IV-301 Undoubtedly, the work of Fred C.

Bond (1) was a significant step

towards the understanding of conventional grinding circuits. His well-
IV-302

known Bond’s “Law” soon became the most accepted theoretical

basis for the evaluation and sizing of this type of circuits :

E = 10 W i (1/P 801/2 – 1/F 801/2) (1)

where :

E = Specific Energy Consumption, kWh/ton ground

F80 = 80% passing size in the Fresh Feed stream, µm
P80 = 80% passing size in the Ground Product stream, µm
Wi = Bond’s Work Index, indicative of the effective ore
A PHENOMENOLOGICAL MODEL OF hardness, kWh/ton.
SEMIAUTOGENOUS GRINDING PROCESSES
in a Moly-Cop Tools Environment The Bond’s Work Index allows for the estimation of the energy (kWh)
required to grind each ton of ore. Such specific energy consumption
Dr. Jaime E. Sepúlveda determines the capacity of the mill through the relationship :

GSI / Moly-Cop, South America
Santiago, Chile
jsepulveda@molycop.cl
INTRODUCTION
Moly-Cop Tools is a set of easy-to-use Microsoft Excel 2000
spreadsheets developed by this same author – as a member of the
GSI / Moly-Cop organization, the world leader in steel grinding media
manufacturing – with the purpose of helping engineers, around the
whole mineral processing world, characterize and evaluate the
operating efficiency of any given grinding circuit, following
standardized methodologies and accepted evaluation criteria1.
Beginning with a brief review of the mathematical developments
relative to conventional grinding in the classic tumbling ball mills, the
current publication refers specifically to the description of a
phenomenological model of Autogenous (AG) or Semiautogenous
(SAG) Grinding processes, derived as an extension of the prior
conventional grinding model.
CONVENTIONAL BALL MILL GRINDING
Special Case : Linear Solution to the General Model
M = P/E (2)
where :
M = Mill Throughput, ton/hr
P = Net Power drawn by the mill, kW
which clearly indicates that the capacity of a given circuit is
directly proportional to the power of the mill, for a given grinding
task.
However, even though the referred Bond’s Law had the merit of
highlighting the significance of the specific energy consumption as
the controlling variable of the process, its mathematical structure is
too generalistic to permit a sufficiently detailed analysis of all the
other variables that also determine the efficiency of the circuit, such
as, for instance, the mill/classifiers interactions. For such purposes,
more complex formulations are required, like the so called Modern
Theory of Comminution (2-5). This theory introduced two new sets
of parameters : the Selection Function S and the Breakage
Function B. The first set – also referred to as Grindability – relates
to the grinding kinetics of each independent particle and the second
set – also referred to as Distribution of Primary Fragments –
characterizes the size distribution of the fragments produced as a
result of breakage events.

Figure 1 helps define both concepts with greater clarity. Consider

that at any given instant t, the size distribution of the mineral charge
1
Moly-Cop Tools is available, free of charge, upon request to the author’s e-mail address in a hypothetical batch mill is quantified by the fractions f i (i = 1, n)
indicated above. retained on the n different screens represented on the left of such
Figure. After a time interval ∆t, the resulting size distribution is
represented on the right of the same Figure. During this time interval,
IV-303
some particles will be fractured and their fragments redistributed to the
lower screens. For the particles retained on mesh ‘i+1’ (the ‘i’ fraction),
the Selection Function S i (min -1) denotes the fractional breakage
velocity; that is, the fraction of the particles in the size range [d i+1 , di]
which are fractured, per unit of time. Therefore, the product (S i∆t)
represents the fraction of the material retained on mesh ‘i+1’, at time t,
that will be fractured by the action of the grinding media, during the
following time period ∆t. Complementarily, the Breakage Function b ij
denotes the fraction, by weight, of the fragments arising from the
With reference to Figure 1, it is then possible to establish, for each
size fraction ‘i’, the following population balance of particles :
IV-304
[Particles in fraction ‘i’ at time (t+∆t)] = [Particles in fraction ‘i’ at time t]
- [Particles in fraction ‘i’ broken during the time interval ∆t]
+ [New particles added to fraction ‘i’ as a result of the breakage
of particles originally retained in the coarser fractions (j = 1, i-1)]
then, if H represents the total weight of ore in the mill :
f i(t+∆t) H = f i(t) H - Si∆tf i(t) H + bi1S1∆tf 1(t) H + bi2S2∆tf 2(t) H +
… + b i,i-1Si-1∆tf i-1 H
(t)

breakage of the particles retained on mesh ‘j+1’ to be retained on the

lower ‘i+1’ mesh. ; i = 1, 2, …, n (4)

t=t t = t + ∆t Considering the limiting condition when ∆t → 0, the expression

above reduces to the system of first order differential equations :
(1-S1∆t) f 1 1
f1 d(f i)/dt = -Si f i + Σ bij Sj f j ; i = 1, 2, …, n (5)
2 S1∆t f 1 2
j = i-1

b21 S1∆t f 1 which constitutes the General Grinding Model, in its differential
f2
form.
3 (1-S2∆t) f 2 3
• •
• S2∆t f 2 • The analytical solution of this complex system of differential
• bi1 S1∆t f 1 • equations is fortunately known, under the restrictive assumption that
fi the parameters S and B are invariant with time; so giving rise to
i+1 bi2 S2∆t f 2 i+1 particular solution of the general system denoted ‘Linear Model’,
• • which in its matrix form is expressed as :
• bn1 S1∆t f 1 •
• •
fn f = ( T J T -1 ) f° (6)
bn2 S2∆t f 2 where :
n+1
n+1
Figure 1. Schematic representation of particle breakage and particle f = {f i | i = 1, 2, …, n} = vector containing the size distribution of the
generation events during a time interval ∆t, in a batch mill. mill discharge (ground product),
f° = {f i° | i = 1, 2, …, n} = vector containing the size distribution
of the mill feed,
It is customary to define mesh ‘1’ as the coarsest opening and ‘n’ as T = {T ij | i,j = 1, 2, …, n} = lower triangular matrix of values Tij
the finest opening. Then, by definition : recursively defined as :

Tij = 0 ; when i < j

i+1
Tij = 1 ; when i = j
Bij = Σ bkj i-1
(3) Tij = Σ ( bik Sk T kj )/( S i – Sj ) ; when i > j
k=n k=j

J = {J ij | i,j = 1, 2, …, n} = diagonal matrix of values Jij defined as :

represents the cummulative fraction of fragments from the breakage of Jij = exp (-Sit)
particles retained on mesh ‘j’ that will become finer than mesh ‘i’. Jij = (1 + Siτ/N)
-N
Jij = 0
; when i = j ( batch grinding)
; when i = j (continuous grinding)
; in all other cases

and where τ - the average mean residence time - and N are
parameters characteristic of the Residence Time Distribution
(RTD) of the mineral slurry in the mill, represented by (3) :
IV-305
/ τ Γ(N) ] exp (-Nt/τ)
N N-1
E(t) = [ N (t/τ)
referred to as the ‘N-Mixers in Series Model’ and where the
parameter N may be approximated by the (L/D) ratio of the mill.
The application of this particular linear solution to real systems
involves the unavoidable, previous step of estimating the characteristic
parameters S and B; that is, the ‘tuning’ of the model to the specific
process under consideration. This task is greatly facilitated by the
incorporation of the following functional relationships of these
parameters and their associated particle size :
- For the Selection Function (4) :
Si = α0 (di*)α1 / [ 1 + (d i* / d crit)α2 ]
with :
di* = (d i • di+1)
0.5
= average particle size of the ‘i-th’ fraction.
- For the Breakage Function (4) :
Bij = β0 (di/dj+1)β1 + (1- β0) (di/dj+1)β2
expressions that considerably reduce the number of parameters to be
estimated to a maximum of seven (α0, α1, α2, dcrit, β0, β1 y β2) and
make possible the computation of the (n-1) S i‘s values and the n(n-1)/2
Bij’s values required for the evaluation of the model.
The critical role of the specific energy consumption (kWh/ton)
becomes explicit in the above formulations through a simple change of
variables, when introducing the Specific Selection Function
parameter as :
SiE = S i (H/P) ; i = 1, 2, ..., n (10)
and recognizing that (see Equation 2) :
E = t (P/H)
grinding)
E = τ (P/H) (continuous grinding)
may be concluded that :
SiE E ≡ Si τ ; i = 1, 2, ..., n (11)
Therefore, it is enough to replace in Equations 6 above the product
(Siτ) by the product (SiEE) to obtain the equations of the Linear
Grinding Model in terms of the Specific Selection Function, S iE.
IV-306
(7)
The extension of this Linear Model of Conventional Grinding to SAG2
applications is discussed in the subsequent section of the current
publication.
A GENERALIZED MODEL FOR
MILL POWER DRAW
In due acknowledgement of the critical role of the mill power draw on
its grinding capacity, it is of interest to have available an appropriate,
mathematical model of the relationship of such power draw with
respect to the dimensions and operating conditions of the mill, like
the model proposed by Hogg and Fuerstenau (2,4); here adapted to
(8)
the general case of SAG mills, in order to quantify the contribution of
each independent component in the charge (balls, rocks and slurry3)
to the total power drawn by the mill :
Pnet = η Pgross = 0.238 D3.5 (L/D) Nc ρap (J - 1.065 J2) sinα (12)
(9) where :
Pgross = Gross power draw (kW) = Pnet / η
η = Overall electrical and mechanical transmission efficiency, °/1
D = Effective mill diameter, ft
L = Effective mill length, ft
Nc = Rotational speed; expressed as a fraction (°/1) of the critical
0.5
speed : N crit = 76.6/D
J = Apparent charge level, °/1 (including balls, rocks, slurry and the
interstitial voids in between the balls and the rocks)
α = Lifting angle [defines dynamic position of the center of gravity
of the load (’kidney’) with respect to the vertical reference].
and where ρap denotes the Apparent Charge Density (that is, the
tons of charge in the mill for each m 3 of volume apparently
occupied), which may be evaluated on the basis of the already listed
3 components :
ρap = { (1-f v) ρb Jb + (1-f v) ρm (J – Jb) + ρp Jp f v J } / J
? (13)
(batch with :
2
From a theoretical point of view, conventional grinding is just a special case of
semiautogenous grinding, when there is no presence of big rocks in the charge.
3
The term ‘slurry’ refers to the combination of water and all those particles sufficiently
small to fit in the interstitial voids in between the balls and the larger rocks.
 fv = Volumetric fraction (°/1) of interstitial voids in between the balls would gradually decrease (!). Eventhough the extra power absorbed
and the rocks by the rocks more than compensates the power lost by the balls, it is
Jb = Apparent ball filling (°/1)
Jp = Interstitial slurry filling (°/1) very likely that the capacity of the mill could be negatively affected if
ρm = Ore density, ton/m
3
the efficiency of the rocks as grinding media is sufficiently inferior
ρp
3
= Slurry density, ton/m ; directly related to the weight fraction of than the efficiency of the balls; as discussed further in the next
solids (f s) in the slurry, by the expression : 1/[(fs/ρm) + (1-fs)]. section of the current publication.
IV-307 IV-308

In this fashion, the contribution to the total net power drawn by the mill
associated to the action of the balls in the charge would be : 14

Mill : 36'? x 17' J b = 12 %

12
Pballs = [(1-f v) ρb Jb / ρap J] · (P net ) (14) Speed
Angle , α
: 70 % Cr itical
: 40°
10 Total

Net Power, MW
And, the contribution associated to the action of the rocks would be :
8

Procks = [(1-f v) ρm (J – Jb) / ρap J] · (P net ) (15) 6

Balls

Finally, the contribution associated to the action of the slurry would be : 4

Rocks

Ppulp = [ρp Jp f v J / ρap J] · (Pnet ) (16) 2

Slurry

0
Figure 2 illustrates these calculations for the case of a 36’φ x 17’ SAG 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38

mill. It is interesting to observe that, out of the 9472 kW drawn by the Total Apparent Mill Filling , %
mill, only 7391 kW (that is, 78%) corresponds to power demanded by
Figure 3. Effect of the total mill filling on mill power draw and the
the balls, while the rest of the power is demanded by the rocks (12%) independent contribution of balls, rocks and slurry.
and the slurry (10%).
EXTENSION OF THE CONVENTIONAL GRINDING MODEL
TO SEMIAUTOGENOUS GRINDING SYSTEMS
MILL POWER ESTIMATION

Remarks 36'φ x 17' SAG Mill . The basic mechanisms by which finer particles are generated in SAG
Power, KW
mills are essentially the same multiple mechanisms of compression,
Mill Dimensions and Operating Conditions 7391 Balls abrasion and impact operative in conventional ball mills. Amongst
Diameter
ft
Length
ft
Speed
% Critical
Charge
Filling,%
Balls
Filling,%
Intersticial
Filling,%
Lift
Angle, (°)
1144 Rocks
936 Slurry
them, at least the following three appear to be predominant :
34.92 18.58 70.40 20.00 14.00 60.00 40.00 9472 Net
3.00 Losses f Action of Balls on Particles, similar to conventional mills,
9765 Gross
f Action of Rocks on Particles, with rocks acting as grinding media,
% Solids in the Mill 65.00 Charge Vol., Charge Weight, tons App. Dens. f Self-breakage of the Rocks, as a result of their own tumbling action.
Ore Density, ton/m3 2.80 m3 Balls Rocks Slurry ton/m3
Slurry Density, ton/m3 1.72 101.02 328.82 50.91 41.65 4.171
Balls Density, ton/m3 7.75 For each mechanism, independently, it is possible to provide a
mathematical characterization of the process kinetics in terms of SiE
Figure 2. Example of calculation of the power drawn by a SAG and Bij parameters, as described in the following paragraphs.
mill, performed with Mill Power_SAG of Moly-Cop Tools.
In due recognition of the controlling role of the Specific Energy
(kWh/ton) in the grinding kinetics, the current development
For this same example, Figure 3 shows that – as a result of a gradual postulates that the effectiveness of the balls is consequently
increase in total apparent mill filling ‘J’, keeping balls filling constant at proportional to the power absorbed by them (Equation 14), the
Jb = 12% – the total power draw would correspondingly increase, but effectiveness of the rocks as grinding media is similarly proportional
not so the component of such power demanded by the balls, which to the power they absorb (Equation 15) and finally, these same rocks
self-break also as a function of the power they absorb (Equation 15). With regard to the Breakage Function, it is possible to achieve
Therefore, the Overall Specific Selection Function may be obtained greater descriptive flexibility by expanding the functional
from : relationships presented in Equation 9 above, as follows4 :

β0j (di/dchips,j)β1 + (1- β0j) (di/dj+1)β2

E E E E
Si overall E = Si balls Eballs + S i rocks Erocks + S i self Erocks (17) Bij =
, if d i < d chips,j
(19)
IV-309

where, by direct analogy to the conventional model reviewed earlier, IV-310

expressions similar to Equation 8 above are here proposed, for each
independent mechanism : Bij = β0j + (1- β0j) (di/dj+1)β2
, if d i > d chips,j
Si = α0 (di*)α1 / [ 1 + (d i* / d crit)α2 ] (18) with :

where the values of α0, α1, α2 and d crit may be different in each case. β0j = β00(dj+1/100,000) 01
-β
, never > 1
β3j = β30 (dj+1 /100,000) 31
-β
, never > 1
dchips,j = β3j (dj+1)
Figure 4 illustrates the relative magnitude of the three components of
the Overall Specific Selection Function, for a given hypothetical case.
For simplicity, it has been assumed that all particles are fragmented
There, it can be observed that, in comparison to balls, the rocks are
according to the same breakage pattern depending only on the ore
less energy efficient grinding media (α0rocks < α0balls and d critrocks < properties, independent of the mechanism originating the
dcritballs ) and that these rocks self-break faster for larger and larger sizes
fragments5.
(dcritself → ∞). The continuous curve represents the weighted average
resulting from the application of Equation 17 and reveals the existence The practical motivation for this expanded, more complex form of
of the so called ‘critical particle size’ in the range of 2” to 4”, the Breakage Function arises from the empirical observation that the
characterized by slower grinding rates that create an accumulation of bigger rocks break into just a few large pieces and a minor proportion
these sizes in the mill load, at steady state. of smaller fragments or ‘chips’, without generating much intermediate
10.000
Balls on Particles
sizes. Figure 5 illustrates the behavior of Equation 19 for a given
Rocks on Particles hypothetical case. There, the absence of intermediate size fragments
Selection Function, ton/kWh

Self-Breakage
1.000 Overall 1.000

0.100

Breakage Function, B ij
0.010
0.100

Fraction 1
0.001
10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 Fraction 2
Particle Size, microns Fraction 6

Figure 4. Example of an Overall Specific Selection Function, Fraction 10

obtained as an average of the respective grindabilities 0.010

associated to each independent breakage mechanism. 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000

Particle Size, microns

4
This expression includes Equation 9 as a particular case.
5
The validity of this assumption may be questionable, but is accepted here as a way to
minimize the total number of parameters.
can be observed for the coarser rocks (Fraction 1), while the smaller
particles (Fraction 10) break normally, as in conventional ball mills.
Figure 5. Primary Fragments Distribution (Breakage Function), for
different original particle sizes.
The mathematical characterization of SAG circuits presents additional
challenges for the process analyst because, unlike the case of
conventional mills, the ground particles can leave the charge only after
they have reached a size smaller than the discharge grate
IV-311
6
opening of the mill. A further complication, the power drawn by a SAG
mill – which in turns, determines its processing capacity – depends on
the apparent level and composition of the charge, both of which vary
significantly as a function of the fresh ore feedrate. For such reason,
the operator can not set at his own will the mill throughput rate. In
mathematical terms, this implies difficulties to establish the boundary
conditions required to integrate the proposed model equations. In such
context, the computation routine incorporated to the SAGSim
spreadsheets of Moly-Cop Tools resolves these difficulties by means
of a numerical integration algorithm that mimics the execution of the
typical pilot scale, open circuit semiautogenous tests :
1. Define mill operating conditions in terms of apparent filling, ball filling, rotational
speed, etc.
. Begin simulation with the mill charged with fresh feed ore. As the complete,
detailed feed size distribution is known, identify the proportion of ‘rocks’ and
‘slurry’ size particles in such feed. As a general rule, particles larger than ½” are
considered ‘rocks’ that occupy apparent volume in the mill, while those particles
smaller than ½” are considered ‘slurry’ that would only occupy the void interstitial
7
spaces in between the balls and rocks .
3. Simulate the ‘batch’ grinding of the initial load in the mill, for a marginal increment
of specific energy (< 0.5 kWh/ton), using Equations 6 above, properly
8
documented with the values assigned to the Overall Specific Selection Function
(Equation 17) and the Breakage Function (Equation 19).
4. Simulate the classification of the resulting ground product, taking into account the
specified discharge grate opening (or the trommel opening or the screen opening,
6
whichever applies ). For such purpose, the following Classification Efficiency
9
Curve is defined :
m
ci = B pf + (1-Bpf) {1 – exp [-0.693 (di/dg) ]} (20)
where :
ci = Weight fraction of the particles of size ‘i’ that are rejected together
with the coarser particles presented to the grate.
Bpf = Grate by-pass factor; represents the fraction of the particles
presented to the grate that are rejected to the coarse stream,
without even submitting them to the classification process.
dg = Nominal grate opening.
m = Grate discrimination index, typically in the range of 1 to 3.
6
5. The resulting fraction passing the grate (or trommel or screen ) opening is
discarded as mill ground product.
6. The ‘rocks’ that were ground to product or ‘slurry’ sizes, during the brief
marginal grinding period (< 0.5 kWh/ton), are replaced in the load by sufficient
fresh feed ore containing an equivalent quantity of ‘rocks’, in order to maintain
constant the apparent mill filling, as specified in Step 1 above.
IV-312
7. Repeat the procedure from Step 3 above until a stationary condition is reached;
that is, when the amount of fresh feed to be replaced after several consecutive
iterations remains invariant.
Upon convergence, this simple numerical integration algorithm
allows for the computation of the simulated mill throughput, the
detailed product size distribution and also the size distribution of the
mill load.
With the aid of the same simulator, it is then possible to structure a
non-linear regression routine for the estimation of the most
appropriate values of the various model parameters pertaining to any
real system of interest, on the basis of available experimental data,
previously collected at pilot and/or industrial scales.
WHAT CAN WE LEARN FROM THE MODEL ?
Operational Implications
One of the great advantages of the availability of a sufficiently
detailed and reliable mathematical process model is that it allows the
analyst to explore various alternative configurations and operating
conditions for the circuit of his/her particular interest, in a continuous
search for improved performance levels. As a way of example,
Figure 6 shows the potential effect of an increase in the discharge
3500 70
tons/hr

% -14#

% -14# in SAG Product

3000 60
Throughput, ton/hr

6
When the SAG mill operates in close circuit with a trommel or screen – without pebble
crushing – the controlling opening dimension for modelling purposes is that of the trommel or 2500 50

screen.
7
The SAGSim spreadsheet permits the definition of any other rocks/slurry discrimination
2000 40
size, different from ½”.
8
As discussed below, model parameter estimation is performed by non-linear regression
techniques
9 1500 30
Inspired by the relationship proposed by Plitt (8) for hydrocyclone classifiers. 0 10 20 30

Grate (or Trommel or Screen) Opening, mm

grate (or trommel or screen6) opening on the capacity developed by a
SAG mill, inserted in a typical two-stage circuit with secondary
conventional ball mills.
Figure 6. Effect of the grate opening on the throughput and mill
discharge product fineness.
Obviously, the capacity of the mill should increase as the grate
opening is increased. But at the same time, the mill product so
generated will consequently decrease its fineness, transferring a
greater proportion of the overall grinding task to the secondary mills. In
this respect, the model becomes a valuable analysis tool to
IV-313
determine which is the optimal transfer fineness (T80), in order to
minimize the overall energy consumption of the circuit.
Figure 7 presents – for the same SAG mill referred to in Figure 6 – the
effect of the total apparent mill filling on the power draw of the mill – at
three different ball charge levels – and the resulting effect on the
capacity of the mill. In this particular case, if the mill was to be
operated at 30% total filling with 7% balls, the power draw would be
close to 11.6 MW and would develop a throughput of 2060 ton/hr. It is
interesting to note that this mill could draw the same 11.6 MW of
power if, for instance, was to be operated at a lower total filling (21%)
Is it then correct to conclude that a greater proportion of balls with
respect to rocks is always beneficial for improved mill throughput?
Not necessarily. Consider now the operational condition at low total
filling (18%) and high balls level (13%) – an extreme condition of
high balls/rocks ratio – where the mill power draw would be 12.5
MW, processing 2180 ton/hr (see Figure 7). In comparison to this
condition, an alternative condition of lower balls/rocks ratio – as for
example, 27% total filling and 10% balls – would demand the same
12.5 MW, but operating at a higher throughput of 2320 ton/hr
(+6.4%). What does then control the efficiency of the grinding
process in terms of kWh/ton ground? The model suggests that the
Apparent Density of the Charge plays a determining role in such
respect.
IV-314
Figure 8 below presents the results of the same simulations referred
to in Figure 7, now plotting the apparent density of the charge on the
X-axis of the graph. It is surprising to realize that all the values
corresponding to each of the three different simulated ball levels
6.30 3000
6.20
7% Balls
2800
10% Balls

Specific Energy, kWh/ton

6.10 13% Balls 2600
and a higher balls filling (10%); however, throughput would increase to

Throughput, ton/hr
6.00 2400
2160 ton/hr (+4.9%). That could be expected because – eventhough
5.90 2200
the total power demand is the same for both conditions – under the
second condition, a greater proportion of such power is absorbed by 5.80 2000

the balls, which are energetically more efficient grinding media than 5.70 1800

the ‘rocks’ (see Fig. 4). 5.60 1600

3000 28 5.50 1400

7% Balls 5.40 1200

2800 26
10% Balls
2600 24 5.30 1000
13% Balls
2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.4
Throughput, ton/hr

Power, MW (net)

2400 22
Apparent Charge Density, ton/m 3
2200 20

2000 18 (7%, 10% and 13%) coincide on a single curve that reaches its
1800 16 minimum value – equivalent to the reciprocal of the maximum
1600 14 Specific Capacity (ton/hr/kW) – for a certain optimal apparent
1400 12 charge density, which in this particular example, is approximately 3.5
1200 10 ton/m 3.
Figure 8. Illustration of the effect of the apparent charge density on
1000 8
16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32
the grinding process energy efficiency, using the same
simulation results presented in Figure 7.
Apparent Mill Filling, %

Figure 7. Effect of the total apparent mill filling on power draw and
throughput, at three different ball charge levels.
An apparent charge density above such optimal level would indicate
an excess of balls and a shortage of rocks to be ground. Conversely,
an apparent charge density below such optimal level would indicate
an excess of rocks and not enough balls to grind them. Preliminary
analyses have indicated that, with finer and softer feed ores, this
optimum density is expected to increase to fairly high limits, so
presenting new challenges for metallurgical mill liners and large
diameter balls designers

FINAL REMARKS

The paragraphs above illustrate only a few aspects of the large

potential of the model here proposed for the optimizing analysis of
SAG processes. The challenge remains now on the hands of Process
Engineers around the international mining world to work with the
model, tune it to their particular realities and gain confidence in the
model’s actual predictive capability. Further development work is
necessary to attempt reducing the large total number of parameters
now involved.

IV-315

REFERENCES

1. Bond, F.C., ‘The Third Theory of Comminution’, AIME Trans.,Vol.

193, p. 484, 1952. Also in Mining Eng., May 1952.
2. Gutiérrez, L. and Sepúlveda, J.E., ‘Dimensionamiento y
Optimización de Plantas Concentradoras Mediante Técnicas de
Modelación Matemática’, CIMM-Chile Publication, 1986.
3. Herbst, J. A. et al., ‘Population Balance Models for the Design of
Continuous Grinding Mills’, 10 th IMPC, p. 23, London, 1973.
4. Austin, L. G., Klimpel, R. R. and Luckie, P. T., ‘Process
Engineering of Size Reduction: Ball Milling’, SME of AIME, 1984.
5. Lynch, A., Mineral Crushing and Grinding Circuits, Elsevier, 1977.
6. Herbst, J. A. and Fuersteneau, D. W., ‘Scale-up Procedures for
Continuous Grinding Mill Design Using Population Balance
Models’, Int. J. of Min. Proc., vol. 7, p. 1, 1980.
7. Hogg and Fuerstenau, ‘Power Relations for Tumbling Mills’, Trans.
SME-AIME, Vol. 252, pp. 418-432, 1972.
8. Plitt, L. R., ‘A Mathematical Model for the Hydrocyclone Classifier’,
CIM Bulletin, p.114, December 1976.