the learn-
ers considered Instagram as a potential complementary tool for language learning
purposes which should be used in addition to participating in a formal classroom.
Rarely have the perceptions and attitudes of higher and lower score learners regard-
ing MALL tools been compared to match them with the results of this study. Nev-
ertheless, both Lailiyah and Setiyaningsih (2020) and Simanjuntak (2020) reported
positive perceptions of using MALL tools among language learners, which were
similar to the results of this study. Further, considering the learners’ attitudes, Stock-
well (2013) found that motivation to use technology could increase L2 learners’
motivation to learn another language. Similarly, Ushioda (2013) indicated that some
features of MALL such as flexibility, freedom, and autonomy encouraged the learn-
ers’ motivation and resulted in independent learning. Accordingly, there seems to be
a mutual association between technology use and motivation to learn another lan-
guage which supports the findings of this study. Thus, it is recommended that teach-
ers raise their students’ awareness of the significance of getting involved in online
classes accompanied by complementary MALL tools such as Instagram to enhance
their language knowledge.
Although previous studies reported that Instagram can be used to improve Eng-
lish language learning, the results of this study suggested that the success or fail-
ure of English language learning Instagram pages might be affected by the teacher’s
knowledge and performance in the classroom as well as the students’ L2 knowledge.
The results of the present study do not imply that any Instagram language learning
page could enhance the learners’ language proficiency. Since this platform is not
designed specifically for language learning purposes, anybody can run it, and the
success of a course using the Instagram platform depends on having a qualified and
educated teacher who has an appropriate level of digital literacy and can prepare
and use digital materials. On the Instagram platform, nothing is predefined and the
teacher has the autonomy to develop his or her syllabi or materials. Thus, it can be
stated that a teacher who can design tasks, cares about the learners’ needs, plans the
objectives of a course, can apply theories into practice, can employ various language
learning strategies, follows a theoretical language learning approach, uses his/her
metacognition and higher-order thinking  skills in teaching, and has an acceptable
level of digital literacy would make the utilization of Instagram more effective and
successful in improving his/her students’ language knowledge.
 70   Page 18 of 22 SN Soc Sci (2023) 3:70

Conclusion

Technology is an endless road that is changing every day and taking people where
they have never been. It has been over two decades since scholars’ attention has been
directed to the educational functions of technology in facilitating language learning
(Chen and Chung 2008; Cheng et al., 2010; De Jong et al., 2010; Hsu et al. 2008;
Hwang and Chen 2013; Kukulska-Hulme and Shield 2008; Oberg and Daniels 2012;
Thornton and Houser 2005). The COVID-19 pandemic added sound and strong rea-
sons to the necessity of using technology in educational systems and it made the
online teaching an obligation rather than an option. Among various types of innova-
tive technological tools and applications, Instagram is one of the most popular plat-
forms that can serve as a language teaching/learning tool for achieving educational
purposes.
The Instagram application might not be designed for pedagogical purposes but
it could be considered a valuable and convenient tool for instructors as well as stu-
dents since it breaks the classroom walls. The present study indicated how Instagram
might serve students and teachers though it is not intended for education. Accord-
ingly, we recommend that instructors consider the implicit values of this applica-
tion in their classes. In particular, we would like to encourage EAP instructors to
embrace this technological and popular tool to encourage their students’ language
learning. Considering Instagram as a MALL tool would enable interested instruc-
tors to serve the needs of their students especially in EAP classes that demand more
professionalism. English language teachers and EAP instructors are recommended
to take advantage of Instagram as a technological innovation to integrate technology
with pedagogy to better encourage their students for language learning. Instagram
could have the potential to be utilized for the purpose of language learning since it is
highly favored by the students. However, it is essential to have an educated and qual-
ified teacher who can run an online teaching account successfully since Instagram
is not designed to serve as an educational application on its own. Instagram has the
potential to turn more input into intake with the help of a skilled and competent
teacher. Besides, Instagram posts and stories might provide students with opportuni-
ties to have access to their teachers beyond the classroom walls. It can create a situ-
ation in which students and teachers interact with each other outside the classroom.
Such digital communications might increase the teachers’ and learners’ engagement.
The Instagram followers who are the students can leave comments and share their
ideas with the teacher or other followers. To achieve more interaction, followers can
exchange information with other followers and increase communication with each
other through shared posts. Moreover, at the heart of such negotiations, teachers
might hear the learners’ preferences better. The feedbacks from students might act
as an amplifier that intensifies the learners’ voice and consequently increase their
autonomy.
Another major implication of this study may be for policy-makers and decision-
makers in education since this study highlighted the significance of choosing a
social platform with high popularity, daily usage, and easy access for students and
teachers, especially in the pandemic era (McCarroll and Curran 2013; Nicolai et al.
SN Soc Sci (2023) 3:70 Page 19 of 22  70

2017; Solmaz 2017). Since teachers who are the admins of the accounts can keep
the posted images or videos forever, the followers are allowed to have access to the
learning materials whenever they are ready. This ability of the Instagram platform
can extend the boundaries of course books. Therefore, policy-makers and decision-
makers in education are suggested to let teachers and students benefit from this sup-
plementary tool in their classes.
The next important implication of the current study is for teacher educators. The
significant impact of technology on  language learning reinforces the necessity of
teacher education workshops with the purpose of empowering teachers’ technologi-
cal knowledge. Teacher educators are encouraged to provide some relevant courses
for EFL teachers to familiarize them with the benefits and uses of social platforms to
maximize the learning opportunities for the students (Farhady and Tavassoli 2018).
However, since the successful use of MALL depends upon the technological liter-
acy of L2 learners and teachers, this form of language learning might cause difficul-
ties for both groups. Involving the educational functions of technology in language
learning and teaching programs is contingent upon the competency and proficiency
of the teachers. Teachers should be competent enough to call the learners’ attention
to target forms and prevent distractions created by technology (Pedro et al. 2018).
Moreover, concerning the extensive use of popular platforms such as Instagram,
which is an inseparable part of students’ daily lives, teachers are encouraged to
convert such platforms into educational tools. Additionally, due to the resistance of
some students toward modern educational systems, teachers and instructors need to
raise students’ awareness of the profits of online platforms as a complement to their
traditional classes to create positive perceptions and attitudes and eventually more
engagement in language learning.
The present research concentrated on the technical vocabulary learning of EFL
learners using Instagram. Other language components or skills or other social net-
working platforms such as Facebook or Twitter could be explored in future stud-
ies. Also, qualitative studies can be done on different stakeholders’ perceptions and
attitudes toward diverse social networking platforms and their impact on various
aspects of students’ language knowledge.
Finally, this study was limited to the EAP context of Iran with only 60 students
in two experimental and control groups. It was also limited to an online EAP course
during the COVID-19 pandemic era along with the use of Instagram as the only
social networking platform. Involving more participants with different levels of
proficiency, belonging to different learning environments, with diverse educational
backgrounds, and using various social networking platforms could result in more
illuminating findings.
Acknowledgements  The authors wish to thank the participants of the study. They also wish to thank Dr.
Natasha Pourdana for providing constructive comments on the earlier drafts of this manuscript.

Funding  There is no funding for this research.

Data availability  Data is available for submission if required.

 70   Page 20 of 22 SN Soc Sci (2023) 3:70

Declarations 
Conflict of interest  The authors have no conflict of interest.

Informed consent  This research involves human participants and informed consent was recognized and
acknowledged in this research.

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