ÍNDICE

1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................. 3
1.0 THE COURSE......................................................................................................................................... 3
1.1 SEA TRANSPORT OF CHEMICALS....................................................................................................... 3
1.2 CARGOES IN CHEMICAL TANKERS..................................................................................................... 5
1.3 PRODUCTION AND USE OF LIQUID CHEMICALS ............................................................................... 7
2. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS ................................................................................................................. 19
2.1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CARGO................................................................................................. 19
2.2 CHEMISTRY OF CARGO ..................................................................................................................... 23
2.3 HYDRO CARBON GROUPS................................................................................................................. 25
2.4 CHEMICAL BULK LIQUID CARGOES .................................................................................................. 31
2.5 CHEMICAL REACTIONS...................................................................................................................... 32
2.6 TRUE VAPOUR PRESSURE (TVP)...................................................................................................... 34
2.7 THE REID VAPOR PRESSURE (RVP) ................................................................................................. 34
2.8 FLASH POINT....................................................................................................................................... 35
3. HAZARDS .............................................................................................................................................. 36
3.1 HEALTH HAZARDS .............................................................................................................................. 36
3.2 HAZARDS TO THE ENVIRONMENT .................................................................................................... 39
3.3 REACTIVITY HAZARDS ...................................................................................................................... 41
3.4 FLAMMABILITY AND EXPLOSIVITY HAXARDS.................................................................................. 44
4. RULES AND REGULATIONS ................................................................................................................ 49
4.1 INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL CODES AND REGULATIONS ...................................................... 49
4.2 BULK CHEMICAL CODES.................................................................................................................... 54
4.3 ANNEX II OF MARPOL 73/78 ............................................................................................................... 54
4.4 CERTIFICATION AND SURVEYS ........................................................................................................ 73
5. SHIP DESIGN AND CARGO CONTAINMENT ...................................................................................... 76
5.1 CONSTRUCTION AND EQUIPMENT REQUIREMENTS ..................................................................... 76
5.2 SHIP ARRANGEMENTS....................................................................................................................... 78
5.3 CARGO CONTAINMENT...................................................................................................................... 80
5.4 SHIP TYPES AND SURVIVAL CAPABILITY......................................................................................... 82
6. CARGO HANDLING SYSTEM ............................................................................................................... 88
6.1 TANKS PIPING AND VALVES .............................................................................................................. 88
6.2 TANK MATERIALS AND COATINGS.................................................................................................... 93
6.3 CARGO TANK VENTILATION SYSTEM............................................................................................... 95
6.4 PUMPS AND UNLOADING SYSTEM ................................................................................................. 101
6.5 EFFICIENT STRIPPING ..................................................................................................................... 122
6.6 CARGO HEATING SYSTEM............................................................................................................... 125
6.7 TANK-WASHING AND SLOPS-RETAINING SYSTEMS..................................................................... 127
6.8 INERT GAS SYSTEMS ....................................................................................................................... 129
6.9 INSTRUMETATION ............................................................................................................................ 131
7. TANK ATMOSPHERE.......................................................................................................................... 134
7.1 TANK ATMOSPHERE EVALUATION ................................................................................................. 134
7.2 FIRE PREVENTION AND EQUIPMENT ............................................................................................. 141
7.3 A.POLLUTION PREVENTION ............................................................................................................ 146
7.4 PROTECTION AND SAFETY EQUIPMENT........................................................................................ 152
8. CARGO HANDLING AND BALLAST OPERATION ............................................................................ 186
8.1 GENERAL ........................................................................................................................................... 186
8.2 CARGO PLANNING ............................................................................................................................ 187
8.3 PROCEDURES AND PREPARATIONS FOR LOADING .................................................................... 205
8.4 CARGO MEASUREMENT AND CALCULATION ................................................................................ 211
8.5 CARGO CONDITIONING DURING TRANSPORT .............................................................................. 213
8.6 DISCHARGING PLAN AND PROCEDURES ..................................................................................... 214
8.7 UNLOADING, STRIPPING AND PREWASH OPERATION WITH NLS ............................................... 214
8.8 BALLASTING AND DEBALLASTING................................................................................................. 218
9. TANK-CLEANING OPERATIONS ................................................................................................... 221
9.1 GENERAL .......................................................................................................................................... 221
9.2 TANK-CLEANING PROCEDURES AND DISPOSAL OF SLOPS....................................................... 221
9.3 GAS FREEING OF CARGO TANKS................................................................................................... 228
9.4 TESTS FOR CLEANLINESS............................................................................................................... 229
10.0 SHIP/SHORE INTERFACE ......................................................................................................... 230
10.1 LIAISON WITH TERMINALS............................................................................................................. 230
10.2 SHORE RECEPTION FACILITIES.................................................................................................... 239
11. EMERGENCY OPERATIONS ............................................................................................................ 240
11.1 ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE AND PLANNING ........................................................................ 240
11.2 ALARMS ........................................................................................................................................... 241
11.3 EMERGENCY PROCEDURES......................................................................................................... 243
11.4 FIRST AID ......................................................................................................................................... 244
1. INTRODUCTION

1.0 THE COURSE

This section should give a short background for and the purpose of the course as:
- The International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for
Seafarers (STCW 78/95), which contains mandatory minimum requirements for training and
qualifications of masters, officers and ratings of chemical tankers.
This training is divided into two parts:
- Level 1: Chemical tanker familiarization – a basic safety training course for officers and ratings
serving on board chemical tankers.
- Level 2: Advanced training in chemical tanker operations for masters, officers and others who are
to have immediate responsibilities for cargo handling and cargo equipment.
This course covers the requirements for level 1 and level 2 training required by STCW 78/95 Chapter V
Regulation V/1 – 1.2, 2.2 and Section A-V/1 regulations 15- 21.

1.1 SEA TRANSPORT OF CHEMICALS

Sea transport of chemicals started with the chemical industries’ rapid growth in the years after the World
War Two.
At first, chemicals were transported in bottles or drums on dry cargo ships; larger quantities were shipped
in bulk in the deep tanks of these ships.
As the world’s demand for chemicals increased, the need for a new type of seagoing ship became evident.
The first chemical tankers were converted war-built American oil tankers (T-2 tankers).
Conversion work usually included:
- adding bulkheads to provide more and smaller tanks
- extending the line system
- installing additional cargo pumps
In addition to these converted, relatively big chemical carriers, smaller tankers specially designed and
constructed for the carriage of "acids" – e.g. sulphuric acid – were built during the early 1950’s, the cargo
tanks of which were made of special alloy steel, strengthened for cargo densities up to 2.0 kg/l.
In order to carry chemicals of high purity and sensitive to contamination, coating techniques were
developed for cargo tanks of mild steel.
The first real chemical tanker specially designed for the carriage of liquid chemicals in bulk was the
Norwegian M.T. "Lind", delivered in 1960; this was the first tanker equipped with stainless-steel cargo
tanks.
A modern chemical tanker has a large number of cargo tanks and is designed for carriage of a wide variety
of cargoes.
The cargo-tank section on these modern ships is normally divided into some stainless-steel tanks and
some coated mild-steel tanks, each of which is normally equipped with deepwell pumps and a separate
piping system.
The term "chemical tanker" does indeed cover a wide range of designs from quite simple vessels designed
for transport of low hazard type chemicals to highly complex vessels designed for transport of a large
variety of chemicals and special purpose vessels built for the transport of a single or a few chemicals. In
the following we shall mainly focus on general purpose chemical tanker design and operation.

1.1.1 CARGO TYPES

The range of cargoes normally transported by such vessels is often grouped as follows:
- Chemicals
- Oil products
- Animal and vegetable oil
 - Other substances.
However, if one wishes to consider the consequences of rules and regulations on design and equipment of
chemical tankers, it may be useful to group the different cargoes according to the extent the various rules
and certification requirements apply.
The entry into force of MARPOL Annex II has established as an overruling principle:
"NO LIQUID CARGO IS ALLOWED TO BE CARRIED UNLESS IT HAS BEEN ASSESSED BOTH FOR
SAFETY AND MARINE POLLUTION."
For crude oil and oil products this assessment has been done once and for all and the consequential
application of Regulations and Certification requirements is straight forward. In terms of safety the SOLAS
requirements for oil tankers apply to products with flashpoint less than 60 Centigrades and the Safety
Equipment Certificate is proof of compliance. In terms of marine pollution all oils, regardless of flashpoint,
are subject to the MARPOL Annex I regulations and the IOPP certificate is the proof of compliance.
For liquid cargoes other than oils the picture is far less clear. The main grouping of the cargoes is:
1) Cargoes subject to the requirements of the "expanded" International Bulk Chemical Code. In Chapter
17 of the Code these cargoes are listed ("expanded" means the International Bulk Chemical Code
with amendments making MARPOL Annex II requirements part of the Code)
2) Cargoes not subject to the requirements of the "expanded" International Bulk Chemical Code. These
cargoes are listed in Chapter 18 of the Code.
Cargoes under 1. are those products assessed to possess safety hazards according to the hazard criteria
of the Chemical Code or products categorized as A, B or C according to the marine pollution hazard
criteria given by MARPOL Annex II.
It is worth noticing that the chemical hazard criteria includes flammability hazards, toxicity (human life),
reactivity and corrosivity as opposed to SOLAS hazard criteria which only considers flammability.
Cargoes under 2. are those not found to be hazardous according to the Chemical Code Criteria and which
have no marine pollution hazards (Annex II, Appendix III) or very moderate marine pollution effects, i.e.
categorized as D substances according to MARPOL Annex II criteria.
It should be observed that all products under 2. both category D products and Appendix III products which
have flashpoint less than 60o C are subject to the SOLAS regulations for tankers (fire protection
requirements).
Products under group 1 are only allowed to be carried under a Certificate of Fitness for the Carriage of
Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk (C.O.F.) and it is required that the products permitted are listed in the
Certificate by their names. For sake of practicality the C.O.F also lists category D products in group 2.
Products in group 2 having pollution hazard category D only are required to be carried under a separate
Noxious Liquid Substance Certificate (NLS) if the vessel does not hold a C.O.F. The requirements to be
complied with for obtaining such certificate are purely operational and hence carriage may be allowed on
all types of ship, except for those products which have flashpoint less than 60o C or which are required to
be carried in vessels of oil tanker standard in respect of fire protection and ship arrangements. Products in
group 2 which are non-pollutants may be carried without special certification. However, products with
flashpoint less than 60o C are only allowed in vessels of oil tanker standard.
Unlike oils the assessment of chemicals and other products is not a finalized process. New substances
and mixtures of different substances appear as bulk cargoes for sea transportation from time to time. In
order not to unduly upset the trade IMO has adopted guidelines for provisional assessment of substances
and allocation of carriage requirements. Provided sufficient information and data for the potential cargo is
available, such assessment may be completed within a few days.
1.1.2 STRUCTURE OF RULES AND REGULATIONS FOR CHEMICAL TANKERS
Both our classification rules and the International Bulk Chemical Code (IBC-Code) are composed of two
main parts:
1) A general part containing regulations applicable to all multipurpose chemical tankers.
2) An optional part containing special requirements for some individual cargoes or type of cargoes.
A general purpose chemical tanker must satisfy all the requirements of the general part (Sections 1
through 14 plus Section 16 of our Rules Part 5 Chapter 4). The general requirements offer options to
choose between in several areas, e.g. tank venting, tank ullaging etc. and the choice has an impact on the
allowable range of cargoes. The extent to which a chemical tanker complies with the additional special
requirements will further determine the extent of additional cargoes permitted.
From the above it is seen that the term "chemical tanker" is non-specific because of the alternatives and
options available. In a specification it must therefore be stated which design and equipment options and
alternatives are to be complied with, alternatively a list of cargoes for which the vessel is to be designed
must be specified.
A dedicated chemical tanker differs from the multipurpose one in the respect that all of the general
regulations need not be fulfilled. This in particular applies to the fire protection requirements, which need
not be met for non-flammable products. In terms of classification such a dedicated chemical tanker will not
be assigned the general "Tanker for Chemicals" notation, but have a notation e.g. "Tanker for phosphoric
acid" or "Tanker for non-flammable chemicals".

1.2 CARGOES IN CHEMICAL TANKERS

1.2.1 PETROCHEMICAL PRODUCTS

This is the classification for chemicals derived wholly or partially from petroleum or natural gas, although
this strict definition has now been generally broadened to include the whole range of aliphatic, aromatic
and naphtenic organic chemicals no matter what their source, which may be petroleum, coal or vegetable.
Petrochemicals such as benzene and naphthalene may be obtained from either petroleum or coal, while
ethyl alcohol may be of either petroleum or vegetable origin. Petroleum is also considered as a raw
material in a number of inorganic chemicals such as sulphur, ammonia and carbon black.
Raw petroleum or crude oil is a complex product containing thousands of different compounds of hydrogen
and carbon and other chemicals such as sulphur and therefore must undergo numerous refining
treatments before the light gaseous hydrocarbons, which form the basis for petrochemicals, are obtained.
The first process, which the crude oil must undergo, is primary or fractional distillation. This involves
heating the crude oil and since the various hydrocarbons in it have different boiling points they can be
separated out into individual cuts or fractions. These basic cuts are gasoline (the main component of
petrol) Kerosene, gas oils and residual heavy fuel fractions. These commodities are known as paraffins
and make up the traditional bulk liquid cargoes carried in "product" tankers. They are the "saturated"
hydrocarbons and chemically, they are relatively stable and unreactive. Although they do not constitute
the most suitable materials for making other substances, they do burn readily, some explosively when
vaporized and mixed with air, and hence their value as fuels.
Further processes such as thermal and, more efficient, catalytic cracking can be carried out on the residual
heavy fuel fractions or gas oils to yield lighter and more volatile, high quality distillates and many light
hydrocarbon gases such as methane, ethane, propane, butane, olefins and acetylenes.
These gases are the unsaturated hydrocarbons and form the basis upon which the petrochemical industry
has been built. Petrochemicals gave birth to and are the feedstocks for the giant plastics, synthetic rubber,
synthetic fibres, agricultural chemicals and detergent industries.
Plastics are made from simpler chemicals by the process of polymerization in which single short chain
molecules or monomers are combined to form molecules called polymers. The two main groups of plastics
are the thermosets and thermoplastics. Thermosets flow like syrup when heated and then can be
squeezed or moulded into any shape of form, the shape being made permanent by further heating for a
few minutes; after that they can no longer be melted to make them flow again. Thermoplastics soften
when heated and harden again when cooled.
Synthetic rubbers are also produced by polymerization and resemble certain types of plastics but are
characterized by the particular kind of elasticity found in natural rubber. There are two types of synthetic
rubber, the first being the general purpose rubbers which have many of the same applications as natural
rubber e.g. tyres wire and cable insulation as well as a wide range of domestic articles. There are also
special purpose synthetic rubbers which have been developed for use where some particular quality is
highly desirable e.g. resistance to great heat, to oil or corrosive action. They are made from basic
hydrocarbons such as butadiene, styrene, acrylonitrile and isobutylene among others.
The more well known are nylon, Orlon, Acrilan and Terylene. The manufacture of these synthetics uses
basic petrochemicals as raw materials and the finished products display properties similar to animal and
vegetable fibres but also possess various additional properties such as being non-flammable, unaffected
by moths, mildew or the action of perspiration, sunlight, heat and water. The majority of synthetic fibres
are also chemical resistant.
The most widespread detergents are sodium alkyl benzene sulphonates produced by the petrochemical
industry. Detergents are surface-acting agents and derive their cleansing properties from a molecular
structure which reduces the surface tension of water and gives it greater "wetting" power. Detergents are
now widely used for domestic and industrial cleaning purposes.

1.2.2 FEEDSTOCKS AND BASIC CHEMICALS

For many years, both Europe and Japan have used mainly naphtha as the feedstock for the production of
the basic chemicals ethylene, propylene and butadiene, known collectively as the olefin family and used as
"building blocks" for the paints, plastics, dyestuffs, synthetic rubber and synthetic fiber industries.
The European chemical industry has traditionally depended upon cheap feedstocks of naphtha, but since
prices rose steeply in the 1970s, other forms of feedstock have been used. Particularly attractive as an
alternative has been LPG, which has already made a major impact in the Japanese petrochemical industry
and has successfully competed with naphtha in European markets. However supply of LPG has been a
problem as producers sort out their production levels and pricing policies. While large LPG surpluses from
Middle East producers were being forecast as late as 1980, these have by and large not appeared, and
the considerable number of specialist gas carriers being built against this transport requirement has been
a disappointment to their owners. Still being assessed is the arrival in Europe of large quantities of Saudi
Arabian naphtha, which could prove very important to he European chemical industry. In Japan the
chemical industry is being encouraged to use greater principal feedstock, the argument inevitably devolves
upon price. The dominance of naphtha in Japan is however being gradually reduced, which is also the
case in the European market, where gas oil and LPG’s are making a substantial impact.
The situation is completely reversed in the US, where the main reliance is on ethane, propane and butane,
less than 20 % of chemical feedstock being made up of naphtha. In the long term especially with the
greater interest in coal it is possible that a number of chemical building blocks may derive from this source.
Some crude, benzene, toluene and xylene are at present made from coal and work is progressing on
improving the process for making ethylene from this fossil fuel.
1.3 PRODUCTION AND USE OF LIQUID CHEMICALS
The basic petrochemicals are Ethylene, Propylene and Butadiene, all of which are obtained by the
cracking of natural gas, or naphtha and gas oil from crude oil. All three of these important basic
petrochemicals are transported in liquid form by gas carriers and their sea transport is therefore outside
the scope of chemical tankers.

1.3.1 ETHYLENE
This is the simplest member of the olefin family, the largest volume organic chemical and is sued in more
than 30 % of all petrochemical products. Because of its unsaturated nature, ethylene is very reactive and it
has become one of the main building blocks of the petrochemical industry. The principal source of
ethylene in Europe is the steam cracking of naphtha, while the United States traditionally has obtained its
ethylene supplies from natural gas liquids. The table below lists many of the main ethylene derivatives with
their respective uses.
The main attractions of ethylene to the chemical industry have been the ready availability of this feedstock,
a reasonable cost and high purity. More than two-thirds of its utilization is for the production of polymers, a
fast expanding sector.

The world-wide capacity for the production of ethylene outside the Comecon countries was 52 million tons
of which 19 million was in the US, 9 million in Japan and 10 million in the countries of Western Europe.
Notwithstanding its importance, during the 1970s and early years to the present decade, inflation and
rocketing oil prices contributed to a steady rise in the cost to the chemical industry of the raw ethylene.
From 1973 to 1980 the price jumped from $ 480 per ton. Because of the recession the world-wide
demand for ethylene has remained well below that of the 1979 had by a year later reduced its production
by one quarter, a 6 % annual increase in demand for "normal" times quickly translating itself into a
reduction as the recession bit deep. Only by 1983 was the demand to be increased. In the US about one
third of all the ethylene produced is used for the manufacture of low density polyethylene, about 15 %
produces high density polyethylene with ethylene oxide, vinyl chloride and styrene taking 19, 12 and 8 %
respectively.
A further North American large scale producer of ethylene has bee Canada, which in 1980 opened the first
large scale ethylene plant using ethane form Alberta gas. There, is a current Canadian capacity of some
2.75 million tons per annum, and with a political will in the country to reduce dependence on its larger
neighbor to the South Arctic oil and gas are likely, in the long term, to impact upon the Canadian industry.
World demand for ethylene is expected to increase at over 6 % per year up to the end of the century.
What is less certain is the pace of this development and the lumpy nature of its expansion in a volatile
market.

1.3.2 PROPYLENE
Propylene is a co-product of the ethylene production in the steam cracking of naphtha. Propylene is the
second member of the olefin family and is currently a high growth chemical because of the high demand
for polypropylene, a principal derivative. Crude propylene is also obtained from oil refinery gases in a
state, which needs purifying for chemical production. The table below lists some of the major propylene
derivatives.
In Europe propylene was always produced as a co-product of ethylene, independent of demand. As a
result there was always an over-capacity and propylene prices remained low. Attempts were made to
make high severity crackers with high ethylene/propylene ratios; however, technological problems made
such crackers unfeasible. In the interim, demand for propylene has grown until now it enjoys higher
growth rates than ethylene. There are two main reasons for this change in the fortunes of propylene:
1. Demand for polypropylene is high and new capacity authorizations are going ahead. It is the most
versatile and lowest cost olefin-based polymer for the manufacture of a variety of synthetics.
2. An improved catalyst is available for acrylonitrile production, which will allow greatly increased
production of this commodity at existing plants for low capital expenditure.
Since propylene is dependent on ethylene production, if ethylene forecasts are over-optimistic, propylene
production could be hit. However crude propylene is also obtainable form oil refinery operations and can
be used as a chemical feedstock after purification. Furthermore, doubts on the future availability of light
naphtha are resulting in the planning and construction of new, more flexible ethylene crackers to run on
heavier fractions which gives increased potential for propylene production.
Nearly a quarter of the propylene produced in Western Europe is used for the manufacture of
polypropylene. 18 % being used for acrylonitrile. 11 % propylene oxide and 10 % cumene.

In the US propylene is referred to as the "Crown Prince of Petrochemicals " and most propylene is
obtained by the steam cracking of naphtha and gas oil, though recently there has been a noticeable shift of
feedstocks to ethane and propane. Small quantities of propylene are also obtained by a refinery catalytic
cracking operation. The petrochemical demand for propylene which takes 25 % of the supply, acrylonitrile
15 %, isopropanol 10 % and propylene oxide 10 %. Both imports and exports are small. Propylene is one
of the basic feedstocks whose movement is expected to increasingly be to the new chemical producing
countries.

1.3.3 BUTADIENE
Butadiene is the most widely used of all the synthetic rubber raw materials and is one of the by-products of
the stern cracking process. A number of rubbers are derived from butadiene, the commonest of which is
styrene butadiene rubber, which has the widest range of uses, including shoe soles, waterproof boots,
sponges, carpet underlays, garden hoses, tyre treads and rubber dinghies. With acrylonitrile, butadiene
forms nitrile rubber used in products, which must combine elasticity with resistance to oil and grease, e.g.,
oil hose linings. Polybutadiene is also used extensively in car and truck tyres. A further use of butadiene
is with acrylonitrile and styrene in the production of ABS plastics-terpolymer or plastics "alloy". ABS is
used for engineering components, casings, car body panels, in aircraft, and for heads of golf clubs.
The demand for styrene butadiene rubber in the USA is static although ABS resin demand is increasing at
the rate of 5 - 7 % per year.

1.3.4 AROMATICS
The aromatic products, benzene, toluene and xylene (BTX), are used as intermediates for the production
of chemicals, as solvents and for gasoline blending. The majority of aromatic production in Europe is
petroleum-based, e.g. 89 % of West European benzene capacity is oil-based, and is produced by catalytic
reforming. Styrene, cyclohexane and, to lesser extent, phenol, are also produced during this process. Of
the three aromatics, xylene is used most extensively in the chemical industry. Mixed xylenes (ortho-xylene
and para-xylene) have been used in the manufacture of polyester fibres and films since the 1950s.
Aromatics are also used in the production of alkyd resins, unsaturated polyester resins and plasticizers.

1.3.5 COAL TAR PRODUCTS

Coal, like oil, is chemically a complex substance but unlike oil, it is somewhat deficient in hydrogen and
rich in carbon. This not only makes for a lower heating value but also makes it more difficult to convert
coal into clean liquid products than it is to refine into such products Moreover, processes developed for
one type of coal may not work with another and conversion of coal requires the handling of vast tonnage of
the raw material. However, the original industrial source of hydrocarbons is the residual coal tar derived
when coal tar derived when coal is carbonised to produce coal gas, and although its importance has been
dissipated by the large scale use of petrochemicals, the potential for coal tar products appears brighter
now than it has for some time. Coal tar is a black, viscous, thick liquid from which a great number of
chemical compounds are derived. The first fraction obtained in the distillation of coal tar contains many
aromatics, among them benzene, toluene and xylene.
Benzene is the lightest fraction obtained from the distillation of coal tar hydrocarbons. It is a thin,
colorless, highly inflammable liquid with a characteristic smell. It is a good motor fuel solvent as well as
being a feedstock for other benzene derivatives used in dye, insecticides and plastics production. At a
later stage in the distillation process, heavy coal tar solvent naphtha and a naphthalene fraction are
produced. The fraction is further treated to yield naphthalene, a white crystalline solid with a important as
the starting point for a number of dyes and also as a source of phthalic acid which in turn leads to indigo
and to certain resins used in very large quantities in paint. Naphthalene can be reduced to a series of
compounds such as tetralin and decalin, which have great value as solvents.
Benzene is by far the most important of the aromatics and its principal derivatives are cyclohexane,
cumene, ethyl benzene and alkyl benzene. Cyclohexane accounts for approximately 23 % of the benzene
usage. Ale demand for cyclohexane over the next few years in Europe will be strong due to the growth of
polyamide fibres and cyclohexane's replacement of phenol in many processes. Ethyl benzene represents
approximately 45 % of the benzene production and is used in the manufacture of styrene which in turn is
used to produce polystyrene and ABS (acrylonitrilelbutadiene/styrene) resins, both of which should enjoy
strong growth rates. Cumene is used to make phenol and alkyl benzene goes toward the manufacture of
detergents.
 Figure B Coal Tar Derivatives

Already a great deal of research has been carried out and scientists have investigated many possible
routes from coal to chemicals with or without fuels as co-products. They include chemicals such as
methanol and ammonia gathered from coal gasification processes; aromatics, particularly benzene, from
coal hydrogenation; and the production of acetylene by exposing coal to arc-heated hydrogen. Although
early results have been to an extent encouraging, the development of these processes to the necessary
level of economy and efficiency is unlikely to be quick or easy.

1.3.6 TOLUENE
Toluene is not as important as benzene because of its more limited range of uses. Toluene's main
derivatives are benzaldehyde, benzoic acid, toluene, diisocyanate (urethane foam) and nitrotoluene. It is
also used in the manufacture of solvents ant gasoline as well as benzene production through dealkylation.
Approximately 75 % of world-wide toluene capacity go to produce benzene, the remainder being for
chemical and solvents uses.

1.3.7 XYLENES
World demand for mixed xylenes, i.e. ortho-xylene and para-xylene, has been growing at about 6 % per
year. Para-xylene first entered the chemical market in the 1950s when it was used to produce dimethyl
terephthalate (DMT) and terephthalic acid (TPA) for polyester fibres. Polyester fibres have increased their
share of the world fibres market significantly in recent years but is experiencing a significant decline in
demand at the moment. A small but growing share of DMT/TPA output goes to polyester film.
The second major xylene market to develop was the use of ortho-xylene to make phthalic anhydride, one
of the most important organic chemicals. Phthalic anhydride is used in the production of phthalic
plasticizers, polyesters, alkyd resins and dyestuffs. Ortho-xylene has all but replaces naphthalene as the
basic feedstock for this organic chemical.

1.3.8 METHANOL OR METHYL ALCOHOL

Methanol is important as an intermediate for organic synthesis. It was originally produced by the
destructive distillation of wood and synthesised from natural gas, although the production techniques were
costly and inefficient. The most significant technological development in methanol production was the
advent of the ICI low pressure process that allowed high-quality, comparatively low cost methanol to be
derived from petroleum.
Approximately 50 % of the methanol used for chemical uses go to the production of formaldehyde, which
in turn forms a basis for urea resins and phenolic resins. Methanol is also used to produce methacrylate,
methyl methacrylate (for plastics), dimethylteraphthate (DMT), methylamines, methyl chloride and
solvents.
An uncomplicated cargo capable of transport in ships that are relatively unsophisticated, methanol is one
of the basic feedstocks, the production of which is shifting dramatically from the developed chemical
producing countries to the new producers of the Middle East, Brazil, Canada and New Zealand, with the
former producers all becoming net importers of this relatively low value chemical. Major projects started to
come on stream in 1982 and 1983 saw the export of the first large single shipments of methanol from the
new facilities of Saudi Arabia. The same year also saw the start-up of a vast methanol facility in Siberia
capable of 2500 tons/day, with a third of its production stemmed for Western Europe, and first deliveries
scheduled for 1984. With the late 1983 price of methanol less tan $ 180 per ton, the new imports would
seem certain to keep this feedstock low priced and readily available from a variety of sources.
Methanol is also an alternative fuel source to liquefied natural gas (LNG) but methanol plants are costly
and bulk shipments by sea are economical compared to LNG only when the distances are great, say from
the Persian Gulf to Japan, the USA or Europe.

1.3.9 PHENOL
Phenol is a key product in the chemical industry. The major source of Phenol is the benzene derivative,
cumene, and acetone is produced as a by-product. Cumene is a relatively inexpensive feedstock, which
can be produced by obsolete refinery units, which have been converted. The USA and Europe have in the
past been responsible for the bulk of the phenol produced and trade has always been active especially the
intra-European trades.
This was because a number of European countries did not produce sufficient phenol to meet domestic
needs. In 1978 Germany, Italy and the UK were the principal exporters in Europe with a total of 272.000
tons though the trade was mainly regional. Exports from the USA have ceased and those of Japan have
increased to 93.000 tons, two-thirds of which was for other Far Eastern countries.

1.3.10 STYRENE MONOMER

Polystyrene and expendable polystyrene account for about two-thirds of the world's consumption of
styrene with ABS resins (acrylonitrile/butadiene/styrene) butadiene rubber taking most of the remainder.
In a similar fashion to methanol (although it is a far more valuable chemical, with a current price of about $
700 per ton) styrene is one of the basic chemicals the production of which is moving rapidly form high cost
areas to production locations nearer the source of raw materials. While there is a current over capacity
problem in the chemical industries of Japan, the US and Western Europe. The prospects of this surplus
plant being reactivated is slight, with some 1 million tons of new styrene capacity under construction in
Saudi Arabia, Libya, Kuwait and Canada, all of which will be able to produce product at a more economic
price than that in the traditional chemical producing countries.

1.3.11 MOLASSES AND ALCOHOLS

This category sometimes referred to as carbohydrate derivatives are produced by fermentation. The latter
are associated with the brewing and winemaking industries. Fermentation is a process by which organic
compounds are broken down or changed by the agency of living organism or of ferments (enzymes)
produced by them. The end products are alcohols and carbon dioxide and although large quantities of
alcohol are now made from ethylene in the petrochemical industry, there are still a great number of
alcohols which are carbohydrate-derived. Ships, which carry these commodities, are required to possess
the same high standards for the maintenance of cargo quality as carriers of petro- and heavy chemicals.

1.3.12 MOLASSES
The two types of molasses commonly carried in bulk by sea are cane and beet molasses. Both types take
the form of thick brown syrup and are produced during the sugar refining operations by removal from the
sugar crystals. Cane molasses or black strap, which comes from raw cane sugar, is the heavier of the two
with its final composition depending on the country of origin, cane maturity and methods of manufacture.
Beet molasses is processed from the roots of the sugar beet and is a less viscous molasses than black
strap. The better grades of both types of molasses can be fermented into alcohols such as rum and can
also be used in treacle manufacture. Other uses include animal feedstocks and the production of yeast
and organic chemicals.
Cane molasses is produced in the fertile tropical and semi-tropical regions of the Caribbean, Southern
USA, Central and South America, East Africa, Asia and Australia. In some countries the local
consumption of cane molasses for animal feed, rum or alcohol is small, leaving a large proportion available
for export. The main consumers of cane molasses are principally the United Kingdom, Western Europe,
USA and Japan.
Beet molasses is grown in the more temperate zones of the United Kingdom, Western Europe, USA,
Eastern Europe and the USSR. It is in special demand for the manufacture of products such as yeast,
citric acid and monosodium glutamate. Beet producing countries tend to consume almost all their own
production, some countries using it for fermentation of alcohol and animal feed. The USSR and Eastern
Europe are self-sufficient in this type of molasses and in general, exports of beet molasses world-wide are
negligible.
Molasses is a low value product and the seaborne shipment of the commodity is a restricted market. Only
a small number of operators world-wide handle sizeable amounts of the product, these being carried in
epoxy or uncoated tanks suitable for products for a specific gravity of 1.4.

1.3.13 FERMENTATION ALCOHOLS

The most common alcohols are ethyl, methyl and propyl alcohols (ethanol, methanol and propanol).
Although methanol and propanol are mainly produced by the petrochemical industry substantial amounts
of ethanol are still produced by fermentation of starch. Ethanol is a colorless liquid freely miscible with
water. In its original state it can be used as a fuel or a solvent (methylated spirits) but it is also an
important raw material for chemical manufacture. Ethanol as well as the other alcohols can be oxidized to
forma Aldehydes and then to carboxylic acids, with which they also react to form esters. In this way, acetic
acid is derived from ethanol for use as a solvent, and, by reaction with ethanol, to produce ethyl acetate.
One common ester formed by cellulose and acetic acid is cellulose acetate, which is familiar as a
thermoplastic moulding compound (telephones, packaging, film and buttons), as a manmade fibre (Tricel)
and as a lacquer.

1.3.14 WINE MAKING AND BREWING

Wine is the fermented juice of the fresh grape. After picking, the grapes are crushed or pressed and
placed in vats to ferment. Most table wines contain 6 - 14 % alcohol by volume while fortified wines such
as sherry and martini vermouth have further alcohol added.
France, Italy and Spain have extensive vineyards and annually export large quantities of wine in bulk to be
bottled by the importer. Argentina, Portugal, the USA and the USSR also produce large amounts of wine.
Seagoing vessels carry wines and fortified wines not exceeding 27o proof.
Brewing is the production of alcoholic malt beverages by fermentation; they contain 2 - 7 % alcohol by
volume. The temperature at which fermentation is allowed to occur determines the type of beer to be
produced. Lower temperature fermentation causes yeast to sink to the bottom of the vat and produces
lager while higher temperatures produce heavier beers. There are extensive brewing industries in most
countries, especially Britain, Germany, Denmark, Czechoslovakia and the USA. Certain lagers and dark
beers such as Guinness are exported in bulk by sea.

1.3.15 VEGETABLE OILS AND ANIMALS FATS

Oil, fats and vaxes occur in plants and animals as esters of alcohol and strait-chain carboxylic acids. They
are insoluble in water and oily or greasy to the touch. Their composition is quite different from mineral oil,
e.g. petroleum, which are almost completely composed of hydrocarbons. Although oils are liquid at room
temperature and fats are solid, both are, in general, esters of an alcohol called glycerol and a variety or
organic acids known as fatty acids (e.g. palmitic, stearic, oleaic).
The fat contained in animal and vegetable oils, along with proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals,
is one of the main nutrients required by the human body. Fat performs a variety of functions essential to
good health. It is a highly concentrated source of energy, which is needed to promote activity and to keep
the body at the right temperature. It is a carrier of vitamins A, D, E and K. Fats are also needed to supply
the substance known as fatty acids. These are essential in that the body needs but cannot synthesize
them, so that they must be present in the diet. Essential fatty acids reduce cholesterol in the blood and
promote the building of healthy skin cells. Fatty acids can be either saturated (lauric; myristic; palmitic –
present in nearly all known fats; stearic) or unsaturated) palmitoleic; oleic – the most common of all fatty
acids; linoleic). Fats or oils containing saturated fatty acids are generally in the solid form and are required
in the manufacture of soap and margarine, while fats or oil containing unsaturated fatty acids usually are
liquid at room temperature.
The current world trade in oils and fats is a comparatively new phenomenon in historical terms. This trade
is almost entirely a development of the 20th century technology. Although the substitution of petroleum-
based products freed large quantities of oils and fats for human consumption, new industries based on the
manufacture of chemicals from fats have sprung up over the last forty years. Processes devised to remove
pure single fatty acids from fats have resulted in production of long-chain alcohols, amines, amides, esters,
nitriles, and ketones. These substances or intermediates in turn were used to manufacture detergents,
plasticizers, special lubricants, polyamide resins and special gel paints. The manufacture of margarine and
soap has also benefited by the development of a process called hydrogenation. Production of these
commodities required solid fat but at the turn of the century animal fats were in short supply.
Hydrogenation, however, made it possible to use vegetable oils, which had previously been considered to
be too soft, for these processes.

1.3.16 VEGETABLE OILS

Vegetable oils are derived from seeds of plants which grow in a wide variety of places throught the world.
Although several hundred plants types are known to have oil-bearing seeds, only about a dozen are
significant commercially i.e. soya bean, groundnut, cottonseed, sunflower, olive, rapseed, sesame,
coconut, oil palm, linseed, castor and tung.
The chief importance of vegetable oils lies in their food value since they are essential for a balanced diet.
The current world production of vegetable oils is about 42 million metric tons a year, being about two-thirds
of all types of oils and fats.
Edible vegetable oils can be consumed in various ways, either in their natural liquid form as cooking oils or
in spreadable form such as margarine. Vegetable oils are used in other food industries for the manufacture
of cooking fat and oils, salad dressing and ice cream. In addition to their value as a source of oil, several of
the plants have a high protein content, in particular soya bean and groundnut. For this reason, the residue,
after oil removal, in many cases provides animal fodder.
Outside food manufacture, vegetable oils are used in a wide variety of applications in industry, from soap
manufacture (the most important) to the production of paints, varnishes, lubricants and plastics.
All oils used in industry must be refined and the degree of reining depends on the particular end use.
Although no vegetable oil is equally suitable for all of the possible end uses since each oil has unique
characteristics, it is possible divide vegetable oils roughly into three broad groups i.e.
a) Those used mainly for edible purposes
b) Those suitable for edible and industrial purposes
Those suitable only for industrial purposes

1.3.17 OILSEEDS USED MAINLY FOR EDIBLE PURPOSES

1.3.17.1 Soya bean

The soya bean originated in Eastern Asia and is still widely cultivated in China, Korea and Indonesia,
although today the world's chief producer is the USA. During the last twenty years, production of soya
beans in the cotton and maize belt of the southern US has increased dramatically.
Largely because of the increased output in the USA, soya bean has recently become the world's leading
source of vegetable oil, even though the oil content is relatively low (13 % to 20 %). Soya oil goes into
margarine, cooking fats and salad oils.
Soya beans are also very rich in protein (41 to 50 %), containing twice as much as beef. The meal, which
is left after the oil has been extracted therefore, makes nutritious animal fodder. Because of its high
protein content and cheapness compared with sources of animal protein, extensive research is being
carried out in developing new soya products for human consumption.
In the Far East, soya beans are a staple food. They are boiled, roasted, milled into flour and used to make
soya sauce and soya bean milk. Soya oil is also used in the manufacture of soap and cosmetics,
insecticides and paper coatings and as a drying oil in paints, varnishes and printing inks.

1.3.17.2 Groundnut
The groundnut is also known as the monkey nut, peanut, earth-nut and arachis nut. Originally grown in
the West Indies and South America, it is now cultivated in most tropical and sub-tropical countries. The
pods on the small annual groundnut plant turn down into the ground to a depth of about 5 cm, where they
swell and ripen.
Groundnuts have an oil content of approximately 45 % and the main uses of this oil are in the manufacture
of margarine, cooking fats, salad oils and ice cream. After extraction the residue provides a protein-rich
cake for animal feeding. Groundnuts are also consumed direct, representing an important staple food in
the producing countries when stewed with meat or roasted. The groundnut plant becomes hay for fodder
once the nut has been removed.

1.3.17.3 Cottonseed
Cottonseed is essentially a by-product since the cotton plant is grown primarily to produce cotton fibre.
Even though the cotton plant has been cultivated for several thousand years, it was not until late in the last
century that serious commercial uses were found for the cottonseed. Cotton is produced in tropical, sub-
tropical and warm temperate climates, which have a distinct wet and dry season.
Cottonseed oil, which makes up between 15 and 25 % of the seed itself, is used in the manufacture of
margarine, cooking fats and oils and salad dressings. The cake residue left after the oil has been
processed is a useful source of animal fodder, as are the seeds themselves. Both can also be used as
fertilizers while the hulls remaining after treatment provide fodder and fuel.

1.3.17.4 Sunflower
Several varieties of this large yellow-petalled flower are cultivated throughout the world, the most common
reaching heights of between 1.5 and 2.5 m. The sunflower originated in Central America, but is now grown
extensively in regions such as the USSR, South America, southern and central Europe, and Canada.
Until the 1960s the oil content of the sunflower seed ranged from 20 to 32 %. This figure has been
significantly increased in recent years by the evolution of new strains in the Soviet Union and eastern
Europe with an oil content of 40 % or more. About four-fifths of world production is now believed to be of
these high-yielding varieties. Sunflower oil is used in the manufacture of margarine, cooking oils and fats,
and salad oils. In a less-refined state, it goes into soaps, paints and lubricators.
After the oil has been taken off, the residue is made into cake for cattle food. The flowers themselves give
a yellow dye, while in Russia the stalks are burned and high-grade potash salts extracted.

1.3.17.5 Olive
Although the olive tree has no particular soil requirements and can grow on the poorest of land, climatically
it needs Mediterranean conditions, i.e. warm dry summers without excessively high temperatures. The
large olive producers are centered on the Mediterranean area, Italy being the largest producer but not
exporter.
Although olive oil is not of tremendous importance commercially, it is the finest of all vegetable oils and is
therefore greatly in demand as a table oil for salads and for preserving. The first crushing gives the
highest grade oil, which does not need refining. The oil content of the plant is about 15 %. From the
residue inedible oil is extracted, known commercially as sulphur oil, olive kernel oil or "sauces". This
inedible oil is widely used in soap-making, wool combing and other industrial processes.
Production of edible olive oil varies from year to year since it is so dependent on climatic conditions during
the pollination period. Some olives are grown for direct consumption as table olives. Generally, these
olives have relatively low oil content.

1.3.17.6 Rapeseed
Rapeseed is the name given to the seed obtained from several plants of the brassica family. Although the
crop is still not important in international trade, there are signs that rapeseed oil is regaining importance
after a marked decline between 1860 and 1945. China and India are important areas of production.
Rapeseed yields 35 to 40 % edible oil for use as table oil and for cooking. Again, after the oil has been
extracted the remaining cake can be used in limited amounts as animal fodder.

1.3.17.7 Sesame
Sesame has been popular crop in China and India for many centuries. Today it is cultivated in most
tropical and sub-tropical areas, China and India being the leading producers. Current world production is
about 1.9 million tons. There is currently no significant international trade in oil from the sesame seed.
Sesame is an annual plant particularly suited to a peasant type of agriculture, since it will grow on poor
soils and the crop is easier to grow by hand than by mechanical methods. The oil content of sesame is
quite high at approximately 50 %. Sesame oil is used for much the same purposes as olive oil.
1.3.18 OILSEEDS USED FOR EDIBLE AND OTHER INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

1.3.18.1 Coconut
The coconut palm is a perennial of unknown origin. It is thought to have spread across Polynesia from the
Indian Ocean, and today it is found in the coastal belts of all tropical countries. The palm varies in height
from between 18 and 30 m and produces fruit, which when growing looks like a smooth, green rugger ball.
When fully mature the coconut has a fibrous outer husk and an inner kernel. The kernel when dried is
known as copra, and it is from this that coconut oil is extracted.
Copra yields about 63 % oil. Local inhabitants use this oil for cooking and lighting and as a hair dressing.
Industrially, large quantities are required throughout the world in the manufacture of margarine and
cooking oils and fats. It is also used, to a lesser extent, in soaps and lubricants. After oil extraction,
residue cakes can be used as animal fodder. A certain amount of fresh kernel is made into desiccated
coconut for the confectionery trade. Another minor source of oil in coconut is the green skin or paring.
Production of parings oil has become quite important in Sri Lanka. In recent years the Philippines has
increased its production substantially and now accounts for over half the world's output.

1.3.18.2 Oil Palm

The oil palm is a perennial plant indigenous to tropical West Africa. Today it is grown in the equatorial
coastal regions of Africa, Indonesia and Malaysia. The tree itself may reach 18 m in height while the fruit
grows in bunches averaging 13 to 18 kg in weight and varies in colour between deep orange and reddish
brown.
Two kinds of oil are obtained from the oil palm. The structure of the individual palm fruit resembles that of
the coconut, with a thick, fibrous layer of pulp on the outside (the pericarpp) and a hard kernel. From the
pericarpp comes palm oil, and from the inside, palm kernel oil, a harder substance rather like coconut oil.
Palm oil is used locally for cooking and is exported for use in the manufacture of edible fats. Kernel oil is
supplied primarily to manufacturers of margarine, cooking oils and fats, sugar confectionery and in a lesser
degree to manufactures of soap. If properly cultivated, the oil palm produces higher yields per acre than
any other oilseed crop. Malaysia and Indonesia are the leading producers of both types of oils.

1.3.19 OILSEEDS USED MAINLY FOR OTHER INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

1.3.19.1 Linseed
Linseed is the seed of the flax plant. The plants cultivated for seed are often of a different variety form
those cultivated for fibre, with a shorter stem, though in many parts of Europe a dual variety is now grown.
Linseed for oil production is grown extensively throughout the eastern and western hemispheres.
Linseed has an oil content of 30 to 40 %. The oil is one of the most important in industry. It is a drying oil,
i.e. on exposure to air it oxidizes and becomes an elastic film. Its principal uses are in the manufacture of
paints, varnishes, linoleum, oilcloth, printing inks and soft soaps while the cake residue provides a valuable
animal fodder.

1.3.19.2 Castor seed

The castor plant grows wild in most tropical and sub-tropical regions but is cultivated as a perennial in the
more important producing countries such as India, Brazil and China.
The oil content of the castor plant is about 45 %. Its most important uses now are probably in the
manufacture of plastics, nylon and paint. It is also an ingredient for high-grade lubricants, soaps,
varnishes for the printing industry and resins. Castor seed is also a source of sodium ricinoleate, used by
dentists to treat gum troubles. Until recently the cake, which remained after crushing could only be used
as a fertiliser because it was poisonous, but it is now possible, thanks to research in Brazil, to eradicate
the poison and use the cake as animal fodder.

1.3.20 TUNG OIL

Tung oil comes from the nut kernels of two trees, "aleurites fordli" and "aleurites montana". The former is
more widely cultivated and grows mainly in warm temperate climates such as the south-central provinces
of China, the southern USA and north-east Argentina. The "aleurites montana" requires a more tropical
climate and grows in south-east Asian countries. Tung trees are in full bearing at about 10 years and are
productive for a further 30 years or so.
Tung oil is used, often after thinning with other oils, in the manufacture of waterproof varnishes, wall and
floor paints, enamels, resins and plastics, lacquers and inks.
In general vegetable oils are exported from either the agricultural areas of the Western Hemisphere or the
tropical areas of the Far East and Africa. Importers are mainly the developing countries, which do not
produce the raw materials necessary for making soap, cooking fats, margarine, etc. There is also a fairly
consistent flow of products such as soya bean oil, coconut oil, palm oil, etc. from the production areas into
Europe and North America. The movement of these products into Japan has been increasing over the
past few years and is expected to grow even more considerably.

1.3.21 ANIMAL FATS AND OILS

The animal fats that are shipped in bulk internationally are lard, beef and mutton tallow and various fish
oils. Animal fats are usually extracted from carcasses by a process called rendering whereby fat is
liberated from the cells by boiling or steaming and collected by skimming the vat surface.

1.3.22 LARD
Lard is the rendered or melted fat of the hog. It is creamy white substance with a large plastic range and
has the highest shortening value of any plastic (semi-solid) fat. Lard oil is clear, colourless oil pressed
from pure lard. It is used in cutting oils and as a nutrient for cultures in antibiotic production.

1.3.23 BEEF AND MUTTON TALLOW

These tallows are the rendered animal fats from cattle and sheep. Tallow enjoyed a booming trade when
candles and tapers were the only method of lighting. When gas lighting replaced curdles the big market for
tallow became soap manufacture. Both beef and mutton tallow are still used extensively in soap making,
having survived the inroads made by synthetic detergents. Tallow is also used as a 10 % ingredient of
animal foodstuffs while beef tallow in particular, is still used in candle making. The largest tallow exporters
are the USA, Australia, New Zealand and Canada while there is also a significant trade in small-quantity
shipments widely spread throughout the world.
Beef and mutton tallows are still used in margarine production although not as extensively as earlier in the
century due to their replacement by vegetable oils. Tallows are also used in soap manufacture and the
demand for tallows for this use is likely to be strong in developing countries. In the West however, the
major expansion in the detergent field is in soapless detergents based on mineral oils; hence demand for
tallow in these regions should slip. Lard is used not only for food and detergent applications but also for
pharmaceuticals and related chemical products. Demand for lard is likely to remain static.

1.3.24 FISH OILS

A number of marine oils are processed and transported in bulk for use in a wide variety of end-products.
Sardine menhaden, herring, cod, seal and whale provide the majority of the world's fish oils. Virtually all of
these oils are used in leather currying and paint manufacture while herring oil is used in margarine
production. Fish oils are also used in soaps, fiber dressing, greases, resins and, in certain cases, as lube
oil for delicate machinery.

1.3.25 HEAVY CHEMICALS

The heavy chemicals are so called because they are produced and transported in large quantities and
they are utilised by virtually every manufacturing industry. Although other petrochemicals are also
transported in bulk, this section deals specifically with the inorganic chemicals such as mineral acids.

1.3.26 SULPHURIC ACID

Sulphuric acid is manufactured in enormous quantities all over the world as one of the cheapest and most
useful industrial chemicals. Sulphuric acid consumption is a significant indication of a nation's industrial
activity. It is a powerful dehydration agent, a valuable electrolyte and a strong oxidising agent and solvent
in which many important reactions can be brought about. It is used in weak solutions to control acidity or
alkalinity while strong concentrated fuming acids are prepared for the manufacture of drugs, explosives
and dyes.
Sulphuric acid can be made in various grades. High purity grades are utilized in the rayon and
pharmaceutical industries and low grades are used in the manufacture of super-phosphate and
ammonium-sulphate for the fertilizer industry. The same batch of acid can, in fact, be used for several
purposes in succession. The principal uses of sulphuric acid are outlined below:
Manufacture of phosphate fertiliser from rock phosphate by converting insoluble rock phosphate into
soluble phosphate using 70 % concentration (low-grade super phosphate).
Manufacture of explosives such as nitro-cellulose and trinitrotoluene (TNT) where it is used as a
dehydrating agent.
Manufacture of plastics such as nitro-cellulose and various synthetic fibres such as rayon.
Manufacture of other acids. Concentrated sulphuric acid may be used in producing hydrochloric, nitric and
other acids. In each case a salt of the acid to be prepared is heated with sulphuric acid.
"Pickling" metals. In this process the sulphuric acid is used to remove the coating of oxide from the
surface of iron or steel before the metal is plated, coated or galvanized.
Purification of petroleum. In this process the sulphuric acid is used to char and remove many organic
impurities.
In storage batteries. A solution of sulphuric acid is used as an electrolyte in the storage battery.
Sulphuric acid is carried in varying concentrations, the most common being 93,2 %. In this concentration it
is a syrupy oily liquid sometimes called "oil of vitriol". Another popular concentration for shipping is 78 %
sulphuric acid. Acids of 77 % concentration and above do not react with dry mild steel or stainless steel at
normal temperature but diluted acids of less than 77 % concentration react with and corrode most of the
common metals. Concentrations of less than 50 % must be carried in rubber-coated tanks. Fuming
sulphuric acid contains a concentration of between 20 and 65 % of sulphur trioxide in sulphuric acid and is
very corrosive to most metals when water is present. Mild steel and stainless steel are suitable
containment materials if the tanks are kept free from moisture. Spent sulphuric acid or sulphuric acid
which has been used for a chemical process is also carried by sea. The impurities which it contains will
vary depending on the process so that shippers must consult various authorities to make sure of all the
hazards involved with that particular grade of sulphuric acid.
Sulphuric acid is produced by burning sulphur to give sulphur dioxide, which combines with oxygen in the
presence of a catalyst. Since sulphuric acid is made from cheap raw materials, sulphur, air and water, it is
the cheapest of all the aids.
About 90 % of all sulphur goes into the production of sulphuric acid and most of this is subsequently
consumed by the phosphoric fertilizer industry. As the two markets are interrelated it is essential to
examine the production and movement of the raw material in order to see the resulting pattern, for sulphur
acid.
There are three main sources of sulphur:
1) Brimstone - any type of sulphur produced in its elemental form.
2) Pyrite - from the mining of pyrite ores to give sulphides
3) Sulphur-in-other-forms - this type may come from a number of sources, among them:
(a) Waste gases from zinc, copper, lead or nickel smelters
(b) Gypsum or anhydrite
(c) Hydrogen sulphide content of oil refinery or coke oven gases
(d) Oil refinery acid sludge

1.3.27 PHOSPHORIC ACID

Phosphoric acid is produced by oxidizing red phosphorus with nitric acid or white phosphorus under the
surface of water with bromine or iodine. It is also obtained by decomposing a mineral phosphate with
sulphuric acid.
Phosphoric acid has a wide variety of uses, probably the most important of which is its use as a reactant
with ground rock phosphate to produce high-grade super phosphate, a much-used fertilizer. Phosphoric
acid is also used as an intermediate for the production of various phosphates which in turn are used for
rust proofing, in the manufacture of foodstuffs, for water softening, synthetic detergents, emulsion paints,
fireproof materials and pharmaceuticals.
Demand for phosphoric acid increased rapidly up until 1973 because of the wide variety of products which
could be derived from it, particularly fertilizers. Phosphoric acid is produced from the reaction between
phosphate rock and sulphuric acid. The major sources of phosphate rock are North African phosphate
prices increased dramatically and for the first time it became economic for European fertilizer
manufacturers to buy North African produced phosphoric acid. North African acid production capacities
growing and although European phosphoric acid manufacture is still viable it is unlikely that any further
capacity will be built.
1.3.28 NITRIC ACID
Pure nitric acid is a colourless liquid which fumes and is unstable. Commercial grades of nitric acid are
approximately 68 % and 94 % concentrations. Because of its instability even dilute nitric acid gives off
oxygen and is therefore a strong oxidising agent.
Nitric acid is produced today principally by the Ostwald Process which involves the oxidation of ammonia
and requires as basic raw materials, coal, water and air.
Nitric acid's basic uses include:
1) Manufacture of practically all explosives. Many of the derivatives obtained from nitric acid are
explosives, nitro-glycerin being one example
2) Many nitrates are obtained from nitric acid, most of which are used as fertilizers.
3) Nitric and is also used in the manufacture of dyes, plastics and lacquers.

1.3.29 CAUSTIC SODA

Caustic soda or lye is known chemically as sodium hydroxide. It is called caustic soda because of its
burning or caustic effect on the skin. It is one of the basic raw materials of the great alkali industry which,
in itself, is one of the most important parts of the chemical industry.
Caustic soda is produced commercially in either of two ways, the electrolysis of brine or the Soda-Lime
Process. Pure caustic soda is a white solid that is very soluble in water. It is deliquescent, absorbing
water from the air and dissolving in it. In this way it is carried in bulk as a 50 % or 70 % solution; it is
known as caustic soda liquor and is a colorless or grey, syrupy liquid with a slight characteristic odor.
Caustic soda is a caustic alkali (strong base) which attacks and decomposes organic matter. It dissolves
wool and silk and eventually reacts with cellulose to form a compound from which viscous rayon is
manufactured. It reacts with fats to form soap, dissolving fat and grease. Other uses of caustic soda are:
1) Removal and solution of waste in plumbing. As household lye, caustic soda is poured down clogged
drains where it liquefies or dissolves waste fat and grease, making them soluble in water.
2) Petroleum purification. Caustic soda is used to neutralize the sulphuric acid employed in purifying
petroleum.
3) Manufacture of mercerized cotton. Cotton cloth when treated under tension in a solution of caustic
soda becomes stronger and more lustrous. Cotton treated in this manner is known as mercerized
cotton.
4) Vegetable oil refining and aluminum process.
5) Reclaiming rubber, etching and electroplating.

1.3.30 AMMONIA
Ammonia is synthesised from nitrogen and hydrogen by the Haber process. The first commercial plant was
built about sixty years ago on the Rhine and produced 30 tons/day but plants are now being built of 1500
tons/day using high pressure and temperature. In the USA almost all of the hydrogen required is obtained
from natural gas (Methane) whereas in the UK it is from natural gas and naphtha.
The average increase in consumption during the early and mid 70s was 7.0 % but this has declined now to
about 5.4 %. Ammonia is probably the largest volume industrial chemical manufactured in the western
world but it is mainly transported as gas (anhydrous ammonia) nowadays and so is not of direct interest to
this report. Aqueous ammonia, that is the gas dissolved in water, is an IMO cargo that is sometimes
carried within the S.e Asia, Japan and Australia region.
2. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS

2.1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CARGO

The personnel (crew) operating the ships provide a wide range of knowledge regarding ship operations
and its specific cargo. To be an educated and qualified "Ship Officer", it is necessary to have a basic
theoretical knowledge and a lot of practical experience on board the ships. In this part of the compendium,
the chemical’s physical properties are reviewed.
Physics is the learning of different substances and property forces and their energy form.
Chemistry is the learning of the substance’s composition and the substantial or permanent changes these
substances may under go.
The theory about atoms and molecules understands that substances are able to divide into smaller parts,
atoms and molecules.

2.1.1 AGGREGATE STATES

Solid, fluid and gas form conditions must be seen in connection with the understanding of molecule forces.
An example:
When splitting a piece of wood the molecules separate along the split area. The force being used
corresponds with the force binding the molecules together. If you now wish to force the two pieces
together again, a certain power has to be used. The first power in use will be called the force of cohesion.
The second power in use will be called the force of expansion. Cohesion and expansion summed, is
called intermolecular force. The cohesion is due to the fact that all substances (elements), including the
smallest parts in a substance, executes a mutual back sweep on each other. We therefore have the same
nature as the force of gravity. It decreases rapidly when the distance between the smallest parts
increases.
The expansion is due to the fact that the molecules in all substances, both solid, fluid and gas forms
execute movements or vibrations and therefore fill-up an entire room.

2.1.2 SOLID SUBSTANCES

A solid substance has a fixed form and fixed volume. An iron bar resists being lengthened or pressed
together. The molecules in the iron bar will try hard to keep a certain mutual distance to each other. The
iron bar is resistant to rubbing and bending. In solid substances the molecules have fixed places
according to each other, and the same applies to the substance’s volume and form. This is because the
cohesion and expansive force is very large.

2.1.3 FLUIDS
Fluids have a fixed volume, but do not have any fixed form. To squeeze water in a cylinder with tight-fitting
piston is hard without using large power. Similar to the molecules in solid substances, the molecules in a
liquid substance have a certain mutual distance between each other. The liquid molecules on the other
hand have no fixed positions according to each other.
Liquid will always be shaped based on where the liquid is stored. The cohesion force in liquids is not
powerful enough to prevent the molecules from moving freely according to each other. However, the force
is still strong enough to maintain the distance between each of the fixed molecules. The expansion force
is equal as in solid substances.

2.1.4 GASES
Gases have no fixed volume or fixed form. A gas will always try to fill as great a volume as possible, and
will therefore fill the room, the tank and so on, where the gas is stored. The cohesion force in gas is too
small to prevent the molecules from changing both the distance and the position in accordance with each
other. The expansion force gets free scope and the gas expansion is total and unlimited. By exposing gas
to forces greater than the expansive force it, the gas will be compressed.

2.1.5 PHASE CHANGES

Any substance can be transformed from one condition to another, by means of temperature changes or
varying temperatures and pressure. Ice, water and water vapour are the same substance in different
forms. The transformation between cohesion and expansion with water molecules goes through these
three phases - solid substances, liquids and gases.

2.1.6 MELTING
When a solid, pure crystal substance is continuously supplied with heat, the substance will melt.
For example: 1 kg of ice with a temperature of minus 20 degrees Celsius exposed to heat (the pressure is
1 atm). A thermometer placed in the ice will show a rise in temperature up to 0 degrees Celsius, which is
melting point of the ice. The heat supplied after the melting point is achieved will have no effect to any
temperature rising, as long as the ice is present.
During the melting, the temperature is invariable, and the heat supplied during the melting process is
consumed in melting the ice. When all the ice is melted, the temperature in the water will rise. So, the
amount of heat supplied to 1 kg of the solid substance, in order to reach the melting point where the
change from solid to liquid form occurs, is called the "melting heat".
The heat needed to transform a solid substance at a given temperature, into a liquid substance with the
same temperature, is called the "specific melting heat". The unit for specific melting heat is Joule/kg.
The heat necessary to evaporate one kilo of a certain liquid substance is called "specific melting heat",
abbreviated "r". The unit for specific evaporation heat is J/k.
2.1.7 ENTHALPY
A substance’s total energy consists of the external energy (work) plus the internal energy. Enthalpy is an
expression for a substance’s internal energy abbreviated "h". This enthalpy is an expression of how much
energy is tied up in one kilo of the substance. The unit for enthalpy is Joule/kg. The comparison of
enthalpy to temperature change of gradients shows how much energy is needed to be supplied to bring ice
through the three different stages.

2.1.8 EVAPORATION
A liquid change to gas is called evaporation. This may happen by evaporation or boiling. To achieve
evaporation, heat of evaporation is needed. Some liquids evaporate very quickly, such as gasoline and
ether. Other liquid substances evaporate very slowly, such as in crude oil. Evaporation is vapour formed
out of the liquid surface and occurs at all temperatures.
This is explained by some of the liquid’s surface molecules being sent into the air, which is strongest at
high temperatures, dry air and fresh wind. The specific temperature calls the amount of heat needed for
one kilo of liquid with fixed temperature to form into one kilo of steam with the same temperature".
The heat from evaporation is set free when the steam forms to liquid again, or condenses.
The heat necessary to evaporate one kilo of a certain liquid is called "specific heat of evaporation",
abbreviated as (r). The unit for specific heat of evaporation is J/kg.

2.1.9 BOILING
Boiling is steam formed internally in the liquid. The boiling occurs at a certain temperature, called "the
boiling point". Water is heated in normal atmospheric pressure (1 atm), in an open container. In common,
some parts of air are always dissolved. The rise in temperature is read from a thermometer placed in the
liquid’s surface. When the temperature has reached 100 degrees Celsius, steam bubbles will form inside
the liquid substance, especially in the bottom of the container. With continuous heat supply, the bubbling
will rise like a stream towards the surface and further up into the air. The water is boiling. The formation of
bubbling steam can be explained as follows: During the heating, the water molecule’s kinetic energy
increases, consequently the molecules demand more space. During the boiling, as long as there is in
water in the container, the temperature will be 100 degrees C.
The boiling point is dependent upon the pressure. If the steam or the atmospheric pressure increases
above liquid substance, the boiling point will also rise. If the surface temperature is just below the boiling
temperature, then the water steam will evaporate on the surface. The evaporation point and the boiling
point will be the same accordingly.
The pressure from the surrounding liquid is the total amount of pressure above the liquid, Pa, plus the
static liquid pressure.
P = pa + (ρ x g x h )
where
P = pressure in Pascal (100 000 Pa + 1 bar )
pa = barometer pressure
ρ= the liquid density in kg/m3
g = force of gravity acceleration (9,81m/s2)
h = liquid column in meter.
When reducing the pressure above the liquid, the boiling point will also be reduced. A practical use of this
characteristic is the production of fresh water on board (fresh water generator).

2.1.10 CONDENSATION
Condensation is the opposite of evaporation. If a gas is to be changed to liquid at the same temperature,
we must remove the heat of evaporation from the gas. A gas can be condensed at all temperatures below
the critical temperature. By cooling a gas, the molecule speed decreases hence the kinetic speed. The
internal energy decreases, as well as, the molecule units and liquid forms.

2.1.11 DISTILLATION
Distillation is a transferring of liquid to vapour, hence the following condensing of vapour to liquid.
Substances, which were dissolved in the liquid, will remain as solid substance. With distillation it is
possible to separate what has been dissolved from the substance which was being dissolved. When a
mixture of two liquids with different boiling point is heated, will the most volatile liquid evaporate first while
the remaining becomes richer on the less volatile? On board, for instance, seawater is distillate by use of
an evaporator.

2.1.12 SATURATED AND UNSATURATED OR SUPERHEATED STEAM

Let us imagine boiling water, releasing vapour from a container, and leading the steam into a cylinder that
is equipped with a tightening piston, a manometer and two valves. The steam flows through the cylinder
and passes the valves, whereon the valves are closing. There now is a limited and fixed volume of steam
in the cylinder. Around this cylinder a heating element is fitted. Vapour from the container is constantly
sent through this heating element to ensure that the temperature is maintained constant.
The piston is pressed inwards, and now the manometer should show a rise in pressure. But, the
manometer shows an unchanged pressure regardless how much the volume is reduced. What’s
happening is, the further the piston is pressed inwards, some parts of the steam is condensed more, and
using less volume. The vapour from the heating element removes the condensed heat, which is liberated
during the condensation process.
We find that the amount of steam, which is possible to contain per volume unit, remains constant when the
steam’s temperature is equal to the condensation point at the set pressure. The room cannot absorb more
vapour, it is saturated with steam and called "saturated". If the piston is pressed outwards, the pressure
will still show constant. The conclusion is:
- With temperature equal to the condensation point by set pressure, steam is saturated.
- Steam above boiling water is saturated.
- Saturated steam with a set temperature has a set pressure. This is called saturation pressure.
- With constant temperature saturated steam cannot be compressed.
This also concerns vapour as saturated steam of other gases, using the same cylinder arrangement as
before.
The cylinder contains saturated steam, no water. The piston is drawn outward. When no water exists over
the piston no new steam will be supplied underneath. The manometer will now show reduced (falling)
pressure as the steam expands. When saturated steam expands without supplying new steam, it is called
unsaturated steam. The room has capacity to collect more steam.
So: Unsaturated steam contains lower pressure than saturated steam at the same temperature. The
unsaturated steam in the cylinder can be made saturated again in two ways. Either by pushing the piston
inward to the originated position, or let the unsaturated steam be sufficiently cooled down. When the
temperature is reduced, the saturation pressure will reduce. Unsaturated steam will, in other words, have a
too high temperature to be saturated with the temperature it originally had. Therefore, this often is referred
to as superheated steam.

2.2 CHEMISTRY OF CARGO

Organic chemistry mostly deals with chemical compounds containing carbon.

2.2.1 THE PERIODIC SYSTEM

The periodic system is built on the principle that the electrons in the outer shell determine the chemical
properties of a material. An atom consists of protons, neutrons and electrons. Protons and electrons form
the atomic nucleus. The electrons move with high velocity around the nucleus, at different levels and
orbital. The levels are numbered from K to Q and called electron shells. At maximum, there can be 8
electrons in the outer shell. There are equal numbers of protons as electrons in an atom; meanwhile the
number of neutrons may vary.

The periodic table arranges the 106 elements in increasing number of electron shells. Each vertical
column is one of the periodic table’s main groups. The number of electrons in the outer shell is always
equal to the atom’s main group number. Two of the main elements in the periodic system are Hydrogen
and Helium, and fall under group IA and VIIA. The atomic models are illustrated as follows:

Carbon falls under group IV A and has 4 electrons in the outer shell.
The elements in the group IA have only one electron in the outer shell. It is therefore easy to emit one
electron to elements within group VIIA, which has seven electrons in the outer shell and is "short of" one
electron to fill up the outer shell. Such mutual sharing of an electron is called ion bonding. An example for
such a bonding is when Sodium (Na) and Chlorine (Cl) bond with one another and form Sodium chloride or
cooking salt.
+ -
Na + Cl →Na + Cl →NaCl
Sodium "emits" the only electron to Chlorine, and is thereby positively charged.

Chlorine "receives" the electron and is thereby negatively charged. We call this mutual sharing of
electrons, covalent bonding. Covalent bonding is common in both organic and inorganic chemical
reactions. When two or more atoms bond together, they form a molecule.
There are 8 side groups between the main groups IA and IIA. All the elements in the side groups are
metals, and they easily form alloys with one another.
The rows in the periodic chart indicate the periods. The 7 periods indicate the number of electron shells.
Sulphur is located in row 3 (period number 3) and has thereby 3 shells. We also look at the electron shells
as the electrons’ energy level.
The elements in group VIIA are named noble gases. Noble gases occur only in atomic form. Most
inorganic elements are metals. The metals form metal bonding where the atomic are organised close
together. The individual element has numbers from 1 to 106. The periodic system’s number is the
element’s atomic number. The atomic number also indicates the total number of electrons in the atom.

2.2.2 CARBON
You find the element Carbon in the main group IVA/period number 2, which has four electrons in the outer
shell number 2. The atomic number for carbon is 6, which means there are totally 6 electrons divided
between two electron shells with 4 electrons in the outer shell, and 2 electrons in the innermost.
There are many isotopes of carbon. Isotopes have the same number of protons, but different number of
neutron in the atomic nucleus. There are two natural forms of Carbon, graphite and diamond. Carbon is
not particular reactive in room temperature. When heated, it will easily react with for example, Oxygen.
We say that carbon is combustible. The different products of the combustion are dependent of accent to
oxygen.
C + O2 = CO2 + 393 kJ (at complete combustion)
C + 0,5 O2 = CO + 113 kJ (at incomplete combustion)
Both reactions are exothermic, that means heat is produced in the chemical reaction. Both reaction
products are also gases. Carbon dioxide, CO2, is the product of complete combustion of carbon and
carbon monoxide, CO, which is the product of incomplete combustion of carbon.
A partly incomplete combustion produces both less heat and more formation of carbon monoxide than a
complete combustion. Carbon monoxide is odourless and a very poisonous gas that always is present in a
real combustion process. Inert gas produced in an inert gas generator or flue gas plant onboard will always
contain carbon monoxide due to incomplete combustion, especially when the air excess is reduced.
Poisoning of carbon monoxide occurs because the haemoglobin in the blood reacts much easier with CO
than with oxygen. When you breathe a mixture of these two gases, CO is thereby first absorbed in the
blood and seizes the absorption of oxygen. The result of this poisoning is a sort of suffocation at very low
concentrations. These relations are very important to notice. You must always check the cargo tank
atmosphere for carbon monoxide before personnel are allowed to enter the tank.

2.3 HYDRO CARBON GROUPS

Hydrocarbon is a common expression for all chemical compounds that includes carbon and hydrogen.
Hydrocarbons with from five to twenty carbon atoms are liquid at ambient conditions.
Hydrocarbons with more than twenty carbon atoms in their molecules are solid at ambient conditions
You find the element carbon in only two different natural conditions, as graphite and as diamond. Carbon
is the element that naturally forms most natural chemical compounds. It is not reactive in room
temperature, but it will when heated up react more easily with, for example, the oxygen in air. We say that
the carbon is combustible. The combustion is exothermic, which is a reaction that produces heat.
Hydrogen is the smallest main element. The gas (H2), is light and is flammable in air. There are small
quantities of hydrogen in free natural form on earth. Hydrogen is strongly widespread, first of all in form of
water and naturally compounds together with carbon. Crude oil and natural gas consist mainly of a mixture
with various unequal hydrocarbon compounds. Following sketch indicates an example of a natural gas’
composition.

Carbon has four electrons in the outer electron shell that can be divided with others. You may look at the
four electrons as four "arms" that can connected to the hydrogen atom’s single "arm", and creates
hydrocarbon compounds.
Some of the hydrocarbon compounds are naturally created; other are only created in chemical controlled
processes. To simplify the overview of these natural components, and all new hydrocarbon compounds
that is created in the petrochemical industry, the different hydrocarbon compounds are grouped dependent
of how the "arms" or the chemical bonding are between the two atoms. The most important hydrocarbon
groups are:
- Alkanes, also called Paraffin’s
- Alkyls
- Alkanes, also called Olefins
- Alkynes, also called Acetylides
- Alkadienes, also called Di-olefins
- Cyclo-alkanes
- Arenes
- Alcohol
- Aldehyds
- Ketones
In addition to above listed hydrocarbon groups there are others like Carboxylic acid, Esters, Ethers etc.

2.3.1 ALKANES
Alkanes are the simplest hydrocarbon compounds and is the major part of crude oil and natural gas. The
carbon atom’s four arms are united to the hydrogen atoms’ single arm and has this general molecule-
formula:
CnH2n + 2
where "n" is a positive integer.
All alkane compounds have the ending "-ane". The gas methane is the smallest molecule, and is the main
component in natural gas. A methane molecule consists of one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms.

By adding one carbon atom and two hydrogen atoms to methane, we get ethane, which is the next
component in this group

By adding carbon atoms and hydrogen atoms, and at the same time maintain the same simple form of
binding, new alkanes are formed. The third component in the alkane group is propane, C3H8.
When the number of carbon atoms increase, the number of possible bonding between the atoms increase.
You can arrange 20 carbon atoms and 42 hydrogen atoms in 366319 different ways.
Many materials may have the same molecule formula, but the properties (boiling point, density, etc.) are
different because the atom structure is different.
Such bonding is called isometric bonding. Normal-butane and iso-butane are examples of isomers where
both have the same molecule formula, but different properties.
n-Butane, C4H10

iso-Butane, C4H10

Chemical formulas and names are many times derived from each other. Pentane is derived from the Greek
word "pent". That means "five", it refers to the number of carbon atoms in the material. Other names like
methane and ethane are not following this system. These names are called trivial names.
In the following list, some of the most common alkanes are listed with melting- and boiling point at
atmospheric pressure. Note that melting point and boiling point increase by the length of chain for the
straight-chained hydrocarbons.

Melting Boiling point Number of

o
Name: Formula point C isomeric
o
C compounds
Methane CH4 -182,5 -161,6 0
Ethane C2H6 -183,2 -88,6 0
Propane C3H8 -189,9 -42,5 0
n-Butane C4H10 -135 -0,5 2
iso-Butane C4H10 -145 -11,7
n-Pentane C5H12 -130 36 3
n-Hexane C6H14 -95 69 5
n-Heptane C7H16 -91 98 9
n-Octane C8H18 -57 126 18
 n-Nonane C9H20 -54 151 35
n-Decane C10H22 -30 174 75

2.3.2 ALKYLS
If one hydrogen atom is removed from an alkane molecule, an alkyl molecule is created. The different
compounds are named by the alkane, but with the ending "-yl" instead of "-ane".
The general molecule formula for alkyl groups are: CnH2n + 1
The compounds in this group are chemical products where the CH-group is attached to various alcohol
and chloride compounds.

2.3.3 ALKANES
You do not find alkanes in the natural forms. These compounds are produced in a cracking process within
the petrochemical industry. Alkanes are hydrocarbons with a double bonding between two of the carbon
atoms. The general molecule formula for alkanes is:
CnH2n

The simplest alkane is ethylene, C2H4, that is produced by cracking of for example propane, ethane,
butane or naphtha.
The next alkane is propylene, C3H6, which is produced by cracking other hydrocarbons or naphtha.

The alkanes are so-called unsaturated hydrocarbons. The double bonding may easily loosen up, "arms"
that are attached to several hydrogen atoms released, and the alkanes may change back to (chemical
reaction) alkanes.

Melting point Boiling point Number of

o o
Name: Formula C C isomeric
compounds
Ethylene (ethene) C2H4 -169 -103,7 0
Propylene (propene) C3H6 -185,2 -47,7 0

1-Butene C4H8 -185,4 -6,3 4

cis-2-Butene C4H8 -138,9 3,7 4
trans-2-Butene C4H8 -105,6 0,9 4
iso-Butene C4H8 -140,4 -6,9 4

1-Pentene C5H10 6

The number of isomeric compounds increase by the number of carbon atoms. Double bonding also gives
additional possibilities for combination because the double bonding may be located on several different
places inside the molecule. The following molecules have the same molecule formula, but different
structure and thereby different properties. Notice the difference between a cis-bonding and a trans-
bonding.
1-Butene

Cis-2-Butene

Trans-2-Butene

2.3.4 ALKADIENES
Alkadienes are hydrocarbons with two doubles bonding in the molecule. The general molecule formula for
Alkadienes is:
CnH2n - 2
Propadiene

1,3-Butadiene

Melting point Boiling point Number of

o o
Name: Formula C C isomeric
compounds
Propadiene C3H4 -136,5 -34,5 0
1,3-Butadiene C4H6 -108,9 -4,4
2.3.5 ALKYNES
Alkynes are hydrocarbons with a triple bonding between two carbon molecules. The alkynes have the
same general formula as for the alkadienes:
CnH2n - 2Alkynes are unsaturated hydrocarbons, and form a homologous serial. The simplest compound
within this group is etyne, C2H2.

Melting point Boiling point Number of

o o
Name: Formula C C isomeric
compounds
Etyne (Acetylene) C2H2 -82 -84 0
Propyne (Allyene) C3H4 -102 -23 0

2.3.6 CYCLO ALKANES

Cyclo alkanes are hydrocarbons with single bonding between the carbon atoms, but the molecules form a
circular structure. The compounds are saturated, and form a homologous serial.

The general molecule formula for the cyclo alkanes is;

CnH2n
The circular structure of the cyclo propane:

Melting point Boiling point Number of

o o
Name: Formula C C isomeric
compounds
Cyclopropane C3H6 -126 -34
Cyclobutane C4H8 -50 13
Cyclopentane C5H10 -93 50
Cycloheptane C6H12 6 81

2.3.7 ARENES
Arenes are cyclic, but unsaturated hydrocarbons because of its double bonding. The compounds are
aromatic. Benzene, which is very stabile and frequently used together with other products in the
petrochemical industry, is a well-known product within this group.
 Melting point Boiling point Number of
o o
Name: Formula C C isomeric
compounds
Benzene C6H6 5,5 80,1

2.3.8 ALCOHOLS
Alcohols are organic compounds where the functional group is the hydroxyl-group –OH. All alcohol ends
with "-ol". The different alcohols are divided in subgroups, dependent of the form of bonding.

Melting point Boiling point Number of

o o
Name: Formula C C isomeric
compound
Methanol CH3OH -97,8 64,5
Ethanol C2H5OH -117,3 78,3

2.3.9 ALDEHYDES
Aldehydes have one functional group –CHO.

Melting point Boiling point Number of

o o
Name: Formula C C isomeric
compound
Formaldehyde HCHO -118 -19
Acetaldehyde CH3COH -123,5 20,2

2.3.10 KETONES
Ketones are compounds where the functional group is the carbon-group.

Melting point Boiling point Number of

o o
Name: Formula C C isomeric
compound
Acetone CH3COCH3 -94,3 56,2

2.3.11 ACIDS AND BASES

An acid is any substance which liberates hydrogeneions or causes an increase in the concentration of
hydrogenous.
With the base it is the opposite. Their ability to absorb or neutralize H+ is great for the strong bases, but
not so great for the weak bases.
A strong acid as well as strong bases are almost 100% dissociated into ions into watery solutions. All this
reactions are equilibria and can be denoted by an equilibrium constant, KA.
For both acids and bases the H+ concentration is given by the pH value.

2.4 CHEMICAL BULK LIQUID CARGOES

During the 19th and early 20th century, the manufacture of synthetic organic chemicals depended
principally on the raw materials such as coal, limestone, cellulose and molasses. However, with the
development of the infant petroleum industry attention was focused upon this new base which was rapidly
identified as a convenient, cheap plentiful and rich source of the intermediates required for the production
of useful chemicals. The early chemical industry was thus linked closely to the fortunes of the petroleum
business and the first petrochemical plants were to be found in the United States adjacent to the first oil
refineries. From its beginnings in the 1920s, the new industry enjoyed success from the outset with a
rapidly increasing demand for new substances such as plastics and synthetic rubbers. The crisis and
shortages of the Second World War gave further impetus to the young petrochemical industry as demand
for its product soared. In the years since, the constant identification of new products and the gradual
growth of chemically produced substitutes for a vast number of products. By the 1960s, when the
significant carriage of its products by sea in bulk began the chemical industry had become a major
contributor to all the important facets of modem life, its products playing a significant role in food, shelter,
transportation, health and communication. The chemical industry's lists of product reaches into every
endeavor from the most basic of agriculture and fertilizers, synthetic fibres and rubbers in addition to the
materials used to package these important commodities. Chemicals have, in fact, provided the basis of a
whole new group of new industries themselves, in a procreative development deriving from its own
improved technologies.
The increasing demand for chemical products throughout the world has led to the development of
sophisticated seagoing vessels capable of carrying a wide range of special cargoes in bulk. All these
cargoes belong to one of the following family groups of chemicals:
Acids-organic Glycols
Acids-inorganic Glycol-ethers
Alcohols Halogenated compounds
Aldehydes Halogens
Alkalis Hydrocarbons
Amines Ketones
Esters Nitriles
Ethers Phenols

However in general terms, shipments in chemical tankers usually take the form of solvents, aromatics,
intermediates or refined products. Chemical tankers do carry a variety of products which aromatics,
intermediates or refined products. Chemical tankers do carry a variety of products which would normally
be considered to be unrelated to chemicals, i.e. wine, molasses, animal and vegetable oils. However,
these cargoes belong to one of the above listed chemical family groups and require as much care and
attention as many "chemical" cargoes. For this purpose, chemical tankers cargoes will be considered to
belong to one of the following groups:
- Petrochemical products
- Coal tar products
- Molasses and alcohols
- Vegetable oils and animal fats
- Heavy chemicals (inorganic substances)
Having thus briefly introduced the chemical industry, we will now examine each of these cargo
classifications and the principal cargoes within each category.

2.5 CHEMICAL REACTIONS

New products are continuously made in the petrochemical industry by allowing hydrocarbon compounds
participate in chemical processes and reactions.
Unsaturated chemical compounds contain one or several double or triple bonding between the carbon
atoms. They can easily saturate the vacant valences in a chemical reaction. A chemical reaction may
take place:
- by mixing unsaturated compounds with another product.
- by increasing the temperature and pressure in the chemical compound, alone or together with other
compounds.
To visualise an unsaturated compound, a solvent bromine and water can be used. If you mix bromine (Br)
with a saturated oil, the bromine-coloured water will disappear, because the double bonding is opened and
bromine appear in every vacant valence. A chemical reaction has appeared between two compounds, and
a new compound is created.
If you combine ethylene and bromine, this chemical reaction will take place:
When unsaturated chemical compounds are heated under pressure, the molecules react with each other
and form large molecules, so-called macromolecules. This is called polymerisation. To start the reactions
or to increase the velocity of reaction, a catalyst is often used. A catalyst is a material that increases the
velocity of reaction in a chemical process without changing its own state.
Linear polyethylene is a plastic raw material, which is a polymer of ethylene produced by polymerizing
ethylene with a peroxide catalyst. Benzol peroxide is an example of peroxide used as a catalyst for
production of polyethylene.
Other types of polymers are made of ethylene or together with other hydrocarbon. The properties are
different, and the plastic raw materials are used alone or together with others when producing plastic
products.
Most plastic raw materials are produced like this. Molecules or mixture of molecules which is capable of
polymerize, are called monomers. The number of monomers taking part of a polymerization may be many
thousand. A linear polyethylene has a molecular weight of more than 6000, others are considerably
smaller. The molecular weight is controlled by temperature, concentration of catalyst or amount of
ethylene.
It is not only the unsaturated hydrocarbon compound that may polymerise. In 1907, Baekeland managed
to control three-step polymerising with phenol and formaldehyde. The product "Bakelite" was the first
synthetic polymer that was produced, and has great significance even today.
The following list demonstrates some of the most common plastic materials today, and how they are
produced:

Polymer Monomer: Polymerisation:

Polyethylene (CH2)n Ethylene
Polytetrafluorethylene (C2F4)n Tetrafluorethylene
(PTFE)
Polyvinylcloride (PVC) (H2CCHF)x Vinylcloride
Polypropylene (C3H5)n Propylene
Polystyrene (C6H5CHCH2)n Styrene monomer

2.5.1 PEROXIDES AND INHIBITORS

Peroxides are highly explosive, and can form into unsaturated compounds, as for example butadiene and
VCM if oxygen is present. They can appear as powder in pipes and tanks and are very unstable and can
easily explode. The formation of peroxides in butadiene can entail polymerizing with powerful heat
generation.
To avoid such a chemical reaction, the content of oxygen in the tank atmosphere is kept as low as
possible.
To assure that all oxygen is removed, an inhibitor is added to the individual cargo. An inhibitor is a
material that itself, in low concentrations, reacts with the oxygen. Some types of inhibitors have the
capability to react with radicals so that the velocity of reaction reduces or to cease up. Most inhibitors are
very dangerous to our health, and must therefore, be handled with the utmost care.
Butadiene and VCM are examples of cargo that are added inhibitors. Approximately 5 ppm hydroquinon is
added to VCM to prevent polymerisation. US Coast Guard requires that one add 100 ppm TBC (Tertiary
Butyl Catechol) to 1,3 butadiene to prevent a polymerisation with strong heat generation.
Humidity and water will reduce the effect of inhibitors, in some cases water will accelerate a chemical
reaction.
Cargo that is inhibited, must have a certificate with:
- name and amount
- inhibitor date and for how long the inhibitor is efficient
- precautions, if the voyage lasts longer than the effect of the inhibitor
- eventual temperature limitation
The above mentioned inhibitors are only present in the liquid phase. In all probability, dangerous
peroxides will be formed inside the lines of the cooling plant’s "condensate" system. It is recommended
that these parts of the system are checked regularly, when the inhibited cargo is cooled. Further, it is
recommended to circulate some inhibited liquid through the part of the system where "condensates"
remains without the inhibitor.
Introductorily, we have said that polymerizing can occur if the temperature is high enough. The following
restriction of maximum outlet temperatures from the compressor are required:
- maximum 60 ºC for butadiene
- maximum 90 ºC for VCM

2.5.2 REACTION WITH OTHER CARGO AND MATERIALS

Some cargo can react strongly with other cargo. This makes great demands for cleaning, before loading
and full segregation against other cargo. Whenever cargo segregation is required, spool pieces must be
used. It is important that all materials are compatible with which the cargo can come in contact. The
material must, for example, in all gaskets that can be in contact with propyleneoxide be of PTFE or a
similar approved material type.

2.6 TRUE VAPOUR PRESSURE (TVP)

Most usual petroleum products are essentially mixtures of a wide range of hydrocarbon compounds. The
boiling points of the compounds range from -1620C (methane) to well in excess of +4000C, and the
volatility of any particular mixture of compounds depends primarily on the quantities of the more volatile
elements. The volatility is characterized by the vapor pressure. When transferring a petroleum product to
a gas-free tank it begins to vaporize, that is, it liberates gas into the space above it. This gas has also a
tendency to re-dissolve in the liquid. The pressure exerted by this gas is called the equilibrium pressure of
the liquid, usually referred to simply as the vapor pressure.
The vapor pressure of a pure compound depends only upon its temperature. With a mixture of
compounds, the vapor pressure depends on the temperature, elements and the volume of the gas space
in which vaporization occurs.
The true vapor pressure (TVP) or bubble point vapor pressure is the equilibrium of vapor pressure of a
mixture when the gas/liquid ratio is effectively zeroed. The highest vapor pressure is possible at any
specified temperature. As the temperature of a petroleum mixture increases, its TVP also increases. If the
TVP exceeds atmospheric pressure, the liquid begins to boil. The TVP of a petroleum mixture gives a
good indication of its ability to give rise to gas, but unfortunately it is a property which still is extremely
difficult to measure.

2.7 THE REID VAPOR PRESSURE (RVP)

Testing is a simple and generally used method for measuring the volatility of petroleum liquids.
0 0
Measurement of the RVP is conducted at 37,8 C (100 F). The greater the RVP value, the more volatile is
the oil. Normally crude oil has a RVP of between 0,1 and 0,8kg/cm2.
A sample of liquid is put into the test container at atmospheric pressure. The volume of liquid should be
one fifth of the container’s total volume. Then the container is sealed and immersed in a water bath, which
is heated to 37,80C. The container is then shaken in order to mix the liquid properly and the rise in
pressure due to vaporization can be read on the attached pressure gauge. This pressure gauge gives a
close approximation in bars.
Because the liquid’s vapor pressure is at 37,80C, RVP is useful for generally comparing the volatility of a
wide range of petroleum liquids. However, it has, small value as a means of estimating the likeliness of
gas evolution in specific situations, mainly because the measurement is made at the standard temperature
0
of 37,8 C and at a fixed gas/liquid ratio. For this purpose TVP is much more useful. As mentioned, in
some cases, correlation exist between TVP, RVP and temperature.
For safety measures against fire on ships, SOLAS uses 610C as limit value for flash point and 2,8kg/cm2
for vapor pressure at 37,80C. The oil referred to in this regulation is:
- Mineral oils with a flash point below 610C, such as kerosene, benzene, gasoline and crude oil or other
flammable liquids with a flash point below said limit.
- Mineral oils with a flash point of 610C or higher, such as marine gas oils, fuel oil, diesel oil, lubricating
oil, which give off flammable gases when heated.
- Oils and fats of animal or vegetable origins, such as whale oil, groundnut oil, linseed oil etc., which
give off flammable gases when heated.
- The liquid chemicals referred to are:
- Chemicals with an absolute vapor pressure lower than 2,8kg/cm2 at 37,80C.
- The condensed gases referred to are:
- Chemicals with an absolute vapor pressure of 2,8kg/cm2 or higher at 37,80C.

2.8 FLASH POINT

The flash point for hydrocarbon liquid is the temperature at which it is possible to ignite the vapor above
the liquid. In other words, the flammable gas concentration above the liquid is close to the lower explosive
limit. Determination of the flash point is done with a special apparatus and according to specific rules.
A sample of liquid is gradually heated in a special pot and a small flame is repeatedly and momentarily
applied to the surface of the liquid. The temperature is recorded when a small flame initiates a flash or
flame across the liquid surface, thereby indicating the presence of a flammable gas.
In this test, the space above the liquid is kept closed except for the brief moments when trying ignite the
liquid’s surface. This test is called "Closed cup Flash Point".
When we do the test with the liquid surface permanently open to the atmosphere, the result of such a test
is called "Open cup Flash Point".
Because of the greater loss of gas to the atmosphere in the open cup test the open cup flash point is
0
always a little higher (about 6 C) than the closed cup flash point. The restricted loss of gas in the closed
cup apparatus also leads to a much more consistent result than can be obtained in open cup testing. For
this reason, the closed cup method is generally favored. However, open cup test figures, still may be
found in the registration of various national administrations, in classification society rules and other such
documents.
3. HAZARDS

3.1 HEALTH HAZARDS

The officers and crew of a ship regularly carrying chemicals ought to have been trained in the general
hazards involved and should be aware, therefore, of the necessary precautions to be observed. Equally
they should have been instructed about the safety rules and the first aid procedures to be used in case of
an accident.
In the case of other ships it is essential that, before a chemical is handled, the officers and crew involved
should be advised by the master of the hazards of the particular chemical and the action to be taken in the
event of an accident. The dangers of smoking, drinking, taking food or being under the influence of
alcohol or drugs whilst handling chemicals should be emphasised.
If, during the handling of chemicals, any person shows signs or symptoms suggestive of poisoning, he
should be taken off the work, given treatment in accordance with the advice given in this Guide and seen
as soon as possible by a doctor. In the case of poisoning whilst at sea, medical advice by radio should be
sought if so advised in this Guide, but in any event the patient should be seen by a doctor at the next port
of call. It should also be remembered that help might also be available from another ship if there is one
within the vicinity with a physician or other trained person on board.

3.1.1 DIAGNOSIS OF POISONING - GENERAL PRINCIPLES

The diagnosis of poisoning may be simplified if one or more of the following factors points to the probable
cause:
- The circumstances of the incident, e.g. a leakage of chemicals.
- The nature of the illness, and its relationship in time to recent exposure to a chemical.
- More than one person is involved and all develop a similar illness.
It must be realised, however, that:
- The effects of some poisons resemble those of natural illness, e.g. vomiting and diarrhoea, or
collapse.
- Because a ship is carrying a cargo of chemicals it does not follow that the cause of the illness is that
cargo, and, unless there is evidence of a leakage, it is improbable.
- Different individuals may be exposed to the poison at different times, or to a different extent during a
single episode, and they may as a result become ill at different times or to differing degrees.
- Individuals react differently to poisons according to their health, constitution, and to how much of the
poison they were exposed.
In a typical case of poisoning, three stages of the illness may be distinguished:
1. The latent stage - This is the interval of time from the moment of entry of a poison into the body until the
first symptoms (feelings) or signs are apparent. These usually occur rapidly after exposure, but in some
cases there may be a delay of several hours before they develop. In very rare instances with specific
chemicals, the symptoms and signs may be delayed for some days.
2. The active stage - The signs and symptoms of the poisoning are apparent. In many cases these are
common to a great number of different chemicals which therefore have to be treated in a general way.
Chemicals can either act locally at the point of contact with the body or be absorbed from the point of
contact, causing more general symptoms. This is particularly true of chemicals, which can cause local skin
irritation, but are also absorbed through the skin to produce general, or specific, toxic symptoms and signs.
The same principle is true for other routes of entry into the body, although general symptoms are less
likely to occur with eye contact.
The main routes of exposure are:
- Skin contact.
- Eye contact.
- Inhalation - into the mouth, nose, throat and lungs.
- Ingestion - swallowed chemicals.
The general symptoms of poisoning include:
- Headache.
- Nausea and vomiting.
- Drowsiness.
- Changes in mental behaviour.
- Unconsciousness.
- Convulsions.
- Pain.
Signs of severe poisoning are:
- A rapid and weak pulse.
- Grey or blue colour of skin.
- Severe difficulty in breathing.
- A prolonged period of unconsciousness.

3.1.2 THE LATE STAGE

The signs and symptoms usually resolve after a few hours in the majority of incidents, particularly if the
degree of exposure is small. If a greater amount is absorbed or the period of exposure is prolonged, or the
chemical is very toxic, symptoms may persist for some hours or even days. The patient's condition may
deteriorate due to complications, the most common of which are:
- Asphyxia.
- Pulmonary oedema.
- Bronchitis.
- Pneumonia.
- Circulatory collapse.
- Heart failure.
- Liver failure.
- Kidney failure.
Death may occur despite treatment.

3.1.3 GASSING INCIDENTS

If the brain does not for any reason carry out its duties, signs of failure of brain function appear, such as
loss of consciousness and inability to speak and move, followed by weak breathing. Finally, if the deep
centers in the brain do not work, breathing stops, the heart stops and the person dies.
The control of breathing and heart beat lies in the deep central part of the brain above the "tail" which
forms the spinal cord.
If this area of the brain is deprived of oxygen, or in the presence of enough oxygen is poisoned by a
substance which has been breathed in or swallowed, then breathing and heart-beat will fail. The
sequence of events will be similar in all cases, whether brain failure is due to lack of oxygen or to
poisoning, but the rate of failure may vary from the shortest time of about 4 minutes up to some hours.
In so-called "gassing incidents", the usual indications of lack of proper brain function will probably be
"drunken behavior", followed by staggering, loss of consciousness, and finally stopping of breathing and
heart-beat.

3.1.3.1 Types of "gassing incidents"

The mechanism of "gassing incidents" may be:
1) lack of oxygen
2) gas or vapor inhalation, together with adequate amounts of oxygen
3) gas or vapor inhaled, but with inadequate amounts of oxygen
These situations are now examined in more detail.
1) Lack of oxygen.
Air contains about 21% of oxygen, a very small amount of carbon dioxide and other gases, and the rest is
nitrogen.
Total lack of oxygen will result in death in about 4 to 6 minutes. If there is some oxygen present but not
enough to sustain life, death will probably occur fairly rapidly because the body - and particularly the brain
- cannot sustain an oxygen debt for any length of time.
2) Gas or vapor inhaled together with adequate amounts of oxygen.
In the presence of adequate amounts of oxygen, the harmful effects on the body of toxic gases or vapors
will be solely due to the gases or vapors, and not to lack of oxygen. The exact toxic effects, which are
produced, will depend on the gas or vapor and how it affects the body.
3) Gas or vapor inhaled but inadequate amounts of oxygen present.
In this case there are two factors operating; first the effects of the gas or vapor and second, lack of
oxygen. in these circumstances what happens will depend on the toxic properties of the gas or vapor in the
particular concentration present, and on the extent of the lack of oxygen. The two kinds of effect will
generally be additive in the production of harmful effects, with any serious oxygen lack quickly leading to
unconsciousness and death if the condition is not swiftly corrected.

3.1.4 TOXICITY OF INERT GAS

Cargo tanks filled with an inert atmosphere must be ventilated with air before they are entered, both to
increase the oxygen content from less than 5% by volume to 21 % by volume and to sufficiently reduce the
amounts of carbon monoxide, nitrous gases and sulphur dioxide. Carbon monoxide (CO) may typically be
present in a concentration of about 0.01 % by volume in inert gas, corresponding to too ppm. In certain
cases it may become significantly higher.
The concentration must be reduced to below the TLV of 35 ppm by dilution or by displace with air. Carbon
monoxide poisoning is caused by carbon monoxide combining with the bloods hemoglobin instead of
oxygen, so that the blood loses its ability to take up oxygen in the lung. This results in internal suffocation,
and death occurs when 60 to 70% of the hemoglobin has combined with carbon monoxide. The
symptoms are headache and drowsiness, deterioration consciousness and vomiting. In the treatment of
carbon monoxide poisoning it is of the utmost importance to supply oxygen, if necessary in combination
with artificial respiration.
Nitrous gases are present as nitrogen monoxide (also known as nitric oxide) (NO) and nitrogen dioxide
(NO2) in concentrations of about 0.02% by volume in inert gas after it has passed through the scrubber,
corresponding to 200 ppm. The TLV for nitrogen monoxide is 25 ppm and that nitrogen dioxide is 5 ppm by
volume. Nitrous gases form acids by reaction with the moisture the air, and may destroy the lung tissue.
The sulphur dioxide content of inert gas will be very low, provided the scrubber is efficient.

3.1.5 OXYGEN DEFICIENCY

Oxygen deficiency must always be suspected in any enclosed space which has not been ventilated for
some time. It may be caused by vapor emitted from volatile liquids, by the displacement air by inert gas or
by the consumption of the available oxygen in the air by chemical reactions Such as rusting or the drying
of paint. Air contains 21 % oxygen, and spaces should not be entered before establishing that the oxygen
content of the atmosphere that is to be entered is in fact 21%.

3.1.6 SOLVENTS AND THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system in the human body consists of the brain, the spinal cord and the peripheral nerves.
The main part of the brain (cerebrum) controls thought, the movements and the sensations of the body. A
smaller part of the brain (cerebellum) controls the balance of the body and finer movements.
The spinal cord is connected to the brain. Peripheral nerves branch out from it and enter muscles and cells
throughout the body. These nerves transmit signals to and from the brain.

3.1.6.1 The nervous system – what is it?

"Organic solvents" is an expression used as a common name for a large number of chemicals. These
chemicals dissolve fat and evaporate easily. They are composed of carbon and hydrogen. Organic
solvents are useful chemicals. They exist in paint, lacquer, glue and many chemicals used for cleaning.
They are important in the production of plastic and several similar compounds. Some examples of organic
solvents are: Acetone, benzene, ethanol styrene, toluene, trichloroethylene, white spirit and xylene.

3.1.6.2 Occupational solvent intoxication

The organic solvents evaporate easily, and this makes them easy to inhale. The solvents may pollute
working environment, and may enter the lungs of the workers. From the lungs the solvents enter the
blood. In addition, organic solvents may enter the blood by penetrating the skin. The blood transports the
solvents to different parts of the body, including the nervous system.

3.1.6.3 Acute Intoxication

When the concentration of organic solvents is too high in an environment, this may give rise to symptoms
of acute poisoning in exposed workers. Common symptoms of a beginning acute intoxication are:
Tiredness or feeling "high", headache, nausea and dizziness. If the concentration of the solvents reaches
certain levels, the exposed workers may lose consciousness and die.

3.1.6.4 Chronic Intoxication

Exposure which consists of the inhalation of organic solvents over a long period may give rise to the
"chronic organic solvent intoxication syndrome". Workers with this condition develop symptoms which exist
whether or not they are exposed to solvents at the time. Typical symptoms of chronic organic solvent
intoxication affecting the main part of the brain are: An abnormal fatigue, reduction of memory,
concentration difficulties, irritability, depression, anxiety, headache and dizziness. If the cerebellum is
affected, this may lead to an unsteady gait. When the peripheral nerves are affected, there may be
reduced muscular power and loss of sensation in arms and legs. In addition, reduced sexual desire and
impotence may be caused by a chronic solvent intoxication.

3.1.6.5 The chronic organic solvent intoxication syndrome

No cure for this syndrome exists. Still, the diagnostic work is of great importance. A person with this
syndrome must avoid further exposure to organic solvents to present the development of further damage
in the nervous system.
There are several difficulties connected to the diagnostic procedure of this syndrome. There is no specific
test which confirms the diagnosis. Several other diseases may give the same kinds of symptoms as this
syndrome. Several tests and examinations are needed to evaluate these patients properly.
Specialists in occupational medicine and neurology are needed for the diagnostic work.
To develop this syndrome, a person must have been exposed to organic solvents regularly for many
years. The syndrome gives typical symptoms like those described under the heading "chronic
intoxication". To diagnose this syndrome, signs of disease in the nervous system must be found by the
examination of the brain and/or the peripheral nerves. Examinations used to diagnose the syndrome are a
neurological examination, tests of the electrical activity of the brain, computerized tomography of the brain,
examinations of the spinal fluid, psychological tests and tests of nerve conduction velocity of nerves in
arms and legs. To diagnose the syndrome, no other disease must be found which may explain the
existing symptoms and signs of disease in the patient.

3.2 HAZARDS TO THE ENVIRONMENT

The fact that some cargoes in chemical tankers may cause a severe environmental hazard if released to
the sea, to land or to the air. International regulations for the control of marine pollution by cargoes from
chemical tankers are set out in Annex II of MARPOL 73/78 and in the IBC code.

3.2.1 MARINE POLLUTION

Marine pollution is the introduction by humans of substances or energy into the oceans that change the
quality of the water or affect the physical and biological environment. There are many different substances,
which pollute the oceans. We will examine the effects of oil, heavy metals, synthetic organic chemicals,
sewage and organo-chlorines.

3.2.2 OIL
Many different factors determine the effect of an oil spill. The consequences of a spill are determined by its
location, the quantity and concentration of the oil, the season of the year, currents and other factors. The
crude oil spills are usually more frequent and larger in volume. The little components of crude oil that do
not dissolve in water, harms juvenile forms of marine organisms, even in small concentrations. The
remaining undissolved components, the majority of crude oil, forms sticky layers on the surface which
prevents the free diffusion of gases, clogs adult organisms’ feeding structures, and decreases the sunlight
available for photosynthesis. Most forms of marine life recover within about five years, as crude oil is not
highly toxic and it is biodegradable.
Refined oil near the shore can be more disruptive for longer periods of time. These spills lead to high
number of marine organisms’ death and environmental damage that leads to reduced species diversity
and fertility. Some areas, after three decades, are not recovered from spills of refined oil.
Although intertidal and shallow water subtidal communities are most sensitive to oil spills, bottom
organisms are also affected. Volatile components of an oil spill eventually evaporate into the air, leaving
heavier tars behind which forms into tar balls. These balls fall to the bottom and may be assimilated by
bottom organisms or incorporated into sediments.
There are many methods to contain and clean up an oil spill, however, sometimes they are dangerous and
damageful. Detergents used to disperse oil are especially harmful to living things.

3.2.3 HEAVY METALS

Heavy metals are a great concern because they enter the food chain. Some dangerous metals being
introduced into the ocean are mercury, lead and copper. Mercury and lead poisoning cause brain damage
and behavioral disturbances in children. Copper is also dangerous to marine organisms, it has been used
in marine anti-fouling paints.

3.2.4 SYNTHETIC ORGANIC CHEMICALS

Many different synthetic organic chemicals enter the ocean and become incorporated into organisms.
Ingestion of small amounts can cause illness or death.
Halogenated hydrocarbons are a class of synthetic hydrocarbon compounds that contain chlorine, bromine
or iodine is used in pesticides, flame retardants, industrial solvents and cleaning fluids.
The level of synthetic organic chemicals in seawater is usually very low, but some organisms can
concentrate these toxic substances in their flesh at higher levels in the food chain. That is an example of
biological amplification. DDT causes this occurrence. Polychlorinated biphenyl’s (PCB’) also create
biological amplification. It was used to cool and insulate electrical devices and to strengthen wood or
cement.

3.2.5 SEWAGE
Sewage sludge, a mixture of organic matter containing viruses and bacteria, synthetic organic chemicals
and toxic metal compounds, is dumped into the ocean. Sludge can combine with oxygen to produce an
oxygen poor environment where few animals can survive. During storms some of this material washes up
on local beaches, contaminates shellfish beds and causes disease outbreaks among people.

3.2.6 ORGANO-CHLORINES

3.2.6.1 What are organochlorines?

Organochlorines are substances containing chemically combined chlorine and carbon.Most are toxic,
persistent and tend to bioaccumulate in the environment. These qualities make them, arguably, the most
dangerous group of chemicals to which natural systems can be exposed.
Around 11,000 organochlorines have been identified. Very few of these occur naturally; most are
produced and released by industry. Synthetic organochlorines result from all industrial processes that
produce or use elemental chlorine. They are created either deliberately as a product or by-product, or
incidentally after the release of other chlorinated compounds, which then react in the environment to form
new and often more toxic organochlorines.

3.2.6.1 Where are they found?

Chlorine production, the source of industrial organochlorines, began in 1893 and now exceeds 40 million
tonnes per year. Inevitably, then, the release of organochlorines into the environment is also growing.
Since the rate at which organochlorines break down to harmless chemicals is far outstripped by their rate
of production, the load of organochlorines on the environment is growing each year.
This represents a burden of toxic persistent chemicals of a type and on a scale that natural systems have
never encountered before.
Organochlorines are now present in water, in air and in living things everywhere on earth - from the deep
sea bed to the stratosphere, from the Arctic to the Antarctic. The north-east Atlantic is considered to be the
largest reservoir of one group of organochlorines - the polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) - in the world.
Organochlorines tend to concentrate in living tissues and especially in species at the top of the food chain.
Particularly high concentrations of organochlorines have been found in the tissue of polar bears in the
Norwegian Arctic. High levels have also been found in Canadian and Alaskan polar bears, in Antarctic
penguin chicks, in dolphins and other cetaceans in many coastal waters, including those of the eastern US
and the Mediterranean, and in seals from California to southern Finland.

3.2.6.2 Their properties

Most organochlorines are extremely stable. As a result, they persist in the environment for a very long time
- some for hundreds of years or more. Others do not break down to any appreciable extent at all. When
organochlorines do degrade they usually produce other organochlorines - and these may be more
hazardous or more persistent than the original substance.
Since most organochlorines are not soluble in water they tend to migrate: the more volatile ones (like
CFCs) to the water surface and from there to the atmosphere; the less volatile ones (like PCBs) into
sediments and from there into the food chain.
Organochlorines bioaccumulate because they dissolve in fat and so build up in the fatty tissues of living
things. This accumulation is then biomagnified as organisms are eaten by predators, and the burden of
pollution is concentrated as it passes up through the food chain.
Organochlorines that have accumulated in the fatty tissues of mammals can be transferred via the
placenta or breast milk to the next generation, sometimes in large concentrations. It has been estimated
that residues passed on in this way, even with no direct exposure after the first generation, would still be
detectable after five generations.
Organochlorines are highly toxic. Because they are largely foreign to nature, most living things have not
developed any specific methods to break them down and get rid of them. They act in several ways to
interfere with some of the most fundamental biological processes. They can cause reproductive failure and
infertility in females; impair the development of offspring; lead to feminization and demasculinization of
males; disrupt the immune system, leaving organisms more susceptible to disease and infection;
contribute to the development of cancer; and damage the nervous system, liver, kidneys and other organs.

3.3 REACTIVITY HAZARDS

3.3.1 GENERAL
Special consideration has to be given to the possibility of chemicals undergoing a chemical or physical
reaction during cargo handling and transport conditions thereby creating additional hazard.
Chemical reaction may produce heat which in turn may accelerate the reaction, may cause the release of
a large volume of vapor and/or pressure rise, or may cause the formation of flammable and/or harmful
vapors that otherwise would not be expected. In principle, the dangers arising from chemical reaction are
those of increased fire and health hazard.
Three main types of reaction have to be considered:
(a) Self-reaction and reaction with air where only the particular chemical itself is involved. Small amounts
of other chemicals or contact with certain metals may promote reaction. Polymerization is a common type
of self-reaction.
(b) Reaction as a result of mixing one chemical with another. Neutralization of an acid with an alkali is a
typical example of one chemical reacting with another.
A cargo which is self-reactive as in (a) may also react with other cargoes.
(c) Reaction as a result of mixing with water.
A cargo which is self-reactive as in (a) or reacts with others in (b) may also react with water.

3.3.2 SELF-REACTION AND REACTION WITH AIR

Self-reaction or reaction with air can occur in the liquid, in the vapor or in both.
Reaction may be promoted by heat and by the presence of certain metals and other cargoes in small
amounts. Control of temperature and the avoidance of unsuitable materials in the cargo system and
contamination by even small amounts of other cargoes all contribute to the safe carriage of self-reactive
cargoes.
Reaction in the liquid can be retarded by inerting or by adding to it a small amount of a specific chemical
known as an inhibitor. Those cargoes which in pure form can undergo a vigorous self-reaction (usually
resulting in polymerization) may only be offered for transportation provided they contain an inhibitor.
An inhibitor added to the liquid generally will not retard reaction in the vapor or condensed vapor in the
ullage space. Displacing air (oxygen) from the ullage space with inert gas will retard reaction of the vapor
therein and inerting may be an additional requirement, even if the cargo contains an inhibitor.
For certain other cargoes, an essential safety requirement to avoid reaction is to prevent liquid and vapor
from coming into contact with air at all times during cargo handling and transport.

3.3.2.1 General Precautions for self-reactive cargoes and cargoes which react
dangerously with air
(a) The cargo tanks and cargo handling system should be free of the metal components which are listed
in the data sheet as unsuitable.
(b) If the maximum cargo temperature during loading and on voyage needs to be controlled the master
should verify what the limit is and what means are available to ensure that it will not be exceeded
during cargo handling and on the voyage. Cargo temperature should be measured regularly and
cooling systems put into operation when necessary. Loading should be stopped if the temperature of
the cargo being received exceeds the limit.
(c) Even if temperature control is not a specific requirement it is recommended that self-reactive
chemicals are never stowed in tanks directly adjacent to heated cargoes nor handled through pipe-
lines which pass through tanks containing heated cargoes.
Also it is recommended that cargo tanks top are kept cool by water spray when ambient temperatures are
high, thereby to retard reaction in the vapor space.
(d) Before loading, the cargo tanks and cargo handling system should be thoroughly cleaned to remove
other cargoes that may promote self-reaction of the cargo to be loaded.

3.3.3 SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS FOR INHIBITED CARGOES

When the cargo requires to be inhibited as a condition of safe transport, the following addition precautions
should be taken:
(a) The Master should verify with the shore representative that the cargo will be correctly inhibited before
loading, otherwise loading should be refused.
(b) The Master should also verify that the concentration of inhibitor will be sufficient to prevent dangerous
reaction during the voyage taking into account its duration and expected or required maximum cargo
temperature
(c) if inhibitor is likely to be consumed or if regular checking of the cargo for inhibitor concentration during
the voyage is advised, the master should ensure that sufficient stock of inhibitor is put on board before
sailing, for addition to the cargo as necessary, together with instructions for introducing it. If regular
analysis is advised proper instructions should be obtained from the shore representative on the
method of analysis.
(d) Care should be taken during the handling of the inhibitor which may present health hazard.

(e) Special attention should be given during the voyage to the cargo tank vent system which may become
blocked by solid reaction products.

3.3.4 SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS FOR CARGOES WHICH REQUIRE EXCLUSION OF AIR

When inerting to exclude air from the cargo system it is essential for safe carriage, that the following
additional precautions should be taken:
(a) The cargo handling system for the intended tank(s) should be independent of all others and cross-
connection by accident should not be possible.
(b) The cargo should be handled in a closed system, with a closed ullage or other arrangement to
minimize the escape of vapor or ingress of air. Vapor or gas displaced during loading preferably
should be returned ashore by vent line.
(c) Before loading, the oxygen concentration in the cargo tank(s) and associated handling system should
be reduced below the permitted maximum by purging with inert gas.
(d) The inert gas supplied by ship or shore should be of high purity. Preferably nitrogen should be used
although other gases or vapors may be considered.
(e) Inerting of the cargo spaces only at the loading port may not be sufficient and a quantity of additional
inert gas should be carried on board in order to maintain a proper inert atmosphere in the event of
normal loss or leakage from the cargo space.
(f) The Master should ascertain the maximum oxygen concentration permitted in the cargo space at any
time during cargo handling and on voyage and that means are available for measuring it. When it is a
requirement, the oxygen content in the space should be reduced below the limit before loading starts.
(g) The cargo may be discharged by pumps but inert gas and/or cargo vapor should be supplied to the
tank during cargo discharge. Alternatively, the cargo may be discharged by inert gas pressure but
only provided the working pressure of the cargo tank and handling system is not exceeded. Air
pressure should never be used for cargo discharge or to assist in cargo discharge.
(h) On completion of cargo discharge, the ship/shore hose connection should be cleared of cargo with
inert gas before disconnecting. The tanks should be closed and kept inert unless they are to be gas-
freed for any purpose.
(i) A water supply should be ready for immediate use during cargo handling to wash away spillages.
(j) If gas-freeing is necessary after cargo discharge the operation should be conducted preferably
alongside with the displaced vapor being returned ashore for venting. If this is not possible vapor
should be released through vents terminating well above deck level.
(k) If a tank first has to be washed for cleaning, the washing operation should be carried out when the
tank is still inert. Then the tank should be gas-freed by purging with inert gas until cargo vapor has
been largely removed, followed by air until the tank is free of vapor and the oxygen content restored to
normal atmospheric level (21%)

3.3.5 REACTIVITY WITH OTHER CARGOES

To establish whether or not two cargoes will react dangerously together, the data sheets for both cargoes
should be consulted.
When the data sheet indicates that a dangerous reaction may result by mixing the cargo in question with
another, "double" separation should be provided as greater security against accidental mixing.
"Double" separation involves:
1) A pump room, cofferdam or similar void space (which may be an empty cargo compartment) between
tanks or compartments containing incompatible cargoes,
OR
at least one compartment loaded with a cargo compatible with each, and separating, the incompatible
cargoes,
AND
2) Independent cargo pipelines to each compartment containing incompatible chemicals and which do
not pass through any compartment containing other incompatible cargoes unless the pipeline is in a
tunnel or similar arrangement,
AND
3) Independent vent systems on each compartment containing incompatible cargoes.

3.3.6 GUIDANCE WHEN SUFFICIENT REACTIVITY DATA IS NOT AVAILABLE

Those responsible for soliciting, booking and scheduling parcel cargoes of chemicals should always satisfy
themselves that the various parcels scheduled for any given voyage of any given ship are mutually
compatible and can safely be loaded and carried within the normal segregation of the ship. Since the
ultimate responsibility for safety of the vessel lies with the Master, he should assure himself by inspection
of the data sheets that the cargo distribution proposed for any voyage provides proper segregation of all
parcels from the standpoint of compatibility. If the data sheets do not provide the necessary information,
the Master should defer loading of the cargo until he has been able to consult with his owner, and received
satisfactory assurance that the cargoes to be loaded and the proposed plan of segregation are indeed
compatible and safe.
It cannot be emphasized too strongly that parcels of chemicals should not be accepted for shipment or
loaded on a vessel unless positive assurance is available that the various chemicals are compatible within
the basic pattern of segregation of the vessel itself.

3.3.7 REACTION WITH WATER

The data sheet indicates if a dangerous reaction is possible between a chemical and water. If such a
reaction is possible "double" separation between the chemical and water is recommended.
"Double" separation involves:
1) 1) Double skin as provided by a double bottom and side cofferdam between the cargo and the sea,
AND
2) A cofferdam or similar void space (which may be an empty cargo compartment) to separate the tank
containing the cargo from tanks containing water,
OR
at least one compartment loaded with a cargo which is compatible with the cargo in question and with
water,
AND
3) Pipelines serving the cargo tank should be independent from lines serving any tank containing water
and should not pass through any tank containing water, or vice versa unless the pipeline is in a tunnel
or similar arrangement,
AND
4) Vents systems serving the tanks containing the cargo should be independent from vent systems
serving tanks containing water,

3.3.8 TANK CLEANING WITH WATER

If a cargo tank has contained a chemical that reacts dangerously with water, tank cleaning with water
should only be undertaken in the manner specified by the shipper or by some other safe means.
If toxic vapors are evolved on contact with water, then breathing apparatus may be required by those
involved in the operation.

3.4 FLAMMABILITY AND EXPLOSIVITY HAXARDS

Most cargoes in chemical tankers are flammable, and their vapours may therefore form flammable
mixtures.

3.4.1 FIRE HAZARDS AND PRECAUTIONS

Measures for the prevention of fire and explosion involving cargo are dependent on preventing cargo
vapor and sources of ignition coming into contact.
Cargo vapors in flammable concentrations are to be expected in the recognized hazardous areas such as
cargo tanks, pump rooms, and, at times on the tank deck around openings from cargo tanks. Strict
elimination, by design, of all possible sources of ignition from these areas is essential.
On the other hand, living accommodation, galley and engine room, are spaces where sources of ignition
are inevitably present because of electrical equipment, boiler fires etc., and it is essential to avoid the entry
of flammable cargo vapor into such spaces. Personnel should be continuously on their guard not only
against the more obvious dangers but also against unforeseen circumstances which could lead to
flammable vapors and sources of ignition coming into contact.

3.4.2 FLAMMABLE PROPERTIES OF CHEMICALS

The vapor given off by a liquid burns, and not the liquid itself. A mixture of vapor and air cannot be ignited
unless the proportion of vapor and air lies between two concentrations known as the Lower Flammable
(Explosive) Limit (LFL or LEL) and the Upper Flammable (Explosive) Limit (UFL or UEL). The limits
depend upon the cargoes (see data sheets). Concentrations below the lower limit (too-lean), or above the
upper limit (too-rich), are incapable of burning, but it is important to remember that concentrations above
the upper limit can be made to burn by diluting them with air until the mixture is in the flammable range.
Vapor concentrations depend upon the vapor pressure and temperature of the liquid. As the temperature
increases so does the vapor pressure and vapor concentration above the liquid. For each liquid there is a
temperature at which the vapor concentration reaches the LFL, and another, higher, temperature at which
the concentration exceeds UFL. The more readily the liquid vaporizes, the lower the temperature at which
the LFL is reached.

3.4.3 TOO RICH MIXTURES

A too rich mixture is safe for as long as the tank remains closed and intact. Even if a fire occurs in an
adjacent tank the too-rich mixture cannot catch fire provided that it remains too-rich.
A too-rich mixture is no guarantee of safety under all conditions. For example, in the event of a tank being
ruptured in a collision or following an adjacent explosion, air is likely to enter the tank and may dilute the
gas to a flammable concentration. The resulting flammable mixture may then be ignited by hot metal or
sparks associated with the rupture.

3.4.4 TOO LEAN MIXTURES

Too lean mixtures will not support combustion but are no guarantee of continued safety. For example, if
the temperature increases sufficiently any oil which is present may be raised above its flash point thus
producing a flammable mixture. Such temperature variations may occur when a non-volatile oil needs to
be heated prior to discharge. A sufficient increase in temperature may also cause residual oil in an empty
dirty tank to evolve flammable concentrations of vapor. This might happen if an adjacent cargo is being
heated or if an adjacent tank is being steamed or hot washed.
Repairs in a tank or pump room can easily change a too-lean condition to one which is flammable. For
example, when a pipe or pump containing volatile oil is opened up, oil may run into the compartment, thus
producing a flammable concentration of vapor.

• Flammable gas molecules

o Oxygen molecules

The flash point of a liquid is an indication of the temperature at which a liquid produces sufficient vapor to
give a concentration in air equivalent to the LFL. Some cargoes form flammable mixtures at all ambient
temperatures; others only at higher ambient temperatures and others again only when heated.
For the purposes of the safe handling procedures dealt with in this guide, the flammability characteristics
of cargoes are divided into three broad categories according to the flash point:
- Flammable cargoes-those with a flash point below 60o C.
- Combustible cargoes-those with a flash point above 60o C.
- Non-Combustible cargoes-those which have no flash point and do not burn.
The above description of flammability considers cargo vapor being mixed with air. If air is mixed with
sufficient inert gas such as nitrogen or carbon dioxide, its oxygen content will no longer be capable of
supporting the combustion of chemical vapor. Suppression of combustion by this means is known as
inerting and is a measure which may be recommended or otherwise adopted for preventing ignition of
vapors within enclosed spaces such as cargo tanks. It is important to remember that an inerted mixture
may become flammable on mixing again with air, for instance on venting the mixture to atmosphere or
during gas-freeing with air.

Flammability – limits and range

3.4.5 VAPOR CONCENTRATIONS DURING OPERATIONS

This section describes when dangerous concentrations of vapor-either flammable or over-rich are likely to
be encountered during normal operations.

3.4.5.1 During Loading into a Gas-Free Tank

A cargo being loaded at a temperature below its flash point will not produce a flammable vapor
concentration either within or outside of the tank but with some cargoes excessive turbulence or splashing
at the commencement of loading may form a flammable mist above the liquid surface.
Above the flash point, and depending upon the liquid temperature and vapor pressure at that temperature,
a flammable or over-rich mixture will be produced within the tank, unless it has been inerted, and which will
tend to remain as a layer over the liquid, except when the chemical vapor density is less than that of air.
The higher the vapor pressure the greater the depth and concentration of vapor in the layer. Although the
layer itself r may be over-rich there will be a flammable mixture where it meets the air above.
Mixing of the vapor with the air above is slow and the heavy vapor rises as a layer as the liquid rises.
The gas being displaced from the top of the tank and entering the venting system will be initially air and
little cargo vapor will be expelled in the early stages of loading. Eventually the concentration of vapor
increases and finally flammable or over-rich mixture will be expelled. By dilution with air outside of the tank
over-rich mixture will become flammable. Venting of flammable or over-rich mixtures from tanks during the
later stages of loading creates potentially a most dangerous situation.
Vaporization adds to the total volume of gas expelled through the vent system as the cargo is loaded.
With a properly designed vent system the increased rate should not create an unacceptable excess
pressure in the tank.
The foregoing applies only to cargoes which are being handled at temperatures below the boiling point. If
a cargo is loaded into a tank at atmospheric pressure and at a temperature above its boiling point, boiling
will start immediately with rapid and sustained evolution of vapor. Shortly after loading starts, vapor in high
concentrations will be vented from the tank and the amount of vapor may be such that unacceptable
pressure is caused in the tank. When the cargo temperature exceeds the boiling point cargoes should
only be loaded into special tanks.
3.4.6 DURING LOADING INTO A NON GAS-FREE TANK
The vapor concentration inside a tank which has not been gas-freed depends upon the previous cargo, the
amount of liquid cargo left in the tank, the time elapsed since discharge was completed, and on
temperature.
If the previous cargo was loaded at, or reached during the voyage, a temperature above its flash point, a
flammable or over-rich mixture should be suspected throughout the tank. The mixture will be displaced
through the vent system by the incoming cargo, whatever the cargo.

3.4.7 BALLASTING A NON GAS-FREE TANK

Vapor concentrations will be expelled through the vent system as in 3.4.6. Even if the cargo is water-
soluble the same situation will apply since the vapor is unlikely to be absorbed quickly.

3.4.8 GAS-FREEING
Vapor concentration in the tank before gas-freeing starts is dependent on the factors in 3.4.6. Removal of
flammable or over-rich vapor presents a potentially hazardous situation since irrespective of the method of
gas-freeing such vapor mixtures will be expelled from the tank. Mechanical ventilation, rather than natural
ventilation, is recommended to minimize the period of danger and ensure the rapid dispersion of vapor.

3.4.9 AUTO-IGNITION
The vapors from flammable and combustible liquids (including oil fuel and lubricating oil) may ignite if the
liquids come into contact with a surface heated above the auto-ignition temperature e.g. steam lines,
overheated equipment, despite the absence of external flame or spark. In any case the fire hazard will be
increased by the greater evaporation.
Immediate steps should be taken to remedy any leakage which may result in the liquid coming in contact
with the hot surfaces. Care should also be taken to avoid rags or other materials soaked in oil or chemical
coming in contact with hot surfaces.

3.4.10 ACCURACY OF FLAMMABLE LIMITS

Flammable limits may be expressed in terms of percentage volume or percentage weight. The resulting
limits are slightly different. In this book, flammable limits are quoted as a percentage of the total volume of
the mixture.
Flammable limits, for any given cargo, or in other publications should not be used as safety limits because
the laboratory conditions under which they were established may not be the same as conditions existing in
cargo tanks.
Flammable limits vary with:
- volume of the container in which combustion takes place
- temperature of the mixture
- pressure of the mixture
- oxygen concentration in the air which makes up the mixture
- direction of propagation of a flame
Flammability diagram for methane
4. RULES AND REGULATIONS
This chapter introduces the international and national rules and regulations affecting chemical shipping.

4.1 INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL CODES AND REGULATIONS

The most important of the rules governing the transport of liquid chemicals in bulk are:
- international conventions
- national regulations
- classification society rules
Shipping is perhaps the most international of all the world's great industries - and one of the most
dangerous. It has always been recognised that the best way of improving safety at sea is by developing
international regulations that are followed by all shipping nations and from the mid-19th century onwards a
number of such treaties were adopted.
Several countries proposed that a permanent international body should be established to promote
maritime safety more effectively, but it was not until the establishment of the United Nations itself that
these hopes were realised. In 1948 an international conference in Geneva adopted a convention formally
establishing IMO. It entered into force in 1958 and the new Organisation met for the first time the following
year.

4.1.1 IMO: WHAT IT IS, WHAT IT DOES AND HOW IT WORKS

When the establishment of a specialised agency of the United Nations dealing with maritime affairs was
first proposed, the main concern was to evolve international machinery to improve safety at sea.
Because of the international nature of the shipping industry, it had long been recognised that action to
improve safety in maritime operations would be more effective if carried out at an international level rather
than by individual countries acting unilaterally and without co-ordination with others. Although a number of
important international agreements had already been adopted, many States believed that there was a
need for a permanent body, which would be able to co-ordinate and promote further measures on a more
regular basis.
It was against this background that a conference held by the United Nations in 1948 adopted a convention
establishing the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) as the first ever international body devoted
exclusively to maritime matters.
In the 10-year period between the adoption of the Convention and its entry into force in 1958, other
problems related to safety but requiring slightly different emphasis had attracted international attention.
One of the most important of these was the threat of marine pollution from ships, particularly pollution by
oil carried in tankers. An international convention on this subject was actually adopted in 1954, four years
before IMO came into existence, and responsibility for administering and promoting it was assumed by
IMO in January 1959. From the very beginning, the improvement of maritime safety and the prevention of
marine pollution have been IMO's most important objectives.
IMO is a technical organisation and most of its work is carried out in a number of committees and
sub-committees. The Maritime Safety Committee (MSC) is the most senior of these. It has a number of
sub-committees whose titles indicate the subjects they deal with:
- Safety of Navigation (NAV);
- Radio Communications and Search and Rescue (COMSAR);
- Training and Watchkeeping (STW);
- Carriage of Dangerous Goods, Solid Cargoes and Containers (DSC);
- Ship Design and Equipment (DE);
- Fire Protection (FP);
- Stability and Load Lines and Fishing Vessel Safety (SLF);
- Flag State Implementation (FSI);
- Bulk Liquids and Gases (BLG).
The Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC) was established by the Assembly in November
1973. It is responsible for co-ordinating the Organisation’s activities in the prevention and control of
pollution of the marine environment from ships. The FSI and BLG Sub-Committees are also sub-
committees of the MEPC.
The Legal Committee was originally established to deal with the legal problems arising from the Torrey
Canyon accident of 1967, but it was subsequently made a permanent committee. It is responsible for
considering any legal matters within the scope of the Organisation.

4.1.2 WHAT IT DOES

In order to achieve its objectives, IMO has, in the last 35 years, promoted the adoption of some 40
conventions and protocols and adopted well over 700 codes and recommendations concerning maritime
safety, the prevention of pollution and related matters.
The initial work on a convention is normally done by a committee or sub-committee; a draft instrument is
then produced which is submitted to a conference to which delegations from all States within the United
Nations system - including States which may not be IMO Members - are invited. The conference adopts a
final text, which is submitted to Governments for ratification.
An instrument so adopted comes into force after fulfilling certain requirements, which always include
ratification by a specified number of countries. Generally speaking, the more important the convention the
more stringent are the requirements for entry into force. Implementation of the requirements of a
convention is mandatory on countries which are parties to it. Codes and recommendations which are
adopted by the IMO Assembly are not binding on Governments; however, their contents can be just as
important, and in most cases they are implemented by Governments through incorporation into domestic
legislation.

4.1.3 SAFETY
The first conference organised by IMO in 1960 was, appropriately enough, concerned with maritime safety.
That conference adopted the International Convention on Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), which came into
force in 1965, replacing a version adopted in 1948. The 1960 SOLAS Convention covered a wide range of
measures designed to improve the safety of shipping. They included subdivision and stability; machinery
and electrical installations; fire protection, detection and extinction; lifesaving appliances; radiotelegraphy
and radiotelephony; safety of navigation; carriage of grain; carriage of dangerous goods; and nuclear
ships.
The safety of ships and their crews is IMO's greatest concern. The 1960 SOLAS Convention was the basic
international instrument dealing with matters of maritime safety and, in response to new developments, it
was amended several times. However, because of the rather difficult requirements for bringing
amendments into force, none of these amendments actually became binding internationally.
To remedy this situation and maybe introduce the needed improvements more speedily, in 1974 IMO
convened a conference to adopt a new international convention for the safety of life at sea which would
incorporate the amendments adopted to the 1960 Convention as well as introduce other changes,
including an improved amendment procedure. Under the new procedure, amendments adopted by the
MSC would enter into force on a predetermined date unless they were objected to by a specific number of
States. The 1974 SOLAS Convention entered into force on 25 May 1980.
In 1966 a conference convened by IMO adopted the International Convention on Load Lines. Limitations
on the draught, to which a ship may be loaded, in the form of freeboards, are an important contribution to
its safety. An international convention on the subject had been adopted in 1930; the new instrument
brought this up to date and incorporated new and improved measures. It came into force in 1968.
The tonnage measurement of ships has been one of the most difficult problems in international shipping.
IMO began work on this subject soon after coming into being, and in 1969 the first ever international
convention dealing with it was adopted. It is an indication of the complexity of the matter that the
Convention did not enter into force until 1982.
Among the most common causes of accidents at sea are collisions. Regulations for preventing collisions
were adopted by the 1960 SOLAS Conference and annexed to the Final Act of the Conference. However,
these rules were not part of the SOLAS Convention and were therefore not legally binding internationally.
In 1972 IMO adopted the Convention on International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea
(COLREG).
This included a number of new features, including a provision, which made traffic separation schemes
adopted by IMO mandatory. Traffic separation schemes had been introduced, as recommendations, in
several parts of the world where maritime traffic was particularly congested. The adoption of such schemes
has considerably reduced the number of collisions in many areas, and the coming into force of the
Convention in 1977 led to further improvements in the implementation of these schemes.
Ultimately, safety rests very largely with the crews of ships rather than with the ships themselves. For this
reason IMO has attached the utmost importance to the training of ships' personnel. In 1978 the
Organisation convened a conference which adopted the first ever Convention on Standards of Training,
Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers. The Convention entered into force in April 1984.
The Convention established, for the first time, internationally acceptable minimum standards for crews. It is
not intended as a model on which all States must necessarily base their crew requirements, for in many
countries the requirements are actually higher than those laid down in the Convention. The Convention
was revised in 1995. Apart from bringing the Convention up to date from a technical point of view, the
amendments also gave IMO the power to audit the administrative, training and certification procedures of
Parties to the Convention. The amendments entered into force in 1997.

4.1.4 PREVENTING POLLUTION - PROVIDING COMPENSATION

The 1954 Oil Pollution Convention was the first major convention designed to curb the impact of oil
pollution. But in the years that followed the pollution threat increased dramatically and, since coming into
existence, IMO has devoted increasing attention to the problem of marine pollution. The 1954 Convention
was amended in 1962, but the wreck of the Torrey Canyon in 1967 dramatically alerted the world to the
great dangers, which the transport of oil poses to the marine environment.
Following this disaster, IMO produced a series of conventions and other instruments, including further
amendments to the 1954 Convention, which were adopted in 1969.
In 1969 two conventions were adopted. One was the International Convention relating to Intervention on
the High Seas in Cases of Oil Pollution Casualties, which established the right of coastal States to
intervene in incidents on the high seas which are likely to result in oil pollution. It entered into force in
1975.
The second was the International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage, which deals with
the civil liability of the owner of a ship or cargo for damage suffered as a result of an oil pollution incident.
The Convention is intended to ensure that adequate compensation will be readily available to victims of
pollution, and places the obligation for paying such compensation on the shipowner. That Convention also
entered into force in 1975.
It was felt by some Governments that the liability limits established by this Convention were too low, and
that the compensation made available could, in some cases, prove to be inadequate. As a result, another
conference was convened by IMO in 1971 which adopted the Convention on the Establishment of an
International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage. This Convention came into force in 1978.
In 1971 the 1954 Oil Pollution Convention was further amended to limit the hypothetical outflow of oil
resulting from an accident and also to provide special protection for the Great Barrier Reef of Australia.
It was generally felt, however, that a completely new instrument was required to control pollution of the
seas from ships, and in 1973 IMO convened a major conference to discuss the whole problem of marine
pollution from ships. It resulted in the adoption of the first ever comprehensive anti-pollution convention,
the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL). The Convention deals
not only with pollution by oil, but also pollution from chemicals, other harmful substances, garbage and
sewage.
The present consolidated edition, 1997 edition presents the texts and unified interpretations of the
Convention, articles, protocols, and Annexes I to V:
Annex I - Regulation for the prevention of Pollution by Oil
Annex II - Regulations for the Control of Pollution by Noxious Liquid Substances in Bulk
Annex III - Regulation for the Prevention of Pollution by Harmful Substances in Packaged Form
Annex IV - Regulation for the Prevention of Pollution by Sewage from Ships
Annex V - Regulation for the Prevention of Pollution by Garbage from Ships
The MARPOL Convention greatly reduces the amount of oil, which can be discharged into the sea by
ships, and bans such discharges completely in certain areas (such as the Black Sea, Red Sea and other
regions). It gives statutory support for such operational procedures as "load on top'' (which greatly reduces
the amount of mixtures which have to be disposed of after tank cleaning) and segregated ballast tanks.
Certain technical problems made it difficult for many States to ratify the Convention. In the meantime, a
series of tanker accidents in the winter of 1976/77 led to demands for further action. IMO responded to
these demands and took rapid steps to convene the Conference on Tanker Safety and Pollution
Prevention in 1978. This Conference adopted a Protocol to the 1973 MARPOL Convention which
introduced further measures, including requirements for such operational techniques as crude oil washing
(a development of the earlier ``load on top'' system) and a number of modified constructional requirements
such as protectively located segregated ballast tanks. The Protocol of 1978 relating to the 1973 MARPOL
Convention in effect absorbs the parent Convention with modifications. This combined instrument is
commonly referred to as MARPOL 73/78 and entered into force in October 1983. The Convention has
been amended on several occasions since then.
In 1990 IMO adopted the International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and
Co-operation (OPRC). It is designed to improve the ability of nations to cope with a sudden emergency,
such as a tanker accident. It entered into force in May 1995, but some of its provisions were used as the
basis for IMO's response to the massive pollution of the Persian Gulf resulting from hostilities in the area in
the spring of 1991. These measures, assisted by a special IMO fund, helped to save many ecologically
important sites from major damage.
In 1996 IMO adopted an international convention on liability and compensation for damage in connection
with the carriage of hazardous and noxious substances (HNS) by sea. The Convention establishes a two-
tier system for providing compensation up to a total of around £250 million. It covers not only pollution
aspects but other risks such as fire and explosion. The Convention is not yet in force.

4.1.5 IMO'S CODES & RECOMMENDATIONS

In addition to conventions and other formal treaty instruments, IMO has adopted several hundred
recommendations dealing with a wide range of subjects.
Some of these constitute codes, guidelines or recommended practices on important matters not
considered suitable for regulation by formal treaty instruments. Although recommendations -whether in the
form of codes or otherwise -are not usually binding on Governments, they provide guidance in framing
national regulations and requirements. Many Governments do in fact apply the provisions of the
recommendations by incorporating them, in whole or in part, into national legislation or regulations. In
some cases, important codes have been made mandatory by including appropriate references in a
convention.
These recommendations are generally intended to supplement or assist the implementation of the relevant
provisions of the conventions and, in some cases, the principal codes, guidelines, etc.
In appropriate cases the recommendations may incorporate further requirements which have been found
to be useful or necessary in the light of experience gained in the application of the previous provisions. In
other cases the recommendations clarify various questions which arise in connection with specific
measures and thereby ensure their uniform interpretation and application in all countries.
Examples of the principal recommendations, codes, etc., adopted over the years are:
- International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code (IMDG Code) (first adopted in 1965);
- Code of Safe Practice for Solid Bulk Cargoes (1965);
- International Code of Signals (IMO took over responsibility for the Code in 1965);
- Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships Carrying Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk (1971);
- Code of Safe Practice for Ships Carrying Timber Deck Cargoes (1973);
- Code of Safety for Fishermen and Fishing Vessels (1974);
- Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships Carrying Liquefied Gases in Bulk (1975);
- Code of Safety for Dynamically Supported Craft (1977);
- Code for the Construction and Equipment of Mobile Offshore Drilling Units (1979);
- Code on Noise Levels on Board Ships (1981);
- Code of Safety for Nuclear Merchant Ships (1981);
- Code of Safety for Special Purpose Ships (1983);
- International Gas Carrier Code (1983);
- International Bulk Chemicals Code (1983);
- Code of Safety for Diving Systems (1983);
- International Code for the Safe Carriage of Grain in Bulk (1991);
- International Safety Management Code (1993);
- International Code of Safety for High-Speed Craft (1994);
Other important recommendations have dealt with such matters as traffic separation schemes (which
separate ships moving in opposite directions by creating a central prohibited area); the adoption of
technical manuals such as the Standard Marine Navigational Vocabulary, the IMO Search and Rescue
Manual and the IMO Manual on Oil Pollution; crew training; performance standards for shipborne
equipment; and many other matters. There are also guidelines to help the implementation of particular
conventions and instruments.
The provisions of recommendations are sometimes incorporated into amendments to the relevant
conventions. Recommendations enable provisions or requirements to be suggested relatively quickly to
Governments for consideration and action. It is also easier for Governments to act on such matters than in
respect of provisions in formal treaty instruments, which involve international legal obligations.

4.1.6 DUMPING AT SEA

In addition to other aspects of marine pollution prevention, IMO also carries out Secretariat functions in
connection with the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other
Matter. This Convention, now called the London Convention, was adopted in 1972 at a conference held
under the auspices of the United Kingdom. It entered into force in 1975.
The Convention controls and regulates on a global level the disposal at sea of wastes and other material
of any kind (including ships and platforms). The disposal of certain substances which from the
environmental point of view are known to be particularly harmful (such as organohalogen compounds,
mercury, cadmium, plastics, mineral oils and radioactive wastes) is prohibited.
The Convention also contains specific regulations concerning the dumping of several other materials
which may present a risk to the marine environment and human health. In addition, it bans the incineration
of wastes on board ships.

4.1.7 HOW IT WORKS

The International Maritime Organisation works through a number of specialist committees and
sub-committees. All these bodies are composed of representatives of Member States who discharge their
functions with the assistance and advice of appropriate bodies of the United Nations or the specialised
agencies, as well as international governmental and non-governmental organisations with which formal
relationships have been established.
Formal arrangements for co-operation have been established with more than 30 intergovernmental
organisations, while nearly 50 non-governmental international organisations have been granted
consultative status to participate in the work of various bodies in an observer capacity. These
organisations represent a wide spectrum of maritime, legal and environmental interests and they
contribute to the work of the various organs and committees through the provision of information,
documentation and expert advice. However, none of these organisations has a vote.

4.1.8 THE FUTURE

Over the years IMO has continually evolved to meet changing conditions and requirements. In its early
days it concentrated on formulating international conventions and codes. Today, however, IMO is just as
concerned to ensure that the conventions, codes and other instruments already adopted are effectively
enforced and implemented.
There is significant evidence that IMO measures have already proved beneficial in many areas. Oil
pollution of the sea, for example, is less of a threat now than it was 20 years ago and the number of
collisions between ships has been greatly reduced in areas where IMO-approved traffic separation
schemes have been introduced.
But because of economic factors, the average age of the world's ships has risen steadily over the same
period and statistics show that old ships have more accidents than young ones. The fleets of the traditional
maritime countries - which tend to have good safety records - have declined, while many of the flags that
are growing most rapidly have relatively poor records.
As a result, nobody can afford to be complacent and IMO is concentrating not only on better
implementation but also on improving such factors as management and training. All the evidence shows
that most accidents happen because people do not obey the regulations, not because the regulations are
themselves defective.
4.2 BULK CHEMICAL CODES
The purpose of this section is to familiarise with the IMO Bulk Chemical Code, their purpose philosophy,
layout and application:
The purpose of the IMO Bulk Chemical Code for Construction and Equipment of Ships Carrying
Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk (BCH Code) is to provide an international standard for the safe carriage of
dangerous and noxious chemicals in bulk by prescribing the constructional features of ships, regardless of
their tonnage, involved in such carriage and the equipment they should carry so as to minimise the risk to
the ship, to its crew and to the environment, having regard to the nature of the products involved.
The basic philosophy is to assign to each chemical tanker one of the ship types according to the degree of
hazards of the products carried by such ship. Each of the products may have one or more hazard
properties, which include flammability, toxicity and reactivity as well as the hazard they may present to the
environment if accidentally released.
Throughout the development of the Code it was recognised that it must be based upon sound naval
architectural and engineering principles and the best understanding available as to the hazards

4.2.1 THE BCH CODE

Under MARPOL 73/78 chemical tankers constructed before 1 July 1986 must comply with the provisions
of the Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships Carrying Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk (BCH
Code). Under SOLAS 74 the BCH Code remains as a recommendation.

4.2.2 THE IBC CODE

On 5 December 1985, by resolution MEPC. 19(22), the IBC Code was extended by the Marine
Environment Protection Committee (MEPC) to cover marine pollution aspects for the implementation of
Annex II of the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as modified by
the protocol of 1978 relating thereto (MARPOL 73/78). Under provisions of regulation 13 of Annex II of
MARPOL 73/78, chemical tankers constructed on or after 1 July 1986 must comply with the provisions of
the IBC Code.
The layout of the Code is in line with the International Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships
Carrying Liquefied Gases in Bulk (IGC Code), adopted by the Maritime Safety Committee at its forty-eight
session. Gas carriers may also carry in bulk liquid chemicals covered by this Code, as prescribed in the
IGC Code.

4.2.3 NEW SHIP – EXISTING SHIP

- New ship means a ship constructed on or after 1 July 1986
- Existing ship means a ship that is not a new ship

4.3 ANNEX II OF MARPOL 73/78

Regulations for the Control of Pollution by Noxious Liquid Substances in Bulk

4.3.1 APPLICATION OF ANNEX II IN RELATION TO FLAG

Annex I and Annex II are the mandatory annexes to MARPOL 73/78. This means that Annex II is effective
for all countries which are Parties to the Convention.
Note that Annex I (as well as Annex II) applies to:
(a) ship’s registered in a country which is Party to the Convention, irrespective of the ship’s trade, and to
(b) ships trading on ports of the Parties, irrespective of which flag the ship is flying.

4.3.2 ANNEX II OF MARPOL 73/78 - REGULATION 2

Application
(1) Unless expressly provided otherwise the provisions of this Annex shall apply to all ships carrying
noxious liquid substances in bulk.
(2) Where a cargo subject to the provisions of Annex 1 of the present Convention is carried in a cargo
space of a chemical tanker, the appropriate requirements of Annex 1 of the present Convention shall
also apply.
(3) Regulation 13 of this Annex shall apply only to ships carrying substances which are categorised for
discharge control purposes in Category A, B or C.
(4) For ships constructed before 1 July 1986, the provisions of regulation 5 of this Annex in respect of the
requirement to discharge below the waterline and maximum concentration in the wake astern of the
ship shall apply as from 1 January 1988.
(5) The Administration may allow any fitting, material, appliance or apparatus to be fitted in a ship as an
alternative to that required by this Annex if such fitting, material, appliance or apparatus is at least as
effective as that required by this Annex. This authority of the Administration shall not extend to the
substitution of operational methods to effect the control of discharge of noxious liquid substances as
equivalent to those design and construction features, which are prescribed by regulations in this
Annex.
SEE INTERPRETATION 2.1
(6) The Administration which allows a fitting, material, appliance or apparatus as alternative to that
required by this Annex, under paragraph (5) of this regulation, shall communicate to the Organisation
for circulation to the Parties to the Convention, particulars thereof, for their information and
appropriate action, if any.
SEE INTERPRETATION 2.5
(7) (a) Where an amendment to this Annex and the International Bulk
Chemical and Bulk Chemical Codes involves changes to the structure or equipment and fittings due to
the upgrading of the requirements for the carriage of certain substances, the Administration may
modify or delay for a specified period the application of such an amendment to ships constructed
before the date of entry into force of that amendment, if the immediate application of such an
amendment is considered unreasonable or impracticable. Such relaxation shall be determined with
respect to each substance, having regard to the guidelines developed by the Organisation.
(b) The Administration allowing a relaxation of the application of an amendment under this paragraph
shall submit to the Organisation a report giving details of the ship or ships concerned, the cargoes
carried, the trade in which each ship is engaged and the justification for the relaxation, for circulation
to the Parties to the Convention for their information and appropriate action, if any.

4.3.3 ANNEX II OF MARPOL 73/78 - REGULATION 3

Categorisation and listing of noxious liquid substances (NLS)
(1) For the purpose of the regulations of this Annex, noxious liquid substances shall be divided into four
categories as follows:
(a) Category A: Noxious liquid substances which if discharged into the sea from tank cleaning or
deballasting operations would present a major hazard to either marine resources or human health or
cause serious harm to amenities or other legitimate uses of the sea and therefore justify the
application of stringent anti-pollution measures.
(b) Category B: Noxious liquid substances which if discharged into the sea from tank cleaning or
deballasting operations would present a hazard to either marine resources or human health or cause
harm to amenities or other legitimate uses of the sea and therefore justify the application of special
anti-pollution measures.
(c) Category C: Noxious liquid substances which if discharged into the sea from tank cleaning or
deballasting operations would present a minor hazard to either marine resources or human health or
cause minor harm to amenities or other legitimate uses of the sea and therefore require special
operational conditions.
(d) Category D: Noxious liquid substances which if discharged into the sea from tank cleaning or
deballasting operations would present a recognisable hazard to either marine resources or human
health or cause minimal harm to amenities or other legitimate uses of the sea and therefore require
some attention in operational conditions.
(2) Guidelines for use in the categorisation of noxious liquid substances are given in appendix 1 to this
Annex.
(3) Noxious liquid substances carried in bulk which are presently categorised as Category A, B, C and D
and subject to the provisions of this Annex are referred to in appendix 11 to this Annex.
(4) Where it is proposed to carry a liquid substance in bulk which has not been categorised under
paragraph (1) of this regulation or evaluated as referred to in regulation 4(1) of this Annex, the
Governments of Parties to the Convention involved in the proposed operation shall establish and
agree on a provisional assessment for the proposed operation on the basis of the guidelines referred
to in paragraph (2) of this regulation. Until full agreement between the Governments involved has
been reached, the substance shall be carried under the most severe conditions proposed. As soon as
possible, but not later than 90 days after its first carriage, the Administration concerned shall notify the
Organisation and provide details of the substance and the provisional assessment for prompt
circulation to all Parties for their information and consideration. The Government of each Party shall
have a period of 90 days in which to forward its comments to the Organisation, with a view to the
assessment of the substance.
SEE INTERPRETATION 2A. 1

4.3.4 ANNEX II OF MARPOL 73/78 - REGULATION 4

Other liquid substances
(1) The substances referred to in appendix III to this Annex have been evaluated and found to fall outside
the Category A, B, C and D, as defined in regulation 3(1) of this Annex because they are at present
considered to present no harm to human health, marine resources, amenities or other legitimate uses
of the sea, when discharged into the sea from tank cleaning or deballasting operations.
(2) The discharge of bilge or ballast water or other residues or mixtures containing only substances
referred to in appendix Ill to this Annex shall not be subject to any requirement of this Annex.
(3) The discharge into the sea of clean ballast or segregated ballast shall not be subject to any
requirement of this Annex.

4.3.5 ANNEX II OF MARPOL 73/78 - REGULATION 5

Discharge of noxious liquid substances

SEE INTERPRETATION 3.1

Category A, B and C substances outside special areas and Category D substances in all areas.
Subject to the provisions of paragraph (14) of this regulation and of regulation 6 of this Annex,
(1) The discharge into the sea of substances in Category A as defined in regulation 3(1)(a) of this Annex
or of those provisionally assessed as such or ballast water, tank washings, or other residues or
mixtures containing such substances shall be prohibited. If tanks containing such substances or
mixtures are to be washed, the resulting residues shall be discharged to a reception facility, until the
concentration of the substance in the effluent to such facility is at or below 0.1 % by weight and until
the tank is empty, with the exception of phosphorus, yellow or white, for which the residual
concentration shall be 0.01% by weight. Any water subsequently added to the tank may be
discharged into the sea when all the Following conditions are satisfied:
(a) the ship is proceeding en route at a speed of at least 7 knots in the case of self-propelled ships or
at least 4 knots in the case of ships which are not self-propelled;
(b) the discharge is made below the waterline, taking into account the location of the seawater
intakes; and
(c) the discharge is made at a distance of not less than 12 nautical miles from the nearest land in a
depth of water of not less than 25 m.
(2) The discharge into the sea of substances in Category B as defined in regulation 3(1)(b) of this Annex
or of those provisionally assessed as such, or ballast water, tank washings, or other residues or
mixtures containing such substances shall be prohibited except when all the following conditions are
satisfied:
(a) the ship is proceeding en route at a speed of at least 7 knots in the case of self-propelled ships or
at least 4 knots in the case of ships which are not self-propelled;
(b) the procedures and arrangements for discharge are approved by the Administration. Such
procedures and arrangements shall be based upon standards developed by the Organisation and
shall ensure that the concentration and rate of discharge of the effluent is such that the concentration
of the substance in the wake astern of the ship does not exceed 1 part per million;
 (c) the maximum quantity of cargo discharged from each tank and its associated piping system does
not exceed the maximum quantity approved in accordance with the procedures referred to in
subparagraph (b) of this paragraph, which shall in no case exceed the greater of 1 M3 or 1/3,000 of
the tank capacity in m
(d) the discharge is made below the waterline, taking into account the location of the seawater
intakes; and
(e) the discharge is made at a distance of not less than 12 nautical miles from the nearest land and in
a depth of water of not less than 25 m.
(3) The discharge into the sea of substances in Category C as defined in regulation 3(1)(c) of this Annex
or of those provisionally assessed as such, or ballast water, tank washings, or other residues or
mixtures containing such substances shall be prohibited except when all the following conditions are
satisfied:
(a) the ship is proceeding en route at a speed of at least 7 knots in the case of self-propelled ships or
at least 4 knots in the case of ships which are not self-propelled;
(b) the procedures and arrangements for discharge are approved by the Administration. Such
procedures and arrangements shall be based upon standards developed by the Organisation and
shall ensure that the concentration and rate of discharge of the effluent is such that the concentration
of the substance in the wake astern of the ship does not exceed 10 parts per million;
(c) the maximum quantity of cargo discharged from each tank and its associated piping system does
not exceed the maximum quantity approved in accordance with the procedures referred to in
subparagraph (b) of this paragraph, which shall in no case exceed the greater of 3 m3 or 1/1,000 of
the tank capacity in M3;
(d) the discharge is made below the waterline, taking into account the location of the seawater
intakes; and
(e) the discharge is made at a distance of not less than 12 nautical miles from the nearest land and in
a depth of water of not less than 25 m.
(4) The discharge into the sea of substances in Category D as defined in regulation 3(1)(d) of this Annex,
or of those provisionally assessed as such, or ballast water, tank washings, or other residues or
mixtures containing such substances shall. be prohibited except when all the following conditions are
satisfied:
(a) the ship is proceeding en route at a speed of at least 7 knots in the case of self-propelled ships or
at least 4 knots in the case of ships which are not self-propelled;
(b) such mixtures are of a concentration not greater than one part of the substance in ten parts of
water; and
(c) the discharge is made at a distance of not less than 12 nautical miles from the nearest land.
(5) Ventilation procedures approved by the Administration may be used to remove cargo residues from a
tank. Such procedures shall be based upon standards developed by the Organisation. Any water
subsequently introduced into the tank shall be regarded as clean and shall not be subject to
paragraph (1), (2), (3) or (4) of this regulation.
(6) The discharge into the sea of substances which have not been categorised, provisionally assessed, or
evaluated as referred to in regulation 4(1) of this Annex, or of ballast water, tank washings, or other
residues or mixtures containing such substances shall be prohibited.

Category A, B and C substances within special areas

Subject to the provisions of paragraph (14) of this regulation and regulation 6 of this Annex,
(7) The discharge into the sea of substances in Category A as defined in regulation 3(1)(a) of this Annex
or of those provisionally assessed as such, or ballast water, tank washings, or other residues or
mixtures containing such substances shall be prohibited. If tanks containing such substances or
mixtures are to be washed, the resulting residues shall be discharged to a reception facility which the
States bordering the special area shall provide in accordance with regulation 7 of this Annex, until the
concentration of the substance in the effluent to such facility is at or below 0.05% by weight and until
the tank is empty, with the exception of phosphorous, yellow or white, for which the residual
concentration shall be 0.005% by weight. Any water subsequently added to the tank may be
discharged into the sea when all the following conditions are satisfied:
(a) the ship is proceeding en route at a speed of at least 7 knots in the case of self-propelled ships or
at least 4 knots in the case of ships which are not self-propelled;
 (b) the discharge is made below the waterline, taking into account the location of the seawater
intakes; and
(c) the discharge is made at a distance of not less than 12 nautical miles from the nearest land and in
a depth of water of not less than 25 m.
(8) The discharge into the sea of substances in Category B as defined in regulation (3)(1)(b) of this Annex
or of those provisionally assessed as such, or ballast water, tank washings, or other residues or
mixtures containing such substances shall be prohibited except when all the following conditions are
satisfied:
(a) the tank has been prewashed in accordance with the procedure approved by the Administration
and based on standards developed by the Organisation and the resulting tank washings have been
discharged to a reception facility;
(b) the ship is proceeding en route at a speed of at least 7 knots in the case of self-propelled ships or
at least 4 knots in the case of ships which are not self-propelled;
(c) the procedures and arrangements for discharge and washings are approved by the Administration.
Such procedures and arrangements shall be based upon standards developed by the Organisation
and shall ensure that the concentration ant rate of discharge of the effluent is such that the
concentration of the substance in the wake astern of the ship does not exceed 1 part per million;
(d) the discharge is made below the waterline, taking into account the location of the seawater
intakes; and
(e) the discharge is made at a distance of not less than 12 nautical miles from the nearest land and in
a depth of water of not less than 25 m.
(9) The discharge into the sea of substances in Category C as defined in regulation 3(1)(c) of this Annex
or of those provisionally assessed as such, or ballast water, tank washings, or other residues or
mixtures containing such substances shall be prohibited except when all the following conditions are
satisfied:
(a) the ship is proceeding en route at a speed of at least 7 knots in the case of self-propelled ships or
at least 4 knots in the case of ships which are not self-propelled;
(b) the procedures and arrangements for discharge are approved by the Administration. Such
procedures and arrangements shall be based upon standards developed by the Organisation and
shall ensure that the concentration and rate of discharge of the effluent is such that the concentration
of the substance in the wake astern of the ship does not exceed 1 part per million;
(c) the maximum quantity of cargo discharged from each tank and its associated piping system does
not exceed the maximum quantity approved in accordance with the procedures referred to in
subparagraph (b) of this paragraph which shall in no case exceed the greater of 1 m 3 or 113,000 of
the tank capacity in m 3 ;
(d) the discharge is made below the waterline, taking into account the location of the seawater
intakes; and
(e) the discharge is made at a distance of not less than 12 nautical miles from the nearest land and
in a depth of water of not less than 25 m.
(10) Ventilation procedures approved by the Administration may be used to remove cargo residues from a
tank. Such procedures shall be based upon standards developed by the Organisation. Any water
subsequently introduced into the tank shall be regarded as clean and, shall not be subject to
paragraph (7), (8) or (9) of this regulation.
(11) The discharge into the sea of substances which have not been categorised, provisionally assessed or
evaluated as referred to in regulation 4(1) of this Annex, or of ballast water, tank washings, or other
residues or mixtures containing such substances shall be prohibited.
(12) Nothing in this regulation shall prohibit a ship from retaining on board the residues from a Category, B
or C cargo and discharging such residues into the sea outside a special area in accordance with
paragraph (2) or (3) of this regulation, respectively.
(13) (a) The Governments of Parties to the Convention, the coastlines of which border on any given
special area, shall collectively agree and establish a date by which time the requirement of regulation
7(1) of this Annex will be fulfilled and from which the requirements of paragraphs (7), (8), (9) and (10)
of this regulation in respect of that area shall take effect and notify the Organisation of the date so
established at least six months in advance of that date. The Organisation shall then promptly notify all
Parties of that date.
 (b) If the date of entry into force of the present Convention is earlier than the date established in
accordance with subparagraph (a) of this paragraph, the requirements of paragraphs (1), (2) and (3)
of this regulation shall apply during the interim period.

4.3.6 ANNEX II OF MARPOL 73/78 - REGULATION 6

Exceptions
Regulation 5 of this Annex shall not apply to:
(a) the discharge into the sea of noxious liquid substances or mixtures containing such substances
necessary for the purpose of securing the safety of a ship or saving life at sea; or
(b) the discharge into the sea of noxious liquid substances or mixtures containing such substances
resulting from damage to a ship or its equipment:
(i) provided that all reasonable precautions have been taken after the occurrence of the damage or
discovery of the discharge for the purpose of preventing or minimising the discharge; and
(ii) except if the owner or the master acted either with intent to cause damage, or recklessly and with
knowledge that damage would probably result; or
(c) the discharge into the sea of noxious liquid substances or mixtures containing such substances,
approved by the Administration, when being used for the purpose of combating specific pollution
incidents in order to minimise the damage from pollution. Any such discharge shall be subject to the
approval of any Government in whose jurisdiction it is contemplated the discharge will occur.

4.3.7 ANNEX II OF MARPOL 73/78 - REGULATION 7

Reception facilities and cargo unloading terminal arrangements
(1) The Government of each Party to the Convention undertakes to ensure the provision of reception
facilities according to the needs of ships using its ports, terminals or repair ports as follows:
(a) cargo loading and unloading ports and terminals shall have facilities adequate for reception without
undue delay to ships of such residues and mixtures containing noxious liquid substances as would
remain for disposal from ships carrying them as a consequence of application of this Annex; and
(b) ship repair ports undertaking repairs to chemical tankers shall have facilities adequate for the
reception of residues and mixtures containing noxious liquid substances.
SEE INTERPRETATION 5.1
(2) The Government of each Party shall determine the types of facilities provided for the purpose of
paragraph (1) of this regulation at each cargo loading and unloading port, terminal and ship repair port
in its territories and notify the Organisation thereof.
(3) The Government of each Party to the Convention shall undertake to ensure that cargo unloading
terminals shall provide arrangements to facilitate stripping of cargo tanks of ships unloading noxious
liquid substances at these terminals. Cargo hoses and piping systems of the terminal, containing
noxious liquid substances received from ships unloading these substances at the terminal, shall not
be drained back to the ship.
(4) Each Party shall notify the Organisation, for transmission to the Parties concerned, of any case where
facilities required under paragraph (1) or arrangements required under paragraph (3) of this regulation
are alleged to be inadequate.

4.3.8 ANNEX II OF MARPOL 73/78 - REGULATION 8

Measures of control
(1) (a) The Government of each Party to the Convention shall appoint or authorise surveyors for the
purpose of implementing this regulation. The surveyors shall execute control in accordance with
control procedures developed by the organisation.
(b) The master of a ship carrying noxious liquid substances in bulk shall ensure that the provisions of
regulation 5 and this regulation have been complied with and that the Cargo Record Book is
completed in accordance with regulation 9 of this Annex whenever operations as referred to in that
regulation take place.
(c) An exemption referred to in paragraphs (2)(b), (5)(b), (6)(c) or (7) (c) of this regulation may
only be granted by the Government of the receiving Party to a ship engaged in voyages to ports or
terminals under the jurisdiction of other States Parties to the present Convention. When such an
 exemption has been granted, the appropriate entry made in the Cargo Record Book shall be endorsed
by the surveyor referred to in subparagraph (a) of this paragraph.
Category A substances in all areas
(2) With respect to Category A substances the following provisions shall applv in all areas:
(a) A tank, which has been unloaded, shall subject to the provisions of subparagraph (b) of this
paragraph, be washed in accordance with the requirements of paragraphs (3) or (4) of this regulation
before the ship leaves the port of unloading.
(b) At the request of the ship's master, the Government of the receiving Party may exempt the ship
from the requirements referred to in subparagraph (a) of this paragraph, where it is satisfied that:
(i) the tank unloaded is to be reloaded with the same substance or another substance compatible
with the previous one and that the tank will not be washed or ballasted prior to loading; or
(ii) the tank unloaded is neither washed nor ballasted at sea and the provisions of paragraphs (3)
or (4) of this regulation are complied with at another port provided that it has been confirmed in
writing that a reception facility at that port is available and is adequate for such a purpose; or
(iii) the cargo residues will be removed by a ventilation procedure approved by the Administration
and based on standards developed by the Organisation.
(3) If the tank is to be washed in accordance with subparagraph (2)(a) of this regulation, the effluent from
the tank washing operation shall be discharged to a reception facility at least until the concentration of
the substance in the discharge, as indicated by analyses of samples of the effluent taken by the
surveyor, has fallen to the concentration specified in regulation 5(1) or 5(7), as applicable, of this
Annex. When the required concentration has been achieved, remaining tank washings shall continue
to be discharged to the reception facility until the tank is empty. Appropriate entries of these
operations shall be made in the Cargo Record Book and endorsed by the surveyor referred to under
paragraph (1)(a) of this regulation.
(4) Where the Government of the receiving parry is satisfied that it is impracticable to measure the
concentration of the substance in the effluent without causing undue delay to the ship, that Party may
accept an alternative procedure as being equivalent to paragraph (3) of this regulation provided that:
(a) the tank is prewashed in accordance with a procedure approved by the Administration and based
on standards developed by the Organisation; and
(b) the surveyor referred to under paragraph (1)(a) certifies in the Cargo Record Book that:
(i) the tank, its pump and piping systems have been emptied; and
(ii) the prewash has been carried out in accordance with the prewash procedure approved by the
Administration for that tank and that substance; and
(iii) the tank washings resulting from such prewash have been discharged to a reception facility
and the tank is empty.
Category B and C substances outside special areas
(5) With respect to Category B and C substances, the following provisions shall apply outside special
areas:
(a) A tank which has been unloaded shall, subject to the provisions of subparagraph (b) of this
paragraph, be prewashed before the ship leaves the port of unloading, whenever:
(i) the substance unloaded is identified in the standards developed by the Organisation as
resulting in a residue quantity exceeding the maximum quantity which may be discharged into the
sea under regulation 5(2) or (3) of this Annex in case of Category B or C substances respectively;
or
SEE INTERPRETATION 5A.1
(ii) the unloading is not carried out in accordance with the pumping conditions for the tank
approved by the Administration and based on standards developed by the Organisation as
referred to under regulation 5A(5) of this Annex, unless alternative measures are taken to the
satisfaction of the surveyor referred to in paragraph (1)(a) of this regulation to remove the cargo
residues from the ship to quantities specified in regulation 5A of this Annex as applicable. The
prewash procedure used shall be approved by the Administration and based on standards
developed by the Organisation and the resulting tank washings shall be discharged to a reception
facility at the port of unloading.
(b) At the request of the ship's master, the Government of the receiving party may exempt the ship
from the requirements of subparagraph (a) of this paragraph, where it is satisfied that:
 (i) the tank unloaded is to be reloaded with the same substance or another substance compatible
with the previous one and that the tank will not be washed nor ballasted prior to loading; or
(ii) the tank unloaded is neither washed nor ballasted at sea and the tank is prewashed in
accordance with a procedure approved by the Administration and based on standards developed
by the Organisation and resulting tank washings are discharged to a reception facility at another
port, provided that it has been confirmed in writing that a reception facility at that port is available
and adequate for such a purpose; or
(iii) the cargo residues mill be removed by a ventilation procedure approved by the Administration
and based on standards developed by the Organisation.
Category B substances within special areas
(6) With respect to Category B substances, the following provisions shall apply within special areas:
(a) A tank which has been unloaded shall, subject to the provisions of subparagraphs (b) and (c), be
prewashed before the ship leaves the port of unloading. The prewash procedure used shall be
approved by the Administration and based on standards developed by the Organisation and the
resulting tank washings shall be discharged to a reception facility at the port of unloading.
(b) The requirements of subparagraph (a) of this paragraph do not apply when all the following
conditions are satisfied:
(i) the Category B substance unloaded is identified in the standards developed by the
Organisation as resulting in a residue quantity not exceeding the maximum quantity which may be
discharged into the sea outside special areas under regulation 5(2) of this Annex, and the
residues are retained on board for subsequent discharge into the sea outside the special area in
compliance with regulation 5(2) of this Annex; and
(ii) the unloading is carried out in accordance with the pumping conditions for the tank approved
by the Administration and based on standards developed by the Organisation as referred to under
regulation 5A(5) of this Annex, or failing to comply with the approved pumping conditions,
alternative measures are taken to the satisfaction of the surveyor referred to in paragraph (1)(a) of
this regulation to remove the cargo residues from the ship to quantities specified in regulation 5A
of this Annex as applicable.
(c) At the request of the ship's master, the Government of the receiving party may exempt the ship
from the requirements of subparagraph (a) of this paragraph, where it is satisfied that:
(i) the tank unloaded is to be reloaded with the same substance or another substance compatible
with the previous one and that the tank will not be washed or ballasted prior to loading; or
(ii) the tank unloaded is neither washed nor ballasted at sea and the tank is prewashed in
accordance with a procedure approved by the Administration and based on standards developed
by the Organisation and resulting tank washings are discharged to a reception facility at another
port, provided that it has been confirmed in writing that a reception facility at that port is available
and adequate for such a purpose; or
(iii) the cargo residues will be removed by a ventilation procedure approved by the Administration
and based on standards developed by the Organisation.
Category C substances within special areas
(7) With respect to Category C substances, the following provisions shall apply within special areas:
(a) A tank which has been unloaded shall, subject to the provisions of subparagraphs (b) and (c) of
this paragraph, be prewashed before the ship leaves the port of unloading, whenever:
(i) the Category C substance unloaded is identified in the standards developed by the
Organisation as resulting in a residue quantity exceeding the maximum quantity which may be
discharged into the sea under regulation 5(9) of this Annex; or
SEE INTERPRETATION 5A.1
(ii) the unloading is not carried out in accordance with the pumping conditions for the tank
approved by the Administration and based on standards developed by the Organisation as
referred to under regulation 5A(5) of this Annex, unless alternative measures are taken to the
satisfaction of the surveyor referred to in paragraph (1)(a) of this regulation to remove the cargo
residues from the ship to quantities specified in regulation 5A of this Annex as applicable.
The prewash procedure used shall be approved by the Administration and based on standards
developed by the Organisation and the resulting tank washings shall be discharged to a reception
facility at the port of unloading.
 (b) The requirements of subparagraph (a) of this paragraph do not apply when all the following
conditions are satisfied:
(i) the Category C substance unloaded is identified in the standards developed by the
Organisation as resulting in a residue quantity not exceeding the maximum quantity which may be
discharged into the sea outside special areas under regulation 5(3) of this Annex, and the
residues are retained on board for subsequent discharge into the sea outside the special area in
compliance with regulation 5(3) of this Annex; and
(ii) the unloading is carried out in accordance with the pumping conditions for the tank approved
by the Administration and based on standards developed by the Organisation as referred to under
regulation 5A(5) of this Annex, or failing to comply with the approved pumping conditions,
alternative measures are taken to the satisfaction of the surveyor referred to in paragraph (1)(a) of
this regulation to remove the cargo residues from the ship to quantities specified in regulation 5A
of this Annex as applicable.
(c) At the request of the ship's master, the Government of the receiving party may exempt the ship
from the requirements of subparagraph (a) of this paragraph, where it is satisfied that:
(i) the tank unloaded is to be reloaded with the same substance or another substance compatible
with the previous one and that the tank will not be washed or ballasted prior to loading; or
(ii) the tank unloaded is neither washed nor ballasted at sea and the tank is prewashed in
accordance with a procedure approved by the Administration and based on standards developed
by the Organisation and resulting tank washings are discharged to a reception facility at another
port, provided that it has been confirmed in writing that a reception facility at that port is available
and adequate for such a purpose; or
(iii) the cargo residues will be removed by a ventilation procedure approved by the Administration
and based on standards developed by the Organisation.
Category D substances in all areas
(8) With respect to Category D substances, a tank which has been unloaded shall either be washed and
the resulting tank washings shall be discharged to a reception facility, or the remaining residues in the
tank shall be diluted and discharged into the sea in accordance with regulation 5(4) of this Annex.
Discharge from a slop tank
(9) Any residues retained oil board in a slop tank, including those from cargo pump-room bilges, which
contain a Category A substance, or within a special area either a Category A or a Category B
substance, shall be discharged to a reception facility in accordance with the provisions of regulation
5(1), (7) or (8) of this Annex, whichever is applicable.

4.3.9 ANNEX II OF MARPOL 73/78 - APPENDICES TO ANNEX II

4.3.9.1 Appendix I
Guidelines for the categorisation of noxious liquid substances
Category A: Substances which are bioaccumulated and liable to produce a hazard to aquatic life or human
health, or which are highly toxic to aquatic life (as expressed by a Hazard Rating 4, defined by a TLm less
than 1 ppm); and additionally certain substances which are moderately toxic to aquatic life (as expressed
by a Hazard Rating 3, defined by a TLm of 1 ppm or more, but less than 10 ppm) when particular weight is
given to additional factors in the hazard profile or to special characteristics of the substance.
Category B: Substances which are bioaccumulated with a short retention of the order of one week or less,
or which are liable to produce tainting of the sea food, or which are moderately toxic to aquatic life (as
expressed by a Hazard Rating 3, defined by a TLm of 1 ppm or more, but less than 10 ppm); and
additionally certain substances which are slightly toxic to aquatic life (as expressed by a Hazard Rating 2,
defined by a TLm of 10 ppm or more, but less than 100 ppm) when particular weight is given to additional
factors in the hazard profile or to special characteristics of the substance.
Category C: Substances which are slightly toxic to aquatic life (as expressed by a Hazard Rating 2,
defined by a TLm of 10 ppm or more, but less than 100 ppm); and additionally certain substances which
are practically non-toxic to aquatic life (as expressed by a Hazard Rating f, defined by a TLm of 100 ppm
or more, but less than 1,000 ppm) when particular weight is given to additional factors in the hazard profile
or to special characteristics of the substance.
Category D: Substances which are practically non-toxic to aquatic life (as expressed by a Hazard Rating 1,
defined by a TLm of 100 ppm or more, but less than 1,000 ppm); or causing deposits blanketing the sea
floor with a high biochemical oxygen demand (BOD); or which are highly hazardous to human health, with
an LD50 of less than 5 mg/kg; or which produce moderate reduction of amenities because of persistency,
smell or poisonous or irritant characteristics, possibly interfering with use of beaches; or which are
moderately hazardous to human health, with an LD50 of 5 mg/kg or more, but less than 50 mg/kg, and
produce slight reduction of amenities.

4.3.9.2 Appendix II
List of noxious liquid substances carried in bulk
Noxious liquid substances carried in bulk and which are presently categorised as Category A, B, C or D
and subject to the provisions of this Annex, are so indicated in the Pollution Category column of chapters
17 or 18 of the International Bulk Chemical Code.

4.3.9.3 Appendix III

List of other liquid substances
Liquid substances carried in bulk which are identified as falling outside Categories A, B, C and D and not
subject to the provisions of this Annex and indicated as 'III' in the Pollution Category column of chapters 17
or 18 of the International Bulk Chemical Code.

4.3.10 ANNEX II OF MARPOL 73/78 - REGULATION 14

Carriage and discharge of oil-like substances
SEE INTERPRETATIONS 7.1 and 7.2
Notwithstanding the provisions of other regulations of this Annex, noxious liquid substances referred to in
appendix II of this Annex as falling under Category C or D and identified by the Organisation as oil-like
substances under the criteria developed by the Organisation, may be carried on an oil tanker as defined in
Annex I of the Convention and discharged in accordance with the provisions of Annex I of the present
Convention, provided that all of the following conditions are complied with:
(a) the ship complies with the provisions of Annex 1 of the present Convention as applicable to product
carriers as defined in that Annex;
(b) the ship carries an International Oil Pollution Prevention Certificate and its Supplement B and the
certificate is endorsed to indicate that the ship may carry oil-like substances in conformity with this
regulation and the endorsement includes a list of oil-like substances the ship is allowed to carry;
(c) in the case of Category C substances the ship complies with the ship type 3 damage stability
requirements of,
(i) the International Bulk Chemical Code in the case of a ship constructed on or after 1 July 1986; or
(ii) the Bulk Chemical Code, as applicable under regulation 13 of this Annex, in the case of a ship
constructed before 1 July 1986; and
SEE INTERPRETATION 7.3
(d) the oil content meter in the oil discharge monitoring and control system of the ship is approved by the
Administration for use in monitoring the oil-like substances to be carried.
SEE INTERPRETATION 7.4

4.3.10.1 Oil-like substances

List of oil-like substances
Category C substances Category D substances
Aviation alkylates Alkyl (C9-C 1 7) benzenes
Cycloheptane Diisopropy naphthalene
Cyclohexane Dodecane (all isomers)
Cyclopentane
p-Cymene
Diethyibenzene
Dipentene
Ethylbenzene
 Ethylcyclohexane
Heptene (all isomers)
Hexane (all isomers)
Hexene (all isomers)
isopropyl cyclohexane
Methylcyclohexane
2-Methyl-l-pentene
Nonane (all isomers)
Octane (all isomers)
Olefin mixtures (C5-C7)
Pentane (all isomers)
Pentene (all isomers)
1-Phenyl-l-xylylethane
Propylene dimer
TETRAHYDRONAPHTHALENE
Toluene
Xylenes
For each of the above substances, compliance with the oil-like substance criterion 7.2.1.4 given below has
to be demonstrated for the particular oil content meter installed.
7.2 Selection criteria
7.2.1 The following criteria define an oil-like Category C or D noxious liquid substance:
.1 the substance's mass density (specific gravity) is less than 1.0 at 20oC;
.2 the substance's solubility in seawater at 20'C is less than 0.1 %;
.3 the substance is a hydrocarbons
.4 the substance can be monitored by an oil content meter required by regulation 1 5 of Annex 1 of
MARPOL 73/78.
.5 in the case of Category C substances, the ship type requirement, as specified by the Bulk
Chemical or International Bulk Chemical Codes, is type 3: and
.6 the substance is not regulated by the Bulk Chemical or International Bulk Chemical Codes for
safety purposes as indicated in chapters VI and 1 7 of the Codes respectively.

4.3.11 PROCEDURES AND ARRANGEMENTS MANUAL (STANDARD FORMAT)

4.3.11.1 Main features of MARPOL 73/78, Annex II

(1) The requirements of Annex 11 apply to all ships carrying noxious liquid substances in bulk.
Substances posing a threat of harm to the marine environment are divided into four categories, A, B,
C and D, and listed as such in appendix II to Annex II. Category A substances are those posing the
greatest threat to the marine environment, whilst Category D substances are those posing the
smallest threat.
(2) Annex II prohibits the discharge into the sea of any effluent containing substances falling under these
categories, except when the discharge is made under conditions which are specified in detail for each
category. These conditions include, where applicable, such parameters as:
- the maximum quantity of substances per tank which may be discharged into the sea;
- the speed of the ship during the discharge;
- the minimum distance from the nearest land during discharge;
- the minimum depth of water at sea during discharge;
 - the maximum concentration of substances in the ship's wake or the dilution of substances prior to
discharge; and
- the need to effect the discharge below the waterline.
(3) For certain sea areas identified as "special areas" more stringent discharge criteria are given. Under
Annex II the special areas are the Baltic Sea area, the Black Sea area, and the Antarctic area.
(4) Annex II requires that every ship is provided with pumping and piping arrangements to ensure that
each tank designated for the carriage of Category B and C substances does not retain after unloading
a quantity of residue in excess of the quantity given in the Annex. For each tank intended for the
carriage of such substances an assessment of the residue quantity has to be made. Only when the
residue quantity as assessed is less than the quantity prescribed by the Annex may a tank be
approved for the carriage of a Category B or a Category C substance.
(5) In addition to the conditions referred to above, an important requirement contained in Annex 11 is that
the discharge operations of certain cargo residues and certain tank cleaning and ventilation
operations may only be carried out in accordance with approved procedures and arrangements based
upon standards developed by the International Maritime Organisation (IMO).
(6) To enable this requirement to be complied with, this Manual contains in section 2 all particulars of the
ship's equipment and arrangements, in section 3 operational procedures for cargo unloading and tank
stripping and in section 4 procedures for discharge of cargo residues, tank washing, slops collection,
ballasting and deballasting as may be applicable to the substances the ship is certified to carry.
(7) By following the procedures as set out in this Manual, it will be ensured that the ship complies with all
relevant requirements of Annex II to MARPOL 73/78.

4.3.11.2 Description of the ship's equipment and arrangements

1.1 This section contains all particulars of the ship's equipment and arrangements necessary to enable the
crew to follow the operational procedures set out in sections 3 and 4.
1.2 General arrangement of ship and description of cargo tanks
This section should contain a brief description of the cargo area of the ship with the main features of the
cargo tanks and their positions.
Line or schematic drawings showing the general arrangement of the ship and indicating the position and
numbering of the cargo tanks and heating arrangements should be included. Identification of the cargo
tanks certified fit to carry noxious liquid substances should be made in conjunction with table 1 of this
Manual.
2.3 Description of cargo pumping and piping arrangements and stripping system
This section should contain a description of the cargo pumping and piping arrangements and of the
stripping system. Line or schematic drawings should be provided showing the following and be supported
by textual explanation where necessary:
- cargo piping arrangements with diameters;
- cargo pumping arrangements with pump capacities;
- piping arrangements of stripping system with diameters;
- pumping arrangements of stripping system with pump capacities;
- location of suction points of cargo lines and stripping lines inside every cargo tank;
- if a suction well is fitted, the location and cubic capacity thereof;
- line draining and stripping or blowing arrangements; and
- quantity and pressure of nitrogen or air required for line blowing if applicable.
2.4 Description of ballast tanks and ballast pumping and piping arrangements
This section should contain a description of the ballast tanks and ballast pumping and piping
arrangements.
Line or schematic drawings and tables should be provided showing the following:
- a general arrangement showing the segregated ballast tanks and cargo tanks to be used as ballast
tanks together with their capacities (cubic metres);
- ballast piping arrangement;
- pumping capacity for those cargo tanks which may also be used as ballast tanks; and
- any interconnection between the ballast piping arrangemets; and
- the underwater outlet system.
2.5 Description of dedicated slop tanks with associated pumping and piping arrangements
This section should contain a description of the dedicated slop tanks with the associated pumping and
piping arrangements. Line or schematic drawings should be provided showing the following:
- which dedicated slop tanks are provided together with the capacities of such tanks;
- pumping and piping arrangements of dedicated slop tanks with piping diameters and their connection
with the underwater discharge outlet.
2.6 Description of underwater discharge outlet for effluents containing noxious liquid substances
This section should contain information on position and maximum flow capacity of the underwater
discharge outlet (or outlets) and the connections to this outlet from the cargo tanks and slop tanks. Line or
schematic drawings should be provided showing the following:
- location and number of underwater discharge outlets;
- connections to underwater discharge outlet;
- location of all seawater intakes in relation to underwater discharge outlets.
2.7 Description of flow rate indicating and recording devices
This section, which applies only to ships operating under regulation 5A(2)(b), should contain a description
of the means of measuring the flow rate, and if required also the means of recording the flow rate and
time, and the methods of operation.
A line or schematic drawing showing the position and connections of these devices should be provided.
2.8 Description of cargo tank ventilation system
This section should contain a description of the cargo tank ventilation system.
Line or schematic drawings and tables should be provided showing the following and supported by textual
explanation if necessary:
- the noxious liquid substances the ship is certified fit to carry having a vapour pressure over 5 x 103 Pa at
20o C suitable for cleaning by ventilation to be listed in table 1
- ventilation piping and fans;
- position of the ventilation openings;
- the minimum flow rate of the ventilation system to adequately ventilate the bottom and all parts of the
cargo tank;
- the location of structures inside the tank affecting ventilation;
- the method of ventilating the cargo pipeline system, pumps, filters, etc; and
- means for ensuring that the tank is dry.
2.9 Description of tank washing arrangements and washwater heating system
This section should contain a description of the cargo tank washing arrangements, washwater heating
system and all necessary tank washing equipment.
Line or schematic drawings and tables or charts showing the following:
- arrangements of piping dedicated for tank washing with pipeline diameters;
- type of tank washing machines with capacities and pressure rating;
- maximum number of tank washing machines which can operate simultaneously;
- position of deck openings for cargo tank washing;
- the number of washing machines and their location required for ensuring complete coverage of the cargo
tank walls;
- maximum capacity of washwater which can be heated to 60o C by the installed heating equipment- and
- maximum number of tank washing machines which can be operated simultaneously at 60oC.

4.3.11.3 Cargo unloading procedures and tank stripping

3.1 This section contains operational procedures in respect of cargo unloading and tank stripping which
must be followed in order to ensure compliance with the requirements of Annex II.
3.2 Cargo unloading
This section should contain procedures to be followed including the pump and cargo unloading and suction
line to be used for each tank. Alternative methods may be given.
The method of operation of the pump or pumps and the sequence of operation of all valves should be
given.
The basic requirement is to unload the cargo to the maximum practicable extent.
3.3 Cargo tank stripping
This section should contain procedures to be followed during the stripping of each cargo tank.
The procedures should include the following:
- operation of stripping system;
- list and trim requirements;
- line draining and stripping or blowing arrangements if applicable.
3.4 Cargo temperature
This section should contain information on the heating requirements of cargoes which have been identified
as being required to be at a certain minimum temperature during unloading.
Information should be given on control of the heating system and the method of temperature
measurement.
3.5 Procedures to be followed when a cargo tank cannot be unloaded in accordance with the required
procedures
This section should contain information on the procedures to be followed in the event that the
requirements contained in sections 3.3 and/or 3.4 cannot be met due to circumstances such as the
following:
- failure of cargo tank stripping system; and
- failure of cargo tank heating system.

3.6 Cargo Record Book

The Cargo Record Book should be completed in the appropriate places on completion of cargo unloading.
4.3.11.4 Procedures relating to the cleaning of cargo tanks, the discharge of residues,
ballasting and deballasting
4.1 This section contains operational procedures in respect of tank cleaning, ballast and slops handling
which must be followed in order to ensure compliance with the requirements of Annex 11.
4.2 The following paragraphs outline the sequence of actions to be taken and contain the information
essential to ensure that noxious liquid substances are discharged without posing a threat of harm to the
marine environment.
4.3 Establish if the last cargo in the tank is included in the ship's approved list of noxious liquid
substances (see table 1). If not included, no special tank cleaning, residue discharge, ballasting and
deballasting procedures apply under the provisions of Annex 11.
4.4 If the last cargo in the tank is included in the above mentioned list, the information necessary to
establish the procedures for discharging the residue of that cargo, cleaning, ballasting and deballasting the
tank, should take into account the following:
4.4.1 Category of substance
Obtain the category of the substance from table 1.
4.4.2 Stripping efficiency of tank pumping system
The contents of this section will depend on the design of the ship and ether it is a new ship or existing ship.
(See flow diagrams pumping/ ping requirements.)
4.4.3 Vessel within or outside special area
This section should contain instructions on whether the tank washings can be discharged into the sea
within a special area (as defined in section 1.3) or outside a special area. The different requirements
should be made clear and will depend on the design and trade of the ship.
4.4.4 Solidifying or high-viscosity substance
The properties of the substance should be obtained from the shipping document.
4.4.5 Miscibility in water
This property of the substance should be obtained from table 1.
Note: This section should be completed only for existing ships and only for Category B substances.
4.4.6 Compatibility with slops containing other substances
This section should contain instructions on the permissible and non-permissible mixing of cargo slops.
Reference should be made to compatibility guides.
4.4.7 Discharge to reception facility
This section should identity those substances the residues of which are required to be prewashed and
discharged to a reception facility.
4.4.8 Discharging into the sea
This section should contain information on the factors to be considered in order to identify whether the
residue/water mixtures are permitted to be discharged into the sea.
4.4.9 Use of cleaning agents or additives
This section should contain information on the use and disposal of cleaning agents (e.g. solvents used for
tank cleaning) and additives to tank washing water (e.g. detergents).
4.4.10 Use of ventilation procedures for tank cleaning
This section should make reference to table 1 to ascertain the suitability of the use of ventilation
procedures.
4.5 Having assessed the above information, the correct operational procedures to be followed should be
identified using the instructions and flow diagrams in this section. Appropriate entries should be made in
the Cargo Record Book indicating the procedure adopted.
This section should contain procedures, which will depend on the age of the ship and pumping efficiency,
based on the Standards. Examples of flow diagrams referred to in this section are given at addendum A
and incorporate comprehensive requirements applicable to both new and existing ships. The Manual for a
particular ship should only contain those requirements specifically applicable to that ship. The Manual
should contain the following information and procedures:
Table 1: List of noxious liquid substances allowed to be carried.
Table 2: Cargo tank information.
Addendum A: Flow diagrams.
Addendum B: Prewash procedures.
Addendum C: Ventilation procedures.
Addendum D: Determination of permitted residue discharge rates for Category B substances as required.
Outlines of the above tables and addenda follow.
Table 1 - List of noxious liquid substances allowed to be carried
* Tank numbers (tank groups) should be identical to those in the ship’s Certificate of Fitness
--------------------------------------------
Table 2 - Cargo tank information
Flow diagrams – Cleaning of cargo tanks and disposal of tank washing/ballast
containing residues of Category A, B, C and D substances.
Note: This is a flow diagram giving comprehensive requirements applicable to new and existing ships. The
flow diagram for a specific ship should only include parts applicable to that ship.
(CDP) 1 (a) 1 (b) 2 3 4 5 (a) 5 (b) 6 7 8
Apply prewash in accordance x x
with appendix B and discharge
residue to reception facility
Apply prewash in accordance x x
with
appendix B and transfer residues
to slop
tank for discharge to sea in
accordance
with chapter 10, section 10.5 or
10.6
Apply subsequent wash of x x
minimum
one cycle
Apply ventilation procedures in x
accordance with appendix C
Residue may be retained on x
board and
discharged outside special area
Residues of substances with x
viscosities <60 mpa.s at the
unloading temperature may be
retained on board and
discharged outside special area.
Alternatively, tanks may be
prewashed and slops discharged
ashore
Dilute residue in cargo tanks with x
water
to obtain residue concentration in
 mixture of 10% or less
Ballast tank or wash tank to x x x x x x
commercial requirements
Conditions for discharge of
ballast/residue/water mixtures
other than prewash:
> 12 miles from land x x x x x x x x x
>7 knots ship's speed x x x x x x x x x
>25 metres water depth x x x x x x x
Using underwater discharge
Ballast added to tank x x
Condition for discharge of x x
ballast:
> 12 miles from land
>25 metres water depth
Alternatively, residue/water x x
mixtures may be discharged
ashore
(N.B. optional not MAPPOL
requirement)
Any water subsequently x x x x x x x x x x
introduced into the tank may be
discharged into the sea without
restrictions

Note: Start at the stop of the column under the CDP number specified and complete each procedure in
sequence where marked "x".
Disposal of prewash or tank washings containing Category A, B, C or D substances from dedicated slop
tanks or cargo tanks containing tank washings or slops
Note: This is a flow diagram giving comprehensive requirements applicable to new and existing ships. The
flow diagram for a specific ship should only include parts applicable to that ship.
Slops disposal procedures Sequence of procedures
(SDP) 1 2 3 4 5 6
Slops must be discharged ashore x
Establish discharge race of miscible residue/water x
mixture in accordance with addendum D
Divide obtained discharge rate of pure product by x
composite slops concentration
The figure obtained shows the rate at which discharge x x
is permitted
Residues of substances with viscosities < 60 mPa.s at x
the unloading temperature may be retained on board
and discharged outside special area.
Alternatively, tanks may be prewashed acid slops
discharged ashore
Dilute slops with water to obtain a solution of 110% or x
less no restrictions on discharge rate
Discharge rate is maximum permitted by underwater x x
discharge outlet
Additional discharge conditions x x x x x
- ship's speed at least 7 knots x x x x x
- outside 12 miles from nearest land x x x x x
- depth of water at least 25 m x x x x x
- using underwater discharge

Note: Start at the top of the column under the SDP number specified and complete each procedure in
sequence where marked "x".

4.3.11.5 ADDENDUM B - Prewash procedures

This addendum to the Manual should contain prewash procedures based on appendix B of the Standards.
These procedures should contain specific requirements for the use of the tank washing arrangements and
equipment provided on the particular ship and include the following:
- washing machine positions to be used;
- slops pumping out procedure;
- requirements for hot washing;
- number of cycles of washing machine (or time);
- minimum operating pressures.

4.3.11.6 ADDENDUM C - Ventilation procedures

This addendum to the Manual should contain ventilation procedures based on appendix C of the
Standards. The procedures should contain specific requirements for the use of the cargo tank ventilation
system, or equipment, fitted on the particular ship and should include the following:
- ventilation positions to be used;
- minimum flow or speed of fans;
- procedures for ventilating cargo pipeline, pumps, filters, etc.;
- procedures for ensuring that tanks are dry on completion.

4.3.11.7 ADDENDUM D - Determination of permitted residue discharge rates for Category

B substances
This addendum to the Manual, which is required only by ships operating under regulation 5A(2)(b), should
contain a method for the ship's crew to determine the permitted discharge rates for Category B
substances. The method should be based on sections 10.5 and 10.6 of the Standards.

4.3.11.8 Cargo Record Book for ships carrying noxious liquid substances in bulk
FORM OF CARGO RECORD BOOK
CARGO RECORD BOOK FOR SHIPS CARRYING
NOXIOUS LIQUID SUBSTANCES IN BULK
Name of ship:……………………………………………………………………………………
Distinctive number
or letters………………………………………………………………………………………….
Gross tonnage……………………………………………………………………………………
Period from……………………………….. .to………………………………………………….
Name of ship……………………………………………………………………………...
Distinctive number or letters………………………………………………………………………

Introduction
The following pages show a comprehensive list of items of cargo and ballast operations which are, when
appropriate, to be recorded in the Cargo Record Book on a tank-to-tank basis in accordance with
paragraph 2 of regulation 9 of Annex II of the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from
Ships, 1973, as modified by the Protocol of 1978 relating thereto, as amended. The items have been
grouped into operational sections, each of which is denoted by a letter.
When making entries in the Cargo Record Book, the date, operational code and item number shall be
inserted in the appropriate columns and the required particulars shall be recorded chronologically in the
blank spaces.
Each completed operation shall be signed for and dated by the officer or officers in charge and, if
applicable, by a surveyor authorised by the competent authority of the State in which the ship is unloading.
Each completed page shall be countersigned by the master of the ship.
Entries in the Cargo Record Book are required only for operations involving Categories A, B, C and D
substances.
List of items to be recorded
Entries are required only for operations involving Categories A, B, C and D substances.
(A) Loading of cargo
1. Place of loading.
2. Identify tank(s), name of substances) and category(ies).
(B) Internal transfer of cargo
3. Name and category of cargo(es) transferred.
4. Identity of tanks:
.1 from:
.2 to:
5. Was (were) tank(s) in 4.1 emptied?
6. If not, quantity remaining in tank(s).
(C) Unloading of cargo
7. Place of unloading.
8. Identity of tank(s) unloaded.
9. Was (were) tank(s) emptied?
.1 If yes, confirm that the procedure for emptying and stripping has been performed in accordance with the
ship's Procedures and Arrangements Manual (i.e. list, trim, stripping temperature).
.2 If not, quantity remaining in tank(s).
10. Does the ship's Procedures and Arrangements Manual require a prewash with subsequent disposal to
reception facilities?
11. Failure of pumping and/or stripping system:
.1 time and nature of failure;
.2 reasons for failure;
.3 time when system has been made operational.
(D) Mandatory prewash in accordance with the ship's Procedures and Arrangements Manual
12. Identify tank(s), substances) and category(ies).
13. Washing method:
.1 number of washing machines per tank;
.2 duration of wash/washing cycles;
.3 hot/cold wash.
14. Prewash slops transferred to:
.1 reception facility in unloading port (identify port);
.2 reception facility otherwise (identify port).
(E) Cleaning of cargo tanks except mandatory prewash (other prewash operations, final wash, ventilation
etc.)
14. State time, identify tank(s), substances) and category(ies) and state:
.1 washing procedure used;
.2 cleaning agent(s) (identify agent(s) and quantities);
.3 dilution of cargo residues with water (state how much water used (only Category D substances));
.4 ventilation procedure used (state number of fans used, duration of ventilation).
16. Tank washings transferred:
.1 into the sea;
.2 to reception facility (identify port);
.3 to slops collecting tank (Identify tank).
(F) Discharge into the sea of tank washings
17. Identify tank(s):
.1 Were tank washings discharged during cleaning of tank(s)? If so at what rate?
.2 Were tank washing(s) discharged from a slops collecting tank? If so, state quantity and rate of
discharge.
18. Time pumping commenced and stopped.
19. Ship's speed during discharge.
(G) Ballasting of cargo tanks
20. Identity of tank(s) ballasted.
21. Time at start of ballasting.
(H) Discharge of ballast water from cargo tanks
22. Identity of tank(s).
23. Discharge of ballast:
.1 into the sea;
.2 to reception facilities (identify port).
24. Time ballast discharge commenced and stopped.
25. Ship's speed during discharge.
(I) Accidental or other exceptional discharge
26. Time of occurrence.
27. Approximate quantity, substance(s) and category(ies).
28. Circumstances of discharge or escape and general remarks.
(j) Control by authorised surveyors
29. Identify port.
30. Identify tank(s), substance(s), category(ies) discharged ashore.
31. Have tank(s), pump(s), and piping system(s) been emptied?
32. Has a prewash in accordance with the ship's Procedures and Arrangements Manual been carried out?
33. Have tank washings resulting from the prewash been discharged ashore and is the tank empty?
34. An exemption has been granted from mandatory prewash.
35. Reasons for exemption.
36. Name and signature of authorised surveyor.
37. Organisation, company, government agency for which surveyor works.
(K) Additional operational procedures and remarks
Name of ship……………………………………………………………………………
Distinctive number or letters……………………………………………………………
CARGO/BALLAST OPERATIONS
Date Code Item Record of operations/signature of officer charge/name of and
(letter) (number) signature of authorised surveyor

Signature of master:……………………………….

4.3.11.9 Form of NLS Certificate

INTERNATIONAL POLLUTION PREVENTION
CERTIFICATE FOR THE CARRIAGE OF
NOXIOUS LIQUID SUBSTANCES
IN BULK
Issued under the provisions of the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1
973, as modified by the Protocol of 1 978 relating thereto, as amended (hereinafter referred to as "the
Convention"), under the authority of the Government of:
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
(full designation of the country)
by:………………………………………………………………………………………….
(full designation of the competent person or organisation authorised under the provisions of the
Convention)
Name of ship Distinctive number or Port of registry Gross tonnage
letters

THIS IS TO CERTIFY:
1 That the ship has been surveyed in accordance with the provisions of regulation 10 of Annex 11 of the
Convention.
2 That the survey showed that the structure, equipment, systems, fitting, arrangements and material of the
ship and the condition thereof are in all respects satisfactory and that the ship complies with the applicable
requirements of Annex 11 of the Convention.
3 That the ship has been provided with a Manual in accordance with the Standards for Procedures and
Arrangements as called for by regulation 5, 5A and 8 of Annex 11 of the Convention, and that the
arrangements and equipment of the ship prescribed in the manual are in all respects satisfactory and
comply with the applicable requirements of the said Standards.
4 That the ship is suitable for the carriage in bulk of the following noxious liquid substances, provided that
all relevant operational provisions of Annex 11 of the Convention are observed.
Noxious liquid substances Conditions of carriage
(tank numbers etc.)

This certificate is valid until:……………………………………………………………...

(Subject to surveys in accordance with regulation 10 of Annex 11 of the Convention).
Issued at:…………………………………………………………………………………..
(Place of issue of certificate)
…………………… ………………………………………………………………
(Date of issue) (Signature of duly authorized official issuing the certificate)
(Seal or stamp of the authority, as appropriate)
*Delete as necessary.

4.4 CERTIFICATION AND SURVEYS

Compliance with the construction and equipment requirements of the Codes is certified by means of the
Certificate of Fitness for the Carriage of Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk. Rather than requiring a separate
certificate to show compliance with the relevant requirements of Annex II, it has been decided to take the
Certificate of Fitness one step further and, in addition to certifying compliance with the Codes, to have it
certify compliance with the relevant provisions set out in the P & A Manual. For chemical tankers,
therefore, this Certificate of Fitness certifies compliance with the Codes and with Annex II.
There are certain categories of ships which carry NLS but which do not comply with the Codes. These
include:
- liquefied gas tankers (these have a different Certificate of Fitness)
- product tankers and dry-cargo vessels provided with deep tanks (these ships may carry the NLS that
are listed in chapters VII and 18 of the Codes);
- offshore support vessels (these may carry NLS under defined conditions).
The required certification of these ships is the International Certificate for the Prevention of Pollution by
Noxious Liquid Substances (NLS Certificate). These categories of ships must be provided with a P & A
Manual and a Cargo Record Book.

4.4.1 SURVEY PROCEDURE

The survey of ships, so far as regards the enforcement of the provisions of the regulations and granting of
exemptions therefrom, should be carried out by officers of the Administration. The Administration may,
however, entrust the surveys either to surveyors nominated for the purpose or to organisations recognised
by it.
The Administration nominating surveyors or recognising organisations to conduct surveys should, as a
minimum, empower any nominated surveyor or recognised organisation to:
1. require repairs to a ship; and
2. carry out surveys if requested by the port State authority concerned.
The Administration should notify the Organisation of the specific responsibilities and conditions of the
authority delegated to nominated surveyors or recognised organisations for circulation to the Contracting
Governments.
When a nominated surveyor or recognised organisation determines that the condition of the ship or its
equipment does not correspond substantially with the particulars of the certificate or is such that the ship is
not f it to proceed to sea without danger to the ship, or persons on board, such surveyor or organisation
should immediately ensure that corrective action is taken and should in due course notify the
Administration. If such corrective action is not taken the relevant certificate should be withdrawn and the
Administration should be notified immediately; and, if the ship is in a port of another Contracting
Government, the port State authority concerned should also be notified immediately.
In every case, the Administration should guarantee the completeness and efficiency of the survey, and
should undertake to ensure the necessary arrangements to satisfy this obligation.

4.4.2 SURVEY REQUIREMENTS

The structure, equipment, fittings, arrangements and material (other than items in respect of which a
Cargo Ship Safety Construction Certificate, Cargo Ship Safety Equipment Certificate and Cargo Ship
Safety Radiotelegraphy Certificate or Cargo Ship Safety Radiotelephony Certificate are issued) of a
chemical tanker should be subjected to the following surveys:
1. An initial survey before the ship is put in service or before the International Certificate of Fitness for the
Carriage of Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk is issued for the first time, which should include a complete
examination of its structure, equipment, fittings, arrangements and material in so far as the ship is covered
by the Code. This survey should be such as to ensure that the structure, equipment, fittings, arrangements
and material fully comply with the applicable provisions of the Code.
2. A periodical survey at intervals specified by the Administration, but not exceeding 5 years which should
be such as to ensure that the structure, equipment, fittings, arrangements and material comply with the
applicable provisions of the Code.
3. A minimum of one intermediate survey during the period of validity of the International Certificate of
Fitness for the Carriage of Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk. In cases where only one such intermediate
survey is carried out in any one certificate validity period, it should be held not before 6 months prior to, nor
later than 6 months after, the half-way date of the certificate's period of validity. Intermediate surveys
should be such as to ensure that the safety equipment, and other equipment, and associated pump and
piping systems comply with the applicable provisions of the Code and are in good working order. Such
surveys should be endorsed on the International Certificate of Fitness for the Carriage of Dangerous
Chemicals in Bulk.
4. A mandatory annual survey within 3 months before or after the anniversary date of the International
Certificate of Fitness for the Carriage of Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk which should include a general
examination to ensure that the structure, equipment, fittings, arrangements and materials remain in all
respects satisfactory for the service for which the ship is intended. Such a survey should be endorsed in
the International Certificate of Fitness for the Carriage of Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk.
5. An additional survey, either general or partial according to the circumstances, should be made when
required after an investigation or whenever any important repairs or renewals are made. Such a survey
should ensure that the necessary repairs or renewals have been effectively made, that the material and
workmanship of such repairs or renewals are satisfactory; and that the ship is fit to proceed to sea without
danger to the ship or persons on board.
An additional survey, either general or partial according to the circumstances, should be made when
required after an investigation or whenever any important repairs or renewals are made. Such a survey
should ensure that the necessary repairs or renewals have been effectively made, that the material and
workmanship of such repairs or renewals are satisfactory; and that the ship is fit to proceed to sea without
danger to the ship or persons on board.

4.4.3 MAINTENANCE OF CONDITIONS AFTER SURVEY

The condition of the ship and its equipment should be maintained to conform with the provisions of the
Code to ensure that the ship will remain fit to proceed to sea without danger to the ship or persons on
board.
After any survey of the ship has been completed, no change should be made in the structure, equipment,
fittings, arrangements and material covered by the survey, without the sanction of the Administration,
except by direct replacement.
When ever an accident occurs to a ship or a defect is discovered, either of which affects the safety of the
ship or the efficiency or completeness of its life-saving appliances or other equipment, the master or owner
of the ship should report at the earliest opportunity to the Administration, the nominated surveyor or
recognised organisation responsible for issuing the relevant certificate, who should cause investigations to
be initiated to determine whether a survey is necessary. If the ship is in a port of another Contracting
Government, the master or owner should also report immediately to the port State authority concerned and
the nominated surveyor or recognised organisation should ascertain that such a report has been made.

4.4.4 ISSUE OF INTERNATIONAL CERTIFICATE OF FITNESS

A certificate called an International Certificate of Fitness for the Carriage of Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk,
the model form of which is set out in the appendix, should be issued after an initial or periodical survey to a
chemical tanker engaged in international voyages which complies with the relevant requirements of the
Code.
The certificate issued under provisions of this section should be available on board for inspection at all
times.

4.4.5 ISSUE OR ENDORSEMENT OF INTERNATIONAL CERTIFICATE OF FITNESS BY ANOTHER

GOVERNMENT
A Party to the 1974 SOLAS Convention and to MARPOL 73178 may, at the request of another Party,
cause a ship entitled to fly the flag of the other State to be surveyed and, if satisfied that the requirements
of the Code are complied with, issue or authorise the issue of the certificate to the ship, and, where
appropriate, endorse or authorise the endorsement of the certificate on board the ship in accordance with
the Code. Any certificate so issued should contain a statement to the effect that it has been issued at the
request of the Government of the State whose flag the ship is entitled to fly.'

4.4.6 DURATION AND VALIDITY OF THE INTERNATIONAL CERTIFICATE OF FITNESS

An International Certificate of Fitness for the Carriage of Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk should be issued
for a period specified by the Administration which should not exceed 5 years from the date of the initial
survey or the periodical survey.
No extension of the 5-year period of the certificate should be permitted.
The certificate should cease to be valid:
1. if the surveys are not carried out within the specified period;
2. upon transfer of the ship to the flag of another State. A new certificate should only be issued when the
Government issuing the new certificate is fully satisfied that the ship is in compliance with the requirement.
Where a transfer occurs between Contracting Governments, the Government of the State whose flag the
ship was formerly entitled to fly should, if requested within 12 months after the transfer has taken place, as
soon as possible transmit to the Administration copies of the certificates carried by the ship before the
transfer and, if available, copier, of the relevant survey reports.
5. SHIP DESIGN AND CARGO CONTAINMENT
This section will give you a brief review of the way in which chemical tankers have developed from the start
of transport of liquid chemicals by sea, the design and arrangements of tankers involved in transportation
of chemicals in bulk.

5.1 CONSTRUCTION AND EQUIPMENT REQUIREMENTS

The term "chemical tanker" does indeed cover a wide range of designs from quite simple vessels designed
for transport of low hazard type chemicals to highly complex vessels designed for transport of a large
variety of chemicals and special purpose vessels built for the transport of a single or a few chemicals. In
the following we shall mainly focus on general purpose chemical tanker design and operation.
The Code applies to ships regardless of size, including those of less than 500 tons gross tonnage,
engaged in the carriage of bulk cargoes of dangerous or noxious liquid chemical substances, other than
petroleum or similar flammable products as follows:
.1 products having significant fire hazards in excess of those of petroleum products and similar flammable
products.
.2 products having significant hazards in addition to or other than flammability.
Products that have been reviewed and determined not to present safety and pollution hazards to such an
extent as to warrant the application of the Code are found in chapter 18.
Liquids covered by the Code are those having a vapor pressure not exceeding 2.8 bar absolute at a
temperature of 37.8o C.
For the purpose of the 1974 SOLAS Convention, the Code does not apply to ships which are engaged in
the carriage of products included in chapter 17 solely on the basis of their pollution characteristics and
identified as such by an entry of "P" only in column d.
For the purposes of MARPOL 73/78, the Code applies only to chemical tankers, as defined in regulation I
(1) of Annex II thereof, which are engaged in the carriage of noxious liquid substances failing into category
A, B or C and identified as such by an entry of "A", 'B" or "C" in column c.
For a product proposed for carriage in bulk, but not listed in chapter 17 or 18, the Administration and port
Administrations involved in such carriage should prescribe the preliminary suitable conditions for the
carriage, having regard to the criteria for hazard evaluation of bulk chemicals. The Organization should be
notified of the conditions for consideration for inclusion of the product in the Code. For the evaluation of
the pollution hazard of such a product and assignment of its pollution category, the procedure specified in
regulation 3(4) of Annex 11 of MARPOL 73/78 must be followed.
Unless expressly provided otherwise, the Code applies to ships the keels of which are laid or which are at
a stage at which:
- construction identifiable with the ship begins; and
- assembly has commenced comprising at least 50 tonnes or l% the estimated mass of all structural
material, whichever is less;
- on or after 1 July 1986.
A ship, irrespective of the date of construction, which is converted to a chemical tanker on or after 1. July
1986 should be treated as a chemical tanker constructed on the date on which such conversion
commences. This conversion provision does not apply to the modification of a ship referred t in regulation
1(12) of Annex 11 of MARPOL 73/78.
Where reference is made in the Code to a paragraph, all the provisions of the subparagraphs of that
designation should apply.
Cargo Types
The range of cargoes normally transported by such vessels is often grouped as follows:
- Chemicals
- Oil products
- Animal and vegetable oil
- Other substances.
However, if one wishes to consider the consequences of rules and regulations on design and equipment of
chemical tankers, it may be useful to group the different cargoes according to the extent the various rules
and certification requirements apply.
The entry into force of MARPOL Annex II has established as an overruling principle;
"NO LIQUID CARGO IS ALLOWED TO BE CARRIED UNLESS IT HAS BEEN ASSESSED BOTH FOR
SAFETY AND MARINE POLLUTION."
For crude oil and oil products this assessment has been done once and for all and the consequential
application of Regulations and Certification requirements is straight forward. In terms of safety the SOLAS
requirements for oil tankers apply to products with flashpoint less than 60 Centigrades and the Safety
Equipment Certificate is proof of compliance. In terms of marine pollution all oils, regardless of flashpoint,
are subject to the MARPOL Annex I regulations and the IOPP certificate is the proof of compliance.
For liquid cargoes other than oils the picture is far less clear. The main grouping of the cargoes is:
Cargoes subject to the requirements of the "expanded" International Bulk Chemical Code. In Chapter 17
of the Code these cargoes are listed ("expanded" means the International Bulk Chemical Code with
amendments making MARPOL Annex II requirements part of the Code)
Cargoes not subject to the requirements of the "expanded" International Bulk Chemical Code. These
cargoes are listed in Chapter 18 of the Code.
Cargoes under 1. are those products assessed to possess safety hazards according to the hazard criteria
of the Chemical Code or products categorised as A, B or C according to the marine pollution hazard
criteria given by MARPOL Annex II.
It is worth noticing that the chemical hazard criteria includes flammability hazards, toxicity (human life),
reactivity and corrosivity as opposed to SOLAS hazard criteria which only considers flammability.
Cargoes under 2. are those not found to be hazardous according to the Chemical Code Criteria and which
have no marine pollution hazards (Annex II, Appendix III) or very moderate marine pollution effects, i.e.
categorised as D substances according to MARPOL Annex II criteria.
It should be observed that all products under 2. both category D products and Appendix III products which
have flashpoint less than 60o C are subject to the SOLAS regulations for tankers (fire protection
requirements).
Products under group 1 are only allowed to be carried under a Certificate of Fitness for the Carriage of
Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk (C.O.F.) and it is required that the products permitted are listed in the
Certificate by their names. For sake of practicality the C.O.F also lists category D products in group 2.
Products in group 2 having pollution hazard category D only are required to be carried under a separate
Noxious Liquid Substance Certificate (NLS) if the vessel does not hold a C.O.F. The requirements to be
complied with for obtaining such certificate are purely operational and hence carriage may be allowed on
all types of ship, except for those products which have flashpoint less than 60o C or which are required to
be carried in vessels of oil tanker standard in respect of fire protection and ship arrangements. Products in
group 2 which are non-pollutants may be carried without special certification. However, products with
flashpoint less than 60o C are only allowed in vessels of oil tanker standard.
Unlike oils the assessment of chemicals and other products is not a finalised process. New substances
and mixtures of different substances appear as bulk cargoes for sea transportation from time to time. In
order not to unduly upset the trade IMO has adopted guidelines for provisional assessment of substances
and allocation of carriage requirements. Provided sufficient information and data for the potential cargo is
available, such assessment may be completed within a few days.

5.1.1 STRUCTURE OF RULES AND REGULATIONS FOR CHEMICAL TANKERS

Both our classification rules and the International Bulk Chemical Code (IBC-Code) are composed of two
main parts:
1. A general part containing regulations applicable to all multipurpose chemical tankers.
2. An optional part containing special requirements for some individual cargoes or type of cargoes.
A general purpose chemical tanker must satisfy all the requirements of the general part (Sections 1
through 14 plus Section 16 of our Rules Part 5 Chapter 4). The general requirements offer options to
choose between in several areas, e.g. tank venting, tank ullaging etc. and the choice has an impact on the
allowable range of cargoes.
The extent to which a chemical tanker complies with the additional special requirements will further
determine the extent of additional cargoes permitted.
From the above it is seen that the term "chemical tanker" is non-specific because of the alternatives and
options available. In a specification it must therefore be stated which design and equipment options and
alternatives are to be complied with, alternatively a list of cargoes for which the vessel is to be designed
must be specified.
A dedicated chemical tanker differs from the multipurpose one in the respect that all of the general
regulations need not be fulfilled. This in particular applies to the fire protection requirements, which need
not be met for non-flammable products. In terms of classification such a dedicated chemical tanker will not
be assigned the general "Tanker for Chemicals" notation, but have a notation e.g. "Tanker for phosphoric
acid" or "Tanker for non-flammable chemicals".

5.2 SHIP ARRANGEMENTS

5.2.1 CARGO SEGREGATION

Unless expressly provided otherwise, tanks containing cargo or residues of cargo subject to the Code
should be segregated from accommodation, service and machinery spaces and from drinking water and
stores for human consumption by means of a cofferdam, void space, cargo pump-room, pump-room,
empty tank, oil fuel tank or other similar space.
Cargoes, residues of cargoes or mixtures containing cargoes which react in a hazardous manner with
other cargoes, residues or mixtures, should:
.1 be segregated from such other cargoes by means of a cofferdam, void space, pump-room, empty tank,
or tank containing a mutually compatible cargo;
.2 have separate pumping and piping systems which should not pass through other cargo tanks containing
such cargoes, unless encased in a tunnel; and
.3 have separate tank venting systems.
Cargo piping should not pass through any accommodation, service or machinery space other than cargo
pump-rooms or pump-rooms.
Cargoes subject to the Code should not be carried in either the fore or aft peak tank.

5.2.2 ACCOMMODATION, SERVICE AND MACHINERY SPACES AND CONTROL STATIONS

No accommodation or service spaces or control stations should be located within the cargo area except
over a cargo pump-room recess or pump-room recess that complies with regulation 11-2/56 of the 1983
SOLAS amendments and no cargo or slop tank should be aft of the forward end of any accommodation.
In order to guard against the danger of hazardous vapors, due consideration should be given to the
location of air intakes and openings into accommodation, service and machinery spaces and control
stations in relation to cargo piping and cargo vent systems.
Entrances, air inlets and openings to accommodation, service and machinery spaces and control stations
should not face the cargo area. They should be located on the end bulkhead not facing the cargo area
and/or on the outboard side of the superstructure or deck-house at a distance of at least 4% of the length
(L) of the ship but not less than 3 m from the end of the superstructure or deck-house facing the cargo
area. This distance, however, need not exceed 5 m. No doors should be permitted within the limits
mentioned above, except that doors to those spaces not having access to accommodation and service
spaces and control stations, such as cargo control stations and store-rooms, may be permitted by the
Administration. Where such doors are fitted, the boundaries of the space should be insulated to "A-60"
standard. Bolted plates for removal of machinery may be fitted within the limits specified above.
Wheelhouse doors and wheelhouse windows may be located within the limits specified above so long as
they are so designed that a rapid and efficient gas- and vapour-tightening of the wheelhouse can be
ensured. Windows and sidescuttles facing the cargo area and on the sides of the superstructures and
deck-houses within the limits specified above should be of the fixed (non-opening) type. Such sidescuttles
in the first tier on the main deck should be fitted with inside covers of steel or equivalent material.

5.2.3 CARGO PUMP-ROOMS

Cargo pump-rooms should be so arranged as to ensure:
.1 unrestricted passage at all times from any ladder platform and from the floor; and
.2 unrestricted access to all valves necessary for cargo handling for a person wearing the required
personnel protective equipment.
Permanent arrangements should be made for hoisting an injured person with a rescue line while avoiding
any projecting obstacles.
Guard railings should be installed on all ladders and platforms.
Normal access ladders should not be fitted vertical and should incorporate platforms at suitable intervals.
Means should be provided to deal with drainage and any possible leakage from cargo pumps and valves
in cargo pump-rooms. The bilge system serving the cargo pump-room should be operable from outside
the cargo pump-room. One or more slop tanks for storage of contaminated bilge water or tank washings
should be provided. A shore connection with a standard coupling or other facilities should be provided for
transferring contaminated liquids to onshore reception facilities.
Pump discharge pressure gauges should be provided outside the cargo pump-room.
Where machinery is driven by shafting passing through a bulkhead or deck, gas tight seals with efficient
lubrication or other means of ensuring the permanence of the gas seal should be fitted in way of the
bulkhead or deck.

5.2.4 ACCESS TO SPACES IN THE CARGO AREA

Access to cofferdams, ballast tanks, cargo tanks and other spaces in the cargo area should be direct from
the open deck and such as to ensure their complete inspection. Access to double-bottom spaces may be
through a cargo pump-room, pump-room, deep cofferdam, pipe tunnel or similar compartments, subject to
consideration of ventilation aspects.
For access through horizontal openings, hatches or manholes, the dimensions should be sufficient to allow
a person wearing a self-contained air-breathing apparatus and protective equipment to ascend or descend
any ladder without obstruction and also to provide a clear opening to facilitate the hoisting of an injured
person from the bottom of the space. The minimum clear opening should be not less than 600 mm by 600
mm.
For access through vertical openings, or manholes providing passage through the length and breadth of
the space, the minimum clear opening should be not less than 600 mm by 800 mm at a height of not more
than 600 mm from the bottom shell plating unless gratings or other footholds are provided.
Smaller dimensions may be approved by the Administration in special circumstances, if the ability to
traverse such openings or to remove an injured person can be proved to the satisfaction of the
Administration.

5.2.5 BILGE AND BALLAST ARRANGEMENTS

Pumps, ballast lines, vent lines and other similar equipment serving permanent ballast tanks should be
independent of similar equipment serving cargo tanks and of cargo tanks themselves. Discharge
arrangements for permanent ballast tanks sited immediately adjacent to cargo tanks should be outside
machinery spaces and accommodation spaces. Filling arrangements may be in the machinery spaces
provided that such arrangements ensure filling from tank deck level and nonreturn valves are fitted.
Filling of ballast in cargo tanks may be arranged from deck level by pumps serving permanent ballast
tanks, provided that the filling line has no permanent connection to cargo tanks or piping and that non-
return valves are fitted.
Bilge pumping arrangements for cargo pump-rooms, pump-rooms, void spaces, slop tanks, double-bottom
tanks and similar spaces should be situated entirely within the cargo area except for void spaces, double-
bottom tanks and ballast tanks where such spaces are separated from tanks containing cargo or residues
of cargo by a double bulkhead.
Continuous coamings of suitable height should be fitted to keep any spills on deck and away from the
accommodation and service areas.
Means of communication between the cargo control station and the cargo shore-connection location
should be provided and certified safe, if necessary. Provision should be made for the remote shutdown of
cargo pumps from the cargo shore-connection location.
5.3 CARGO CONTAINMENT

5.3.1 DEFINITIONS
Independent tank means a cargo-containment envelope, which is not contiguous with, or part of, the hull
structure. An independent tank is built and installed so as to eliminate whenever possible (or in any event
to minimize) its stressing as a result of stressing or motion of the adjacent hull structure. An independent
tank is not essential to the structural completeness of the ship's hull.
Integral tank means a cargo-containment envelope which forms part of the ship's hull and which may be
stressed in the same manner and by the same loads which stress the contiguous hull structure and which
is normally essential to the structural completeness of the ship's hull.
Gravity tank means a tank having a design pressure not greater than 0.7bar gauge at the top of the tank.
A gravity tank may be independent or integral. A gravity tank should be constructed and tested according
to the standards of the Administration, taking account of the temperature of carriage and relative density of
the cargo.
Pressure tank means a tank having a design pressure greater than 0.7 bar gauge. A pressure tank should
be an independent tank and should be of a configuration permitting the application of pressure-vessel
design criteria according to the standards of the Administration.

5.3.2 TANK TYPE REQUIREMENTS FOR INDIVIDUAL PRODUCTS

Requirements for both installation and design of tank types for individual products are shown in column f in
the table of chapter 17 (IBC Code).

5.3.2.1 Tank types

The cargo tanks of a chemical carrier may be integral tanks, i.e. forming a part of the hull structure, or
independent tanks. For the multi purpose chemical tanker the main tankage is usually integral tanks often
with the addition of deck tanks which are independent tanks. In the following only Integral tanks are
considered.

5.3.2.2 Chapter 17 - Summary Of Minimum Equirements

EXPLANATORY NOTES
Product name
(column a) The product names are not identical with the names given in previous issues of the
Code, or the BCH Code (for explanation see index of Chemicals).
UN number
(column b) The number relating to each product shown in the recommendations proposed by the
United Nations Committee of Experts on the Transport of Dangerous Goods. UN numbers, where
available, are given for information only.
Pollution category
(column c) The letter A, B, C or D means the pollution category assigned to each product under
Annex 11 of MARPOL 73/78. "III" means the product was evaluated and found to fall outside the
categories A, B, C or D.
Pollution category in brackets indicates that the product is provisionally categorized and that further data
are necessary to complete the evaluation of their pollution hazards. Until the hazard evaluation is
completed, the pollution category assigned is used.
Hazards
(column d) S means that the product is included in the Code because of its safety hazards P
means that the product is included in the Code because of its pollution hazards; and S/P means that the
product is included in the Code because of both its safety and pollution hazards.

Ship type 1 = ship type 1 (2.1.2)

(column e) 2 = ship type 2 (2.1.2)
3 = ship type 3 (2.1.2)

Tank type 1 = independent tank (4. 1. 1)

(column f) 2 = integral tank (4,1.2)
G = gravity tank (4.1.3)
P = pressure tank (4.1.4)

"No" indicates nil requirements.

Tank vents Open: open venting

(column g) Cont: controlled venting
SR: safety relief valve

Tank environmental Inert: inerting (9.1.2. 1)

control* Pad: liquid or gas (9.1.2.2)
(column h) Dry: drying (9.1.2.3)
Vent: natural or forced (9.1.2.4)

Electrical equipment Tl to T6: temperature classes

(column i) IIA, IIB or IIC: apparatus groups
NF: nonflammable product (1 0. 1. 6)
Yes: flashpoint exceeding 60°C
(closed cup test) (10.1.6)
No: flashpoint not exceeding
60°C (closed cup test)
(10.1.6)

Gauging O: open gauging (13.1.1.1)

(column j) R: restricted gauging (1 3.1.1.2)
C: closed gauging (1 3.1.1.3)
I: indirect gauging (1 3.1.1.3)
Vapor detection* F: flammable vapors
(column k) T: toxic vapors

Fire protection A: alcohol-resistant foam or multi-purpose

(column l)
B: regular foam, encompasses all foams that are not of an alcohol-
resistant type, including fluoro-protein and aqueous-filmforming foam
(AFFF)
C: water-spray
D: dry chemical
No: no special requirements under this Code

Materials of N: see 6.2.2

construction Z: see 6.2.3
(column m) Y: see 6.2.4

A blank indicates no special guidance given for materials of construction

Respiratory and E: see 14.2.8

eye protection
(column n)

"No" indicates nil requirements.

5.4 SHIP TYPES AND SURVIVAL CAPABILITY

5.4.1 GENERAL
General ship arrangements
Ships subject to the Code should survive the normal effects of flooding following assumed hull damage
caused by some external force. In addition, to safeguard the ship and the environment, the cargo tanks of
certain types of ships should be protected from penetration in the case of minor damage to the ship
resulting, for example, from contact with a jetty or tug, and given a measure of protection from damage in
the case of collision or stranding, by locating them at specified minimum distances inboard from the ship's
shell plating. Both the damage to be assumed and the proximity of the cargo tanks to the ship's shell
should be dependent upon the degree of hazard presented by the products to be carried.
Ships subject to the IBC Code should be designed to one of the following standards:
.1 A type 1 ship is a chemical tanker intended to transport chapter 17 products with very severe
environmental and safety hazards which require maximum preventive measures to preclude an escape of
such cargo.

Position of tanks in a type 1 ship

.2 A type 2 ship is a chemical tanker intended to transport chapter 17 products with appreciably severe
environmental and safety hazards which require significant preventive measures to preclude an escape of
such cargo.

Position of tanks in a type 2 ship

.3 A type 3 ship is a chemical tanker intended to transport chapter 17 products with sufficiently severe
environmental and safety hazards which require a moderate degree of containment to increase survival
capability in a damaged condition.
 Position of tanks in a type 3 ship

Thus a type 1 ship is a chemical tanker intended for the transportation of products considered to present
the greatest overall hazard and type 2 and type 3 for products of progressively lesser hazards.
Accordingly, a type 1 ship should survive the most severe standard of damage and its cargo tanks should
be located at the maximum prescribed distance inboard from the shell plating.
The ship type required for individual products is indicated in column e in the table of chapter 17.
If a ship is intended to carry more than one product listed in chapter 17, the standard of damage should
correspond to that product having the most stringent ship type requirement. The requirements for the
location of individual cargo tanks, however, are those for ship types related to the respective products
intended to be carried.

5.4.2 TANK ARRANGEMENTS

The lowest grades of regulated chemicals (ship type 3 cargoes) may from a regulatory point of view be
carried in single skin vessels of the traditional, oil tanker design.
However, the requirements for efficient and easy cleaning of the cargo tanks makes this type of vessel
less feasible as a chemical tanker, and all chemical tankers of modern design are therefore designed with
a full double bottom in the cargo tank area.
MARPOL requires that cargo tank lengths be limited. The limits vary from 0,1 L to 0,2 L depending on the
arrangement. With the high number of cargo tanks normally found in chemical tankers, this requirement
rarely affects the tank arrangement. On the other hand the damage stability requirements of the Chemical
Code may influence the cargo tank arrangement.
Moreover, ship type 1 and 2 type chemicals are not to be transported in quantities exceeding 1,250m3 for
ship type 1 and 3,000 m3 for ship type 2 in each cargo tank according to the Chemical Code. This is
basically an operational requirement but will be a major consideration for the tank arrangements also.
 Outlines of a general chemical/parcel tanker

5.4.3 CARGO TANK CONSTRUCTION

One of the most important factors is how easily cargo tanks lend themselves to cleaning. This is important
in two ways. For some of the products shipped the requirements to purity are rigorous and even very small
amounts of residues of previous cargoes may actually make the cargo unusable, which, in addition to the
costs involved, may harm the reputation of the vessel badly. Secondly, easy cleanable cargo tanks
contribute to the efficiency of the vessel and hence the earning capacity as well as reduces the need for
manpower, which may allow reduced manning.
Therefore all modern chemical tankers have a larger or smaller portion of their cargo tanks constructed
with smooth boundaries. The centre tanks have no internal structures. The transverse bulkheads are of
the corrugated type, the longitudinal bulkheads have all their stiffeners and webs on the wingtank side and
structural elements are located on decks.
With this construction the centre tanks may be used for cargoes requiring high cleanliness standards,
where as the wingtanks may be used for less critical cargoes.
The double skin construction represents a further step, Figures 10, 11 and 12 show some actual designs.
For cargo tank divisions required to be smooth on both sides there are three alternative constructions:
- cofferdam between tanks
- vertically corrugated bulkheads
- horizontally corrugated bulkheads.
Factors to consider when making the choice are:
- cargo space volume reductions
- steel weight
- simplicity of production
- production costs.
There might be exceptions, but generally one will find that cofferdam type divisions add to the steel weight
and reduce the usable cargo space compared to corrugated bulkheads. On the other hand cofferdam
divisions are simple to produce and are rugged and reliable constructions. Moreover, the cofferdam may
serve the additional purpose of providing separation between incompatible cargoes, i.e. precaution against
a potential reactivity hazard. The corrugated bulkheads are lighter and give a higher space utilisation, but
require higher skills in production, i.e. imperfections in welding and inaccuracies in general may give
problems during service.
Vertically corrugated bulkheads may require bottom and top stool constructions for strength reasons
depending on height of the bulkhead and cargo tank design density. This may give somewhat higher steel
weight than horizontally, corrugated bulkheads. However, except for short spans the latter type will often
require vertical webs which are a slight disadvantage in respect of tank cleaning. If horizontally corrugated
bulkheads are used both for transverse and longitudinal divisions, the joining must be by means of a box
construction in order to avoid a difficult and crack susceptible connection between the transverse and
longitudinal bulkheads.
Tank design

5.4.4 ACCESS OPENINGS WITHIN CARGO AREA

The Chemical Code sets standards for the minimum size of access openings into cargo tanks and other
spaces within cargo area. Also openings within compartments necessary for facilitating access for
inspections of all parts of a compartment must meet the minimum size standards set.
The minimum sizes are:
- Horizontal divisions: 600 by 600 mm
- Vertical divisions: 600 by 800 mm.
Particularly within double bottom spaces and cofferdams the requirements to the access opening sizes
must be taken into account at early design stage in order not to run into acceptance problems during the
construction. It should be observed that not each and every opening within e.g. a double bottom space
needs to comply with the size requirements, only those necessary for the required access. Therefore a
careful "route" planning of the access paths may be beneficial in order to locate the large openings in the
most favourable areas on account of design.
Some deviations in shape and dimensions may be accepted on a case-to-case basis. In particular in
smaller vessels this may be necessary due to the difficulties of arranging such large openings. However,
the Code sets an overruling requirement that the opening sizes and arrangements must be such that is
possible to transport unconscious person wearing a breathing apparatus through the openings. The
provisions of suitable handgrips and footbars may ease passage problems and would be part of' the
consideration for acceptance.
A difference between oil tankers and chemical tankers in the matter of access to spaces other than cargo
tanks is that for chemical tankers access from a cargo tank into another space is prohibited. Access to
e.g. double bottom spaces must therefore be via trunks from decks or via ballast side tanks or vertical
cofferdams.
Inside a cargo tank
6. CARGO HANDLING SYSTEM
The lecture under this section covers all system and equipment connected with the cargo handling as with
the topics under section 5, lecture under this section should also be based on the requirements of the IBC
and BCH, (Bulk Chemical Code) and the parallels should be drawn as to how these requirements are met
in the systems and in the equipment of a modern chemical tanker.

6.1 TANKS PIPING AND VALVES

Pipings and valves is the main system in any cargo handling system, and we will describe the different
types of pumps used on a chemical tankers, generally the requirements of cargo piping arrangements,
types of acceptable means of cargo segregation, types of commonly used types of valves. We will also
have a quick look on cargo hoses, the requirements, maintenance and test procedure.

6.1.1 PIPING SCANTLING

Subject to the conditions stated in 6.1.4, the wall thickness (t) of, pipes should not be less than:

where:
to = theoretical thickness
to = PD/(2OKe + P) (mm)
with:
P = design pressure (bar)
D = outside diameter (mm)
K= allowable stress (N/mm2 )
e = efficiency factor; equal to 1.0 for seamless pipes and for longitudinally or spirally welded pipes
delivered by manufacturers approved for making welded pipes which are considered by the Administration
as equivalent to seamless pipes. In other cases the e value is to be determined by the Administration,
depending on the manufacturing process and testing procedure.
b = allowance for bending (mm). The value of b should be chosen so that the calculated stress in the
bend, due to internal pressure only, does not exceed the allowable stress. Where such justification is not
given, b should be not less than:

with:
r = mean radius of the bend (mm).
c = corrosion allowance (mm). If corrosion or erosion is expected, the wall thickness of piping should be
increased over that required by the other design requirements.
a = negative manufacturing tolerance for thickness

6.1.2 DESIGN PRESSURE

The design pressure P in the formula for to, in 6.1.1 is the maximum gauge pressure to which the system
may be subjected in service, taking into account the highest set pressure on any relief valve on the
system.

6.1.3 PIPING AND PIPING SYSTEM

Piping and piping-system components which are not protected by a relief valve, or which may be isolated
from their relief valve, should be designed for at least the greatest of:
.1 for piping systems or components, which may contain some liquid, the saturated vapor pressure at 45o
C;
.2 the pressure setting of the associated pump discharge relief valve;
.3 the maximum possible total pressure head at the outlet of the associated pumps when a pump
discharge relief valve is not installed.

6.1.4 MINIMUM DESIGN PRESSURE

The design pressure should not be less than 10 bar gauge except for open-ended lines, where it should be
not less than 5 bar gauge.

6.1.5 PIPES
For pipes, the allowable stress K to be considered in the formula for t,, in 5.1.1 is the lower of the following
values:

where:
Rm = specified minimum tensile strength at ambient temperature (N/mm2)
Re = specified minimum yield stress at ambient temperature (N/mm2). If the stress-strain curve does
not show a defined yield stress, the 0.2% proof stress applies.
A and B should have values of at least A = 2.7 and B = 1.8.

6.1.6 WALL THICKNESSLANGES AND VALVES

The minimum wall thickness should be in accordance with Recognized Standards.

6.1.7 MECHANICAL STRENGTH

Where necessary for mechanical strength to prevent damage, collapse, excessive sag or buckling of pipes
due to weight of pipes and content and to superimposed loads from supports, ship deflection or other
causes, the wall thickness should be increased over that required by 6.1.1 or, if this is impracticable or
would cause excessive local stresses, these loads should be reduced, protected against or eliminated by
other design methods.

6.1.8 FLANGES AND VALVES

Flanges, valves and other fittings should be to a standard acceptable to the Administration, taking into
account the design pressure defined under 6.1.2.
For flanges not complying with a standard, the dimensions for flanges and associated bolts should be to
the satisfaction of the Administration.
6.1.9 PIPING FABRICATION AND JOINING DETAILS
The requirements of this section apply to piping inside and outside the cargo tanks. However, the
Administration may accept relaxation’s from these requirements for open-ended piping and for piping
inside cargo tanks except for cargo piping serving other cargo tanks.
Cargo piping should be joined by welding except:
.1 for approved connections to shutoff valves and expansion joints; and
.2 for other exceptional cases specifically approved by the Administration.
The following direct connections of pipe lengths without flanges may be considered:
.1 Butt-welded joints with complete penetration at the root may be used in all applications.
.2 Slip-on welded joints with sleeves and related welding having dimensions satisfactory to the
Administration should only be used for pipes with an external diameter of 50 mm or less. This type of joint
should not be used when crevice corrosion is expected to occur.
.3 Screwed connections acceptable to the Administration should only be used for accessory lines and
instrumentation lines with external diameters of 25 mm or less.
Expansion of piping should normally be allowed for by the provision of expansion loops or bends in the
piping system.
.1 Bellows may be specially considered by the Administration in each case.
.2 Slip joints should not be used.
Welding, post-weld heat treatment and non-destructive testing should be performed in accordance with
Recognized Standards.

6.1.10 FLANGE CONNECTIONS

Flanges should be of the welded-neck, slip-on or socket-welded type. However, socket-welded-type
flanges should not be used in nominal size above 50 mm.
Flanges should comply with standards acceptable to the Administration as to their type, manufacture and
test.

6.1.11 TEST REQUIREMENTS FOR PIPING

The test requirements of this section apply to piping inside and outside cargo tanks. However, the
Administration may accept relaxation’s from these requirements for piping inside cargo tanks and open-
ended piping.
After assembly, each cargo piping system should be subject to a hydrostatic test to at least 1.5 times the
design pressure. When piping systems or parts of systems are completely manufactured and equipped
with all fittings, the hydrostatic test may be conducted prior to installation aboard the ship. Joints welded on
board should be hydrostatically tested to at least 1.5 times the design pressure.
After assembly on board, each cargo piping system should be tested for leaks to a pressure depending on
the method applied.

6.1.12 PIPING ARRANGEMENTS

Cargo piping should not be installed under deck between the outboard side of the cargo-containment
spaces and the skin of the ship unless clearances required for damage protection are maintained; but such
distances may be reduced where damage to the pipe would not cause release of cargo provided that the
clearance required for inspection purposes is maintained.
Cargo piping located below the main deck may run from the tank it serves and penetrate tank bulkheads or
boundaries common to longitudinally or transversally adjacent cargo tanks, ballast tanks, empty tanks,
pump-rooms or cargo pump-rooms provided that inside the tank it serves it is fitted with a stop valve
operable from the weather deck and provided cargo compatibility is assured in the event of piping failure.
As an exception, where a cargo tank is adjacent to a cargo pump-room, the stop valve operable from the
weather deck may be situated on the tank bulkhead on the cargo pump-room side, provided an additional
valve is fitted between the bulkhead valve and the cargo pump.
The Administration may, however, accept a totally enclosed hydraulically operated valve located outside
the cargo tank, provided that the valve is:
1 designed to preclude the risk of leakage;
2 fitted on the bulkhead of the cargo tank which it serves;
3 suitably protected against mechanical damage;
4 fitted at a distance from the shell as required for damage protection; and
5 operable from the weather deck.
In any cargo pump-room where a pump serves more than one tank, a stop valve should be fitted in the line
to each tank.
Cargo piping installed in pipe tunnels should also comply with the requirements. Pipe tunnels should
satisfy all tank requirements for construction, location and ventilation and electrical hazard requirements.
Cargo compatibility should be assured in the event of a piping failure. The tunnel should not have any
other openings except to the weather deck and cargo pump-room or pump-room.
Cargo piping passing through bulkheads should be so arranged as to preclude excessive stresses at the
bulkhead and should not utilize flanges bolted through the bulkhead.
6.1.13 CARGO-TRANSFER CONTROL SYSTEMS
For the purpose of adequately controlling the cargo, cargo-transfer systems should be provided with:
.1 one stop valve capable of being manually operated on each tank filling and discharge line, located near
the tank penetration; if an individual deepwell pump is used to discharge the contents of a cargo tank, a
stop valve is not required on the discharge line of that tank;
.2 one stop valve at each cargo-hose connection;
.3 remote shutdown devices for all cargo pumps and similar equipment.
The controls necessary during transfer or transport of cargoes covered by the Code other than in cargo
pump-rooms which have been dealt with elsewhere in the Code should not be located below the weather
deck.
Handling of a cargo hose

6.1.14 SHIP'S CARGO HOSES

Liquid and vapor hoses used for cargo transfer should be compatible with the cargo and suitable for the
cargo temperature.
Hoses subject to tank pressure or the discharge pressure of pumps should be designed for a bursting
pressure not less than 5 times the maximum pressure the hose will be subjected to during cargo transfer.
Each new type of cargo hose, complete with end fittings, should be prototype-tested to a pressure not less
than five times its specified maximum working pressure. The hose temperature during this prototype test
should be the intended extreme service temperature. Hoses used for prototype testing should not be used
for cargo service. Thereafter, before being placed in service, each new length of cargo hose produced
should be hydrostatically tested at ambient temperature to a pressure not less than 1.5 times its specified
maximum working pressure but not more than two-fifths of its bursting pressure. The hose should be
stenciled or otherwise marked with its specified maximum working pressure and, if used in other than
ambient temperature services, its maximum and minimum service temperature, as applicable. The
specified maximum working pressure should not be less than 10 bar gauge.
Cargo hoses should be cleaned and store away from sunshine and seawater spray as soon as possible
after use, and also checked for mechanical damages after use.

6.2 TANK MATERIALS AND COATINGS

Cargo tank materials and coatings represent a considerable part of the total value of a chemical tanker.
This topic is also covered under this section. We will here introduce stainless steel, composite steel, clad
steel and the most common types of coating, also the correct handling and maintenance of the different
tank materials and coatings will be discussed.
Cargo tank materials and coatings represent a considerable part of the value of a chemical carrier, and all
structural materials and linings used in cargo tanks and the associated piping , valves and pumps, must be
suitable for the cargoes to be carried. This is done by using different types of stainless steel and different
types of coating.
Today’s chemical carriers have either all tanks made of stainless steel or coated mild steel tanks or a mix
of both.
Even if today’s tankers are equipped with stainless steel pipings and associated equipment you still can
find tankers equipped with mild steel pipings.
Stainless steel, composite steel and coated tanks are used due to different cargoes agressitivity to mild
steel, also due to cleaning and today’s charterer are having their requirement for their cargo.
Clad steel is a mild steel tank, "lined" or "clad" with a thin layer of stainless steel. Stainless steel are of
different type, best known is 316L, which means it is a 18/8 steel, better known as non-corrosive. Other
types of stainless is 316 – 316LN and composite steel like 2215 and 1520, these are stainless steel with
higher carbon and are to be treated as stainless steel.

6.2.1 COMPOSITION
We are referring to stainless steel as stainless due to its resistance to aggressive liquids and environment.
In other words it should not corrode.
Stainless steel do corrode if it is not treated the right way, you have to "passivate" or treat the steel to keep
it "stainless".
To passivate a stainless steel tank is done by spraying the tank with a mixture of Nitric acid and water,
approx. 25% Nitric. Leave it for a while and then wash out with fresh water. "Pickling" is an other way of
passivating, but is normally done after minor repairs in the tank-area, this is done by a specially Pickling
paste
Cargo tank materials

A coating compatibility chart

Due to its ability to withstand the agressitivity, stainless steel is perfect for carrying most chemical cargoes.
On the other side we have mild steel tanks, which are not able to withstand aggressive environment, but
with applying coating these tanks are also able to carry several cargoes.
These are the main types of coatings used on today’s chemical carriers;
Zinc silicate, Epoxy, Phenolics and Polyurethane.
On some chemical carriers specially dedicated with highly corrosive cargoes like hydrochloric acid have
their cargo tanks lined with rubber-linings.
The reason for having so many types of coating is that they have their own limits against various types of
cargoes.
In general we may say that Zinc silicate are not able to carry aggressive cargoes like caustic, but
Epoxy/Phenolic a good with those cargoes, but with other cargoes will they overlap each others. You need
to use the "Coating resistance list" supplied by the manufacturer to be sure.

6.2.2 APPLICATION
The correct application technique of the coatings, generally this is done by professionals and under
supervision of the paint manufacturer.
Generally tanks are to be blasted to SA 2,5, a close monitoring of humidity and temperature are to be
maintained before applying coating, Zinc silicate are to be sprayed on with one coat, (app. 250 my), and
Epoxy with 2 or 3 coats to build up to 400 my.
The general maintenance on tank coatings is to repair mechanical damages if possible, but here we have
to take in account the curing time for the different coatings and see if there is enough time for curing before
next loading.
As mentioned above each coating-supplier have their own "Coating Resistance List" and they have to be
strictly followed to prevent damage of cargo and coatings.

6.3 CARGO TANK VENTILATION SYSTEM

All cargo tanks should be provided with a venting system appropriate to the cargo being carried and these
systems should be independent of the air pipes and venting systems of all other compartments of the ship.
Tank venting systems should be designed so as to minimize the possibility of cargo vapor accumulating
about the decks, entering accommodation, service and machinery spaces and control stations and, in the
case of flammable vapors, entering or collecting in spaces or areas containing sources of ignition. Tank
venting systems should be arranged to prevent entrance of water into the cargo tanks and, at the same
time, vent outlets should direct the vapor discharge upwards in the form of unimpeded jets.
The venting systems should be connected to the top of each cargo tank and as far as practicable the
cargo vent lines should be self-draining back to the cargo tanks under all normal operational conditions of
list and trim. Where it is necessary to drain venting systems above the level of any pressure/vacuum
valve, capped or plugged drain cocks should be provided.

6.3.1 OVERFLOW CONTROL

Provision should be made to ensure that the liquid head in any tank does not exceed the design head of
the tank. Suitable high-level alarms, overflow control systems or spill valves, together with gauging and
tank filling procedures, may be accepted for this purpose.

6.3.2 VENTING OPERATION

Tank venting systems should be designed and operated so as to ensure that neither pressure nor vacuum
created in the cargo tanks during loading or unloading exceeds tank design parameters. The main factors
to be considered in the sizing of a tank venting system are as follows:
.1 design loading and unloading rate;
.2 gas evolution during loading: this should be taken account of by multiplying the maximum loading rate
by a factor of at least 1.25;
.3 density of the cargo vapor mixture;
.4 pressure loss in vent piping and across valves and fittings;
.5 pressure/vacuum settings of relief devices.
6.3.3 VENT PIPING
Tank vent piping connected to cargo tanks of corrosion-resistant material, or to tanks which are lined or
coated to handle special cargoes as required by the Code, should be similarly lined or coated or
constructed of corrosion-resistant material.
The master should be provided with the maximum permissible loading and unloading rates for each tank
or group of tanks consistent with the design of the venting systems.

6.3.4 TYPES OF TANK VENTING SYSTEMS

An open tank venting system is a system which offers no restriction except for friction losses to the free
flow of cargo vapors to and from the cargo tanks during normal operations. An open venting system may
consist of individual vents from each tank, or such individual vents may be combined into a common
header or headers, with due regard to cargo segregation. In no case should shutoff valves be fitted either
to the individual vents or to the header.
6.3.5 TANK VENTING CONTROL
A controlled tank venting system is a system in which pressure- and vacuum-relief valves or
pressure/vacuum valves are fitted to each tank to limit the pressure or vacuum in the tank. A controlled
venting system may consist of individual vents from each tank or such individual vents on the pressure
side only as may be combined into a common header or headers, with due regard to cargo segregation.
In no case should shut-off valves be fitted either above or below pressure- or vacuum-relief valves or
pressure/ vacuum valves.
Cargo tank vent system (1)
 Cargo Tank vent system (2)

6.3.6 TANK VENT POSITIONS

The position of vent outlets of a controlled tank venting system should be arranged:
.1 at a height of not less than 6 m above the weather deck or above a raised walkway if fitted within 4 m of
the raised walkway;
.2 at a distance of at least 10 m measured horizontally from the nearest air intake or opening to
accommodation, service and machinery spaces and ignition sources.

6.3.7 VENT OUTLETS

The vent outlet height referred to in 6.3.6.1 may be reduced to 3 m above the deck or a raised walkway, as
applicable, provided that high velocity venting valves of a type approved by the Administration, directing
the vapor/air mixture upwards in an unimpeded jet with an exit velocity of at least 30 m/s, are fitted.
6.3.8 TANK VENTING SYSTEMS
Controlled tank venting systems fitted to tanks to be used for cargoes having a flashpoint not exceeding
60o C (closed-cup test) should be provided with devices to prevent the passage of flame into the cargo
tanks. The design, testing and locating of the devices should comply with the requirements of the
Administration, which should contain at least the standards adopted by the Organization.

6.3.9 VENTING SYSTEM DESIGN

In designing venting systems and in the selection of devices to prevent the passage of flame for
incorporation into the tank venting system, due attention should be paid to the possibility of the blockage of
these systems and fittings by, for example, the freezing of cargo vapor, polymer build-up, atmospheric dust
or icing up in adverse weather conditions. In this context it should be noted that flame arresters and flame
screens are more susceptible to blockage. Provisions should be made such that the system and fittings
may be inspected, operationally checked, cleaned or renewed as applicable.
An automatic weight-loaded pressure/vacuum valve.
6.3.10 CARGO-TANK GAS-FREEING
The arrangements for gas-freeing cargo tanks used for cargoes other than those for which open venting is
permitted should be such as to minimize the hazards due to the dispersal of flammable or toxic vapor in
the atmosphere and to flammable or toxic vapor mixtures in a cargo tank.
Accordingly, gasfreeing operations should be carried out such that vapor is initially discharged:
.1 through the vent outlets specified in 6.3.6 and 6.3.7; or
.2 through outlets at least 2 m above the cargo-tank deck level with a vertical efflux velocity of at least 30
m/s maintained during the gas-freeing operation; or
.3 through outlets at least 2 m above the cargo-tank deck level with a vertical efflux velocity of at least 20
m/s which are protected by suitable devices to prevent the passage of flame.
When the flammable vapor concentration at the outlets has been reduced to 30% of the lower flammable
limit and, in the case of a toxic product, the vapor concentration does not present a significant health
hazard, gas-freeing may thereafter be continued at cargo-tank deck level.

6.3.11 IN-LINE AND END-OF-LINE DEVICES?

Flame-screens should not be used at vent out-lets due to the problem with clogging and thereby possibility
to build high pressure in the tank during loading.

6.3.12 PRECAUTIONS REGARDING HIGH-VELOCITY VALVES.

A pressure/vacuum (P/V) valve is designed to release and/or let in pressure to protect the cargo tank from
exploding or imploding due to too high or too low pressure in the tank.
Scan picture of P/V-valve.
The P/V-valve must be looked after due to the possibility that they may be clogged from freezing vapours,
polymer build-up or icing up in adverse weather conditions, always be sure that the P/V-valve is working
before commence loading/discharging.
A high-velocity venting valve.
6.4 PUMPS AND UNLOADING SYSTEM

6.4.1 CLASSIFICATION AND SELECTION OF PUMPS

There are a number of different pump types. Each type has its own special quality and therefore certain
advantages and disadvantages. The selection of pumps is determined by a thorough study of the capacity
needs and under which operational conditions the pump will operate. The following factors are important
when you evaluate these conditions:
- Estimated back pressure
- Capacity requirement
- Capacity range
- Requirement for installation and arrangement
- Expenses for purchase, installation and maintenance
- Availability of parts and service
- Suction terms
- Characteristics for the liquid to be pumped
Selection of the right pump for a determined purpose qualifies a close co-operation between the customer
and the producer of the pump. The customer has a special responsibility to clarify all conditions
concerning the pump installation, so the producer can choose the best pump from his product range with
the best match.
When you choose a pump you must find out how much the pump needs to deliver under a specific
condition. Definition of capacity range is important. Demand for capacity or capacity range and expected
discharge pressure must be specified. The capacity requirement is determined by the intended use of the
pump. The discharge pressure is determined by various conditions where the pump’s delivery pipeline
design, the capacity of the pump and the liquid’s characteristics, is the essential.
Alternative installation locations of the pump are limited due to special demands from Class and Shipping
Authorities and also from lack of space.
Purchase and installation cost is important. Future maintenance expenses, availability of parts and service
now and over the next years, are also important and must be included in the evaluation of alternative
pump supplies.
The liquid’s properties and which other arrangements you have to consider, often limits the options.
Density, viscosity and boiling point are important properties to consider. The liquid temperature and
corrosive properties are important factors when pump material is selected.
The pump’s suction condition is determined from where the pump is located in relation to the liquid to be
pumped. A given suction pipe creates a certain resistance that will have influence on the pump capacity.
The main principle is to minimise resistance on the suction side by decreasing the suction pipe length,
have the largest diameter possible and few as possible restrictions in form of bends, valves and so on.
The different types of pumps are divided into two main groups, displacement and kinetic pumps. The
displacement pumps displace the liquid by reducing the volume inside the pump. An example is a piston
pump where the piston is moving up and down inside a cylinder or when the screws revolve inside a screw
pump. Kinetic pumps (kinetic energy is equal to "movement" energy) increase the liquid’s velocity through
the pump.
The diagram below gives a brief view of the different available groups and types of pumps. The diagram
would be more comprehensive if the pumps were divided in all details according to number of rotors,
design of pump inlet/outlet and flow directions.
A kinetic pump like the centrifugal pump increases the liquid’s velocity in the pump by means of a rotating
impeller. A displacement pump, like the piston pump, mechanically displaces the liquid in the pump, either
by help of a piston or screws. Resistance on delivery side gives a liquid pressure rise (pump delivery
pressure). One should be aware of this difference for these two pump types.
The pressure rise on a kinetic pump is restricted by the increase in velocity over the pump, which is
controlled by the pump design. All kinetic pumps therefor have a designed or built-in limitation for
maximum discharge pressure. The displacement pumps limitation depends only on available power and
the constructional strength. In contrast to a kinetic pump, such a pump will operate against resistance with
all its available power. A closed-delivery valve after a displacement pump is damaging. The same closed
valve for a kinetic pump will not bring any immediate danger.
Piston pumps and screw pumps have good suction capacity and are used where these characteristics are
required. The weakness of these pumps is the complex construction and the relatively low capacity.
Centrifugal pumps are simply constructed with few parts and no valves. There are no immediate problems
if the outlet of the pump is closed. These qualities result in relative low purchase and servicing costs.
Operation at high speed makes the pump small in proportion compared to the capacity and flexibility in
relation to the pump’s location.
The most negative side of using a centrifugal pump is the lack of self-priming capacity. This weakness is
improved by constructional efforts and positioning, which consolidate the free flow of liquid. Location of a
pump, for instance below the liquid level, can reduce the flow resistance. High viscosity liquids are
therefore particularly difficult to pump due to this condition.
A centrifugal pump’s efficiency is high only within a small range. This is the reason it is especially
important to have a clear understanding of what capacity range the pump will operate under, in connection
with the selection of a centrifugal pump.
The differential pressure over each impeller is relatively low. Using so-called multistage pumps where
several impellers are mounted in serial, increase the pump’s capacity to deliver against higher back-
pressure.
A centrifugal pump will, without a non-return valve on delivery side, give complete back flow at the time the
pump stops. For all operators of centrifugal pumps, this relationship is important to know.
6.4.2 EXAMPLES OF VARIOUS PUMP TYPES
Double-suction split-casing centrifugal pump.

Fan pump with split casing

Centrifugal pump

6.4.3 THE EJECTOR

The ejector design is simple and is used for stripping. This ejector has no revolving or reciprocating parts
and is thereby especially easy to maintain.

The propellant (driving water), a liquid or gas, is forced through a nozzle into a mixer tube. The velocity of
the propellant will naturally increase as it passes through the nozzle. Due to the propellant’s velocity and
direction, plus the friction force between the propellant and the liquid, the surrounding liquid will be sucked
into the ejector’s mixer tube. The mixer tube is connected to an expanding tube, the diffuser. Here some
of the kinetic energy supplied to the liquid in the mixer tube is transformed into potential energy. The
capacity depends on the friction force between the two mediums, suction head, delivery head and the
propellant’s velocity. The ejector has the advantage that it does not lose the suction capacity even if it
sucks air or vapour.
The ejector’s efficiency is between 30% and 40%. Even if the propellant’s efficiency is up to approximately
70%, the total efficiency for the whole ejector system is far less than compared to a pump system, such as
a centrifugal pump. Another drawback with ejectors is that the propellant is mixed with the pumping liquid.
This implies that if the ejector is to be used in cargo transfer operation, the cargo itself must be used as
propellant liquid.
The ejector is frequently used as a bilge pump in hold spaces. A common arrangement for a hold space is
as follows:
The ejector is usually submerged in a bilge sump and the propellant is normally supplied from a seawater
pump. Onboard gas carriers where the hull is the secondary barrier, the ejector may also be used to pump
cargo from hold space. In that case, the liquefied cargo itself must be used as a propellant.
Tips
- Be aware that the ejector has a limitation on the propellant’s pressure. Higher pressure than
recommended by the supplier may result in reduced suction capacity.
- Start the ejector by opening all valves on delivery side first, and then adjust the correct propellant
pressure. The ejector’s suction valves should be opened last, which will prevent the propellant’s flow
back into the tank that is to be stripped.
- Stop the ejector by using the opposite procedure.
As the drawing shows the ejector is positioned 3 meters above the liquid level. The liquid level in the slop
tank is 15 meters above the ejector and the propellant's pressure is 8 bars. The ejector’s capacity can be
found by use of the performance curve for the specific ejector.
In the performance curve the ejector capacity is set as a function of the propellant pressure. Observe that
this curve has curves for different suction lifts. The different performance curves are marked with different
suction lifts. The ejector’s suction lift in this example is 3 meters; this specific curve shall be used.

You can find the capacity of the ejector by drawing a vertical line from 8 bars on the scale for a delivery
head of 15 meters and up to the performance curve with a suction lift of 3 meters. From this point of
intersection, draw a horizontal line to the left and over to the ejector’s capacity side. The found capacity in
this case is 600 m3/h.
6.4.4 THE EJECTOR’S PERFORMANCE CURVES

6.4.5 THE CENTRIFUGAL PUMP

The sketch below indicates a radial section of a rotor-blade wheel for a centrifugal pump. For plainness,
we observe the liquid as an amount of small particles and see what occurs with one of these on its way
through the rotor-blade wheel. We presume further that the rotor-blade wheel is filled with liquid when this
is rotating.

The inlet at the end of the blade will have a precise velocity and direction, marked ua. The direction is the
key to the circle of the point. The size of the vector is given by the angular velocity of the rotor-blade
wheel, w. The connection between the sizes, can be expressed as:
ua = w x r when w = 2 x p x T
The liquid particle will, at point A, be affected by power, from the blade marked Fua. The energy works in
the same direction as the velocity vector ua. It means that the particle performs power F that is equal, but
in the opposite direction as Fua, which is toward the blade housing.
 When the blade influences a liquid particle, the particle achieves a certain velocity. The velocity is causing
the particle’s centrifugal force, F, which has a direction leading straight out from the centre. This force
gives the liquid particle certain acceleration, a., the relation between proportions may be expressed as:
Fsa = m x a or a = Fsa/m
As we see from the sketch, the energy forces Fsa and F1 to produce energy, marked F.
When the rotor-blade wheel is rotating, the liquid particles will move lengthways along the blade because
of the centrifugal force. Since the blade governs the liquid, the relative velocity will have the same
direction as the blade. The relative velocity factor will try to accelerate the particle, but the liquid’s inner
friction (viscosity) resists and reduces the centrifugal force influence. If the only consideration is the
liquid’s viscosity, the relative velocity will achieve a certain proportion when the inner friction compensates
for the centrifugal acceleration. The system is in balance and a certain relative liquid velocity is achieved.
The relative velocity is a direct expression of the flow through the rotor-blade wheel (the pump).
The liquid particles are influenced by the relative velocity vector (V) and the blade’s velocity vector (U).
The resulting velocity vector gives the particle’s absolute velocity (C). This vector (C) determines the
particle’s track through the rotor-blade wheel.
In the point "D" the liquid particles leave the rotor-blade wheel. As a result of the relative velocity vector
(Vd) and the rotor-blade wheel’s velocity vector (Ud), an absolute velocity (Cd) has been achieved with
direction and proportion.
The blade’s deflection will determine the relative direction of the liquid that comes out of the rotor-blade
wheel. When it is the blade that set the liquid in motion, you see that the liquid’s absolute velocity can
never exceed the rotor-blade wheel’s peripheral speed.
The rotor-blade wheel sets the liquid in motion; i.e. the liquid is supplied with kinetic energy, Wk. This
energy is transformed to potential energy, Ws, and/or pressure energy, Wt. The connection between
these energy forms may be expressed as:
Kinetic = Potential energy = Pressure energy
or:
Wk = Ws = Wt
If the pump is connected to a high riser, the liquid will stabilise at a certain level. All kinetic energy is
transformed to potential energy. The centrifugal pump’s lifting height, H, is then:
½ mv2 = mgH
H = v2/2g
The pump’s lifting height is dependent on the liquid’s mass and consequently, the liquid’s density.
If a centrifugal pump is running against a closed valve, all the kinetic energy will be transformed to
pressure energy. The pressure after the pump is then:
½ mv2 = mp/r
p = ½ v2r
Also, the pressure after the pump is proportional with the liquid’s density.
If we are placing a number of rotor-blade wheels in serial in order to prevent energy loss. The liquid’s
absolute velocity out of the pump will be to equal to the peripheral speed. The theoretical maximum lifting
height, Ht1, for the pump will be:
Ht1 = Cd2/2g
when
Cd = Ud, we will obtain:
Ht1 = Ud2/2g
The volume flow is determined by the liquid’s density. When the lifting height is at a minimum, the volume
flow will be at a maximum. The theoretical pump characterisation, QHt1, which emerged, will be linear.
But in our example, we only have one rotor-blade wheel. The liquid’s absolute velocity will be less than
the peripheral speed. A new pump characterisation which has adapted real velocity is shown on the
diagram to you right (marked QHt2).

In all pumps a certain loss will always occur. The friction between the liquid, the rotor-blade wheel and
deflection loss can be empirically set to:
h1 = k1 x Q2
k1 = an invariable determined by the specific rotor-blade wheel.
In addition, it is entrance loss and shock loss, which are theoretically set at:
h2 = k2 x (Q - Qs)2
Out of the above formula: h2 = 0 when Q = Qs

This will occur when the liquid’s relative velocity into the blade has the same direction as the inlet blade.
The loss curves h1 and h2 give a resultant loss curve, h3.
From the theoretical pump characterisation QH1, 2 and the resultant loss curve, h3, a theoretical
calculated pump curve emerged, marked QH.
6.4.6 THE CENTRIFUGAL PUMP’S MODE OF OPERATION
A centrifugal pump consists of a rotating impeller inside a pump casing. The liquid inside the impeller is
affected by the "blades", and will be lead through the "blades" due to the centrifugal force. Energy in forms
of kinetic energy (velocity energy) is added to the liquid. New liquid is constantly lead into the impeller and
put into rotation. A flow through the pump is established.

If the delivery pipeline from the pump is open to the atmosphere and has sufficient height, the liquid will
adjust itself to a precise level given by the energy, which was added to the liquid through the impeller.
Here, all kinetic energy is transformed into potential energy.
The difference in liquid level is called net delivery head. A pump’s delivery head is dependent on the
individual pump’s construction. If the level in the tank is lowered, the liquid level in the delivery pipeline will
be correspondingly lower. Net delivery heads (H1, H2, H3) will be equal for the same pump provided that
flow disturbance does not occur on the pump’s suction side.
However, the pump’s delivery pressure is dependent on the liquid’s density and delivery head. In this
case, the liquid is water with a density (r) of 1000 kg/m3 and the head (H) is 100 meters, the manometer
pressure (pm) after the pump will be read at:
pm = ρ x g x H = (1000 kg/m3 x 9,81 m/s2 x 100 m)
pm = 981000 Pa = 981 kPa
pm = 9,81 bars

One can see from the previous example that the delivery head of the pump is obtained from the pump
itself, and that the delivery head is independent from the pump’s position or location. It is therefore natural
that the centrifugal pump’s capacity always is given as a function of the pump’s delivery head.
If you bend the discharge pipe from the previous example, like the illustration below, the liquid will flow out
of the pipe. Only a part of the added energy in the pump will "lift" the liquid. The rest of the energy is still
in the form of kinetic energy. From the previous taught experiment, one can predict that the capacity of a
centrifugal pump will be highest at minimal delivery head. The capacity curve (Q-H curve) will, in practice,
follow this assumption, but the curve is not linear due to loss of energy in the pump.
If you ignore the pipe resistance, the capacity Q in this situation is determined by the delivery head (H).
The delivery head here is the static height or the static back pressure, which the liquid has to lift.
In a real pipe system, bends and valves will create a resistance due to friction against free liquid flow. This
resistance varies with the velocity and viscosity of the liquid, and is called the dynamic back pressure. The
total pipe resistance, composed by the static and the dynamic back pressure, is called a system
characteristic curve.
The intersection point between the system characteristic curve and the capacity curve is called the actual
operation point.
It was previously mentioned that disturbances on the pump’s suction side would have influence on the
capacity.
H
Q
System characteristic curve
m3/hrs
mlc
Static head
Actual operation point

The conditions on the inlet side are very important for the centrifugal pump’s operation. A centrifugal
pump has normally no self-priming qualities, meaning that the pump is not able to suck liquid from a lower
level. Additional vacuum equipment connected to the pump will, however, improve the pump's self-priming
qualities. When the inlet pipe and impeller is filled with liquid, the pumping process will be able to continue
without this equipment. The liquid’s viscosity may ensure a continual flow into the pump. Too high
resistance in the inlet pipe will cause the same operational disturbance. If the flow into the pump is less
than the outlet flow, due to too high pipe resistance and/or too high viscosity, these factors will have
considerable influence on the pump’s capacity.
If you start a pump, submerged in water like the sketch indicates, the pump will have a specific capacity at
a specific delivery head. If you gradually lift the pump, the pump will, at a specific height, have a
perceptible reduction in the capacity. When this occurs, the height of the pump above liquid level is called
Net Positive Suction Head or NPSH.
The explanation of this phenomena is that when the pump is lifted up out off the water, the pipe length and
the resistance at the inlet side increases. The increased resistance creates constant negative pressure on
the inlet side of the pump. The liquid that accelerates from the centre of the impeller and out to the
periphery increases this negative pressure. When the negative pressure reaches the liquid’s saturation
pressure, the liquid starts boiling and a large quantity of vapour is created in the pump. The output flow
from the pump become irregular, and will stop at huge vapour volumes. We say that the pump cavities.
A centrifugal pump operates satisfactorily with approximately 2% gas in the liquid. But cavitation will
always damage for the pump. The gas bubbles created in the liquid on the pump’s suction side will
collapse when the pressure rises inside the impeller.
The consequences of cavity are:
- Vibrations and noise
- Reduced efficiency
- Pitting or cavity erosion inside the pump
As we have observed, the cavitation is destructive and must be avoided or controlled. To ensure limited or
non-generation of vapour one must make sure that the liquid at the pump inlet has sufficient overpressure
to avoid evaporation. The resistance at the pump inlet side should be made as low as possible. This can
be done by constructing the pipeline as short as possible, limiting the number of bends and selecting a
maximum diameter on the pipeline diameter. The pump should be positioned at the lowest possible level,
and preferably below liquid level at the suction side.
A pump’s NPSH is variable and dependent on the flow. When the flow increases, the negative pressure
generated inside the pump increases. A reduction of the flow will reduce the negative pressure. Reducing
the pump’s capacity may therefore control cavitation.
A centrifugal pump’s capacity is adjusted by throttling the delivery valve. Throttling increases the pumps
discharge pressure (back pressure) which causes reduced capacity.
The capacity may also be adjusted by changing the pump’s rotation speed. Adjustments of the pump’s
revolution move the capacity curve up or down. Reduction of the revolution moves the curve parallel
downwards, an increase in revolution, upwards. Note that these relations are valid only if the flow
conditions are unchanged.
A pump’s NPSH is variable and dependent on the flow. When the flow increases, the negative pressure
generated inside the pump increases. A reduction of the flow will reduce the negative pressure. Reducing
the pump’s capacity may therefore control cavitation.
A centrifugal pump’s capacity is adjusted by throttling the delivery valve. Throttling increases the pumps
discharge pressure (back pressure) which causes reduced capacity.
The capacity may also be adjusted by changing the pump’s rotation speed. Adjustments of the pump’s
revolution move the capacity curve up or down. Reduction of the revolution moves the curve parallel
downwards, an increase in revolution, upwards. Note that these relations are valid only if the flow
conditions are unchanged.
6.4.7 THE PUMP PERFORMANCE DIAGRAM
All manufacturers supply a pump performance diagram with the pump delivery. The curves in the diagram
are results from practical tests in the maker’s workshop and specifies:
- Type of liquid used in the test (generally water)
- Number of revolutions
- Type and size of impeller
- The optimal operation point
The operation point is normally set at the best possible efficiency, simultaneously within the pump’s
predicted capacity range.
It is important to be aware that the pump’s diagram is made for a special liquid with specific properties.
The capacity curve will be real for all liquids, provided the free flow to the pump inlet is not restricted due to
for example too high viscosity. The power consumption curve will of course depend on the fluid’s density.

A pump’s condition is of course vital for the curve accuracy. There are a lot of methods to check the
centrifugal pump’s condition. Monitoring the pump’s delivery head, capacity, power consumption and
development of these is obvious. Detection of many minor operational disturbances may be difficult and
not necessarily observed. Establishment of routines ensure continuous control of vibrations. Visual
inspection of the pump and regular maintenance is important to prevent break down.

6.4.8 THE DEEPWELL PUMP

Discharge pumps onboard gas carriers are generally deepwell pumps. The deepwell pump’s main parts
are the pump unit located at the lowest level inside the cargo tank, the discharge pipe with a transmission
shaft and the top unit with an electric or hydraulic motor located outside on top of the cargo dome.
Due to the length of the shaft, the pump has a limited rotation speed. This leads to a reduced delivery
head for a single stage pump. The pump is therefor built with multiple stages. Shaft bearings are located
between each stage in the pump unit and with even intervals along the shaft. These bearings can be made
of PTFE preservative carbon that have self-lubricating qualities.

The top unit consists of an axial bearing, a double mechanical shaft seal, revision ring and an upper ball
bearing. The axial bearing is a roller bearing that holds the entire weight of the shaft and impellers. The
bearing house is usually provided with cooling ribs to maintain an acceptable oil temperature. The purpose
of the double mechanical shaft seal is to prevent leakage of cargo into the environment, and leakage of air
into the cargo. The seal oil around, lubricates the seal surfaces, and "guarantees" an operation without
problems. The upper part of the pump is designed to prevent seal oil downspouting into the cargo tank.
The revision ring functions normally as a deflector that will lead a leakage of seal oil into a special
chamber. This chamber can be drained.
A second function for the revision ring is to prevent leakage of cargo vapour along the shaft when renewal
of the mechanical seal is necessary. If the axial bearing nut is loose, the shaft will drop down and the
revision ring will land on a seat below.
The top shaft carbon bearing must, like the other shaft bearings, be lubricated by the cargo itself. One can
thereby not avoid contact between the cargo and the seal oil in the top unit. Control of compatibility
between the seal oil and actual cargo is therefore important. The seal oil should not pollute the cargo or
generate hazardous reactions when mixed.

6.4.9 GENERAL TIPS FOR OPERATION OF A DEEPWELL PUMP:

- Check pump unit guide clearances inside the cargo tank whenever possible.
- Check for loose bolts and nuts inside the cargo tank whenever possible.
- Always carefully check the cargo tank and sump for rags and other lose objects before the hatch is
closed.
- Always check the motor’s direction of revolution before the coupling is fitted. Wrong direction may
result in damage.
- Always regularly check the "anti rotation device", if fitted.
- Always check lube oil level and seal oil level/pressure before the pump is started.
- Regularly check seal oil and lube oil levels when the pump is running.
- Always turn the pump before start.
- Check and adjust the pump’s safety device.
- Running of deepwell pump without liquid is the most common reason for breakdown. Stop the pump
when the tank is liquid free, do not force operation of the pump and do not run the pump against a
closed delivery valve for too long a time.
- These pumps are operating without vibration and related noise. Stop the pump immediately if this
occurs.

6.4.10 EXAMPLE OF PUMP PARTS

6.4.11 THE BOOSTER PUMP

If the back pressure during discharging is too high for the deepwell pump(s), a booster pump serial
connection with the deepwell pump(s) is used to increase the system’s ability to pump against high back-
pressure. There are normally two booster pumps installed on deck on gas carriers. The booster pump is
normally a centrifugal pump, installed horizontally or in vertical position. Horizontally installed pumps have
an axial inlet and radial outlet in the same centre line.
Vertically installed pumps have radial in and outlet "in-line".
The booster pumps onboard gas carriers have mainly an individual and compact design. It is constructed
with focus on reliability, simple maintenance and long lifetime. The shaft seal, with double mechanical seal
with sealing liquid, is similar to the arrangement of the deepwell pump.

The bearing is lubricated by oil; the liquid lubricates the inner shaft bearings. The following general
regulations are existing for working a booster pump:
- Turn the pump shaft regularly when not used for long periods.
- Turn the shaft before starting the pump.
- Do never start the pump if the pump is not filled with liquid.
- Regularly check the seal oil level.
- Never run the pump against the closed delivery valve for more than approximately 30 seconds.
- Adjust the flow by throttling the delivery valve, the inlet valves should always be fully open.

6.4.12 PARALLEL OPERATION OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS

The capacity requirement is usually higher than the performance of just one centrifugal pump. Additional
pumps are then lined up and run in a parallel operation.
The diagram below shows two equal pumps in parallel operation. We assume a symmetrical pipeline for
both pumps.

The pump’s capacity curve (1) shows the relation between the delivery head and the flow rate for one
pump. As both pumps are equal, the two pumps capacity curve is represented by the curve marked 1+2.
When equal pumps are run in parallel, the delivery head for the system will be equal to the delivery head
for one pump. The capacity, however, will increase in proportion to the number of pumps. If, for instance
one pump has a capacity of 1330 m3/hr. at a delivery head of 88 meters, two pumps in parallel will deliver
2660 m3/hr. and three pumps 3990 m3/hr. at the same head.
If the pumps are of different types or equal pumps are run at different speed, their individual performance
curves will be different. This is no problem provided the point of intersection is outside the pumps
individual point of intersection.
If, for instance increasing the back pressure alters the point of intersection, this may lead to one of the
pumps running without delivering any cargo. If this situation occurs and continues, the pump may be
damaged. If the system does not have any non-return valves and the back pressure increases further, a
back flow will occur through the pump and into the cargo tank.
Even though the type of pumps is the same in a parallel operation, variation in rotational speed,
asymmetric piping, variance in opening of valves, cavitation and variance of the pump’s condition may
form the same condition.
Example 1

MVS ONE PUMP, M3/T. TWO PUMPS, M3/T.

20 1770 3540
40 1730 3460
60 1590 3180
80 1420 2840
100 1250 2500
120 900 1800
130 725 1450

6.4.13 PARALLEL OPERATION

Pumps are operated in parallel when the time per unit will deliver more cargo than is possible to do with
one pump. In this example, we will view how to find the delivery amount and delivery head by use of a
pump curve. The system characteristic curve is shown on the pump curve diagram (next page).
The pump curve "A" for one pump shows in point "D1", a delivery of 1400 m3/hour at a delivery head of 88
meters.
The pump curve "B" shows two pumps in parallel operation with a delivery of 2250 m3/hour at a delivery
head of 116 meters.
To plot in pump curve "B" add the delivery amount of the two pumps at the different delivery heads. As
shown in curve "A" the delivery at 20mlc. is 1770 m3/hour, point 1. Plot a new point at 20mlc. (1770 +
1770) = 3540 m3/hour, point 11. In the same way, we are plotting the values according to the table above.
When all the values are plotted (follow the table and the curve), a new curve is drawn through the plotted
points, curve "B". Where the new curve is crossing the system curve, the delivery amount and delivery
head for two pumps in parallel operation will be read. The same procedure stands for 3 or 4 pumps in
parallel operation.
Starting pump number 2 will not double the capacity because a higher volume of flow creates higher
dynamic resistance. The increase in capacity will then be relatively less for each pump added.
To achieve accurate plotting of two or more pumps in parallel operation, it is recommended to use a sheet
of millimetre paper. Study the pump performance curve for the cargo pumps (or for any other pumps) on
your ship.

6.4.14 SERIAL OPERATION OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS

If the backpressure, while discharging is too high and the capacity hence to low, a centrifugal pump (cargo
pump) in serial connection with another cargo pump will improve the situation (capacity).
The illustration below (curve) shows two cargo pumps in serial operation (1 and 1+2). Some ships have a
dedicated pump for this purpose (booster pump).

Example

DELIVERY ONE PUMP’S LIFTING TWO PUMP’S LIFTING HEIGHT

AMOUNT HEIGHT
1300 20 40
1230 40 80
1150 60 120
1040 80 160
920 100 200
675 120 240

6.4.15 SERIAL OPERATION

If the delivery head reaches the limit for one pump, two pumps or more it must be serial operated.
We will view this on a serial pump curve. The system characteristics are already included (see the curve
on the next page).
Pump curve "A" shows in point "L1" a delivery head of 108 mlc. and a delivery of 850 m3/hour with the
existing circumstances.
Plotting in pump curve "B" (two pumps in serial operation) is adds the delivery head for the pumps at a
different delivery amount.
The first pump (curve "A") is delivering 1300 m3/hour at a delivery head of 20 mlc., point 1. Two pumps in
serial operation are delivering the same amount (1300 m3/hour) to a delivery head of 40 mlc., point 11.
Plot in the same way as in the table above (also follow the curve). Then a line is drawn through the plotted
points, curve "B". Where this line is crossing the system curve line, this is the new delivery amount and
delivery head. In this example, the delivery in point "L2" (two pumps in serial) is 1070 m3/hour at a delivery
head of 162 mlc.
It is recommended to do this curve plotting on a sheet of millimetre paper to achieve good accuracy.
6.4.16 PRESSURE SURGE AND LIQUID PRESSURE
When a valve on a liquid line is closed too quickly, the pressure inside the line increases to a hazardous
high level very quickly.
Quick changes to the liquid flow in a pipeline may lead to a pressure surge resulting in a rupture in the
pipeline system. This surge pressure can be recognised by a "knock" in the pipeline. This type of
pressure peak is generated very quickly in the pipeline, faster than a common safety valve is capable to
relieve. The consequence may be the breakdown of the pipeline system and thereby high risk of pollution,
fire and personal injury.
Pressure surge may appear if:
- The emergency shutdown valves are activated and closed too quickly. (ESD/Emergency Shut Down)
- Fast closing/opening of manual or remote operated valves.
- Fast variation of the volume flow resulting that a non-return valve starts hammering.
- When a pump is started and stopped.
The pressure in a cargo transfer system has three components; the hydrostatic pressure, the cargo tank
pressure and the pressure generated by the pump. The hydrostatic pressure and the cargo tank pressure
will mainly be constant and we will refer to these as "static pressure".
If the flow suddenly is varying due to, i.e. too fast valve closure, the moving liquid that has a specific
velocity and mass will hit a "wall" inside the valve (the valve seat or the valve flap). The kinetic energy of
the moving liquid will immediately convert into potential energy by compression of the liquid against the
valve seat. How fast the pressure peak is generated depends on the velocity and the density of the liquid.
A pipeline of 250 meters and 150 mm in diameter is used for water transfer at a capacity of 400 m3/hrs.
The total mass of the moving liquid inside the pipe is 4400 kg and moves with a velocity of 6,3
meters/second. If a valve is closed immediately, the kinetic energy will convert almost immediately to
potential energy. The pressure surge may reach approximately 40 bars within 0,3 seconds.
If the liquid is a condensed gas or crude oil, vapour may be present. These vapour bubbles will collapse
when the pressure increases. The collapsed bubbles will generate pressure waves that will also be
transmitted through the pipeline system. In an opposite case where the pressure is decreasing rapidly, a
volatile liquid will start boiling. The above mentioned cases illustrate why it is especially important that the
valves and pumps are cautiously operated so neither dangerous pressure peaks nor pressure drops are
generated.
The enclosed diagram on the next page is from ITC Tanker Safety Guide. It shows a normal cargo
operation and pressure in the pipeline. The maximum pressure is at the pump outlet. This pressure is the
sum of the hydrostatic pressure and the pressure generated by the pump. Due to friction in the pipeline,
the pressure will gradually decrease toward the cargo manifold. If the ESD valve is activated and the
valve is closed too quickly, the liquid flow will stop quite quickly. The liquid’s kinetic energy will convert into
potential energy immediately when the liquid hits the valve seat. A pressure peak is generated and will be
transmitted at the speed of sound (the only way possible) back towards the pump. When the wave of
pressure reaches the pump, some of the pressure will unload through the pump, but the resistance here
will also operate as a "wall".
The pressure is rebuilt and reflected back towards the ESD valve again. A new pressure peak is
generated with additional increased pressure. A "knock" will occur each time a pressure top is generated
against a "wall". All personnel that operate valves or pumps must be observant of these phenomena and
of the liquid pressure, which may occur consequently.
The progress and the length of the pressure surge depends on the system. If the wave of pressure is
allowed to move between two valves without pressure relief, a maximum pressure surge will be generated.
The most vulnerable parts in the system are the shore connections and loading/discharging arms. The
operative personnel normally work nearby the manifold area. A rupture in this area may easily lead to
personnel injury. (Please note that control of cargo hoses is dealt with on page 4 in this chapter.)

Maintenance and testing of the ESD-valves’ closing time is the most important of the
above mentioned causes. Closing time of the ESD-valves, which is too short, may lead
to generation of a dangerous pressure surge. Always consult the terminal
representatives about the required pipe line period. 6.4.17 Development of pressure
surge

The closing time of ESD valves should be as short as possible to prevent overflow and spillage. But not
so fast that a risky pressure surge occurs. Necessary time for a safe closure of valves can be calculated
based on the expected maximum pressure surge when the pressure wave has passed forward and
backward through the pipeline. The speed of the sound is set to 1320 m/s. If the pipeline is 2 km, the
calculated time for maximum pressure surge at closure of the ESD valve is:
T = (2 x L) / Speed of sound = (2 x 2000 m) / 1320 m/s = 3 s
The maximum pressure surge will occur 3 seconds from closure of the ESD valve. This time is called a
"pipeline period". It is assumed that the safe closing time is five times a pipeline period, so the closing
time should at minimum be:
5 x 3s = 15 seconds

6.4.18 CARGO HOSES

The cargo hoses are normally the weakest part in a pipeline system transferring cargo. The responsibility
for the cargo hose condition on board lays with the ship. It is important to be aware of this fact, in case a
cargo hose is lent out to a third party or is used in transferring cargo between ships.
Hoses for cargo should be cleaned and dried before storing. The storage area should be dry and out of
the sun, if you want to take care of the hoses as long as possible. Poor cleaning and storage is generally
the cause of damage and consequently replacement. A cargo hose prototype is tested with the products,
pressure and temperature for which the hose type is approved. The cargo hoses should be tested yearly
at a pressure that is 1,5 times the maximum working pressure.
The normal procedure for yearly testing is:
1) The hose is laid out on deck, blinded off and filled with water.
2) The hose is pressurised with 1,5 times the working pressure.
3) The hose is checked for leakage.
4) Electric bonding is checked.
5) Linear expansion for the hose is measured (measure for strength)
6) The test result is logged.
If there is no leakage, bonding is okay and the linear expansion is less than the limitation set by the
manufacturer, the hose is approved.

6.4.19 DISPLACEMENT PUMPS

Pumps are very old machines. The first types of pumps (screw pump and piston pump) are more than two
thousand years old.
A pump’s purpose is for the transport of liquid, usually from a low level to a higher level. Its purpose can
also be to press a liquid into a tank, which contains higher pressure than the surroundings. The pump
increases the liquid’s energy. The increased energy is potential energy; the liquid is transported from a low
level to a higher level. This is the kinetic energy, the liquid’s flow has increased or as pressure energy, if
the liquid is pumped into a tank with a higher pressure than its surroundings. As an example, the feed
water pump to a boiler is working using these principles.
In addition to the mentioned increase of energy, the pump also has to maintain the energy which is lost
due to streaming in the system.
As mentioned, kinetic pumps constantly have liquid streaming through the pump with pressure increasing
simultaneously. In displacement pumps, a certain volume of liquid is branched off and moved from the
pump’s delivery side. Then a pressure increase occurs. Screw pumps and piston pumps will be viewed
further in this chapter. A wide range of displacement pumps is available, such as the lamella pump, ring
pump, propeller pump, etc.

6.4.20 PISTON PUMP

The piston pump is used for relatively small amounts of liquid with large delivery heads. When the piston
is pulled upwards, a vacuum occurs inside the pump housing. The suction valve will then open and liquid
streams into the pump. When the piston is pressed downward the pressure will increase, the suction valve
will close, the delivery valve is set open and the liquid sent out of the pump. The liquid does not stream in
a smooth flow as in a centrifugal pump, but accelerates and slows alternately. This is of inconvenience
with long pipelines. The valve is a weak point. They are sensitive to liquid pollution and they also increase
the resistance against streaming.
Usually, the piston pump is double acting. Because of the pump’s movements, the pump must have a
relatively slow piston speed. The piston pump may sustain almost unlimited pressure. However, the
limitation is the automotive power and the material strength. The piston pump does not have to be filled
with liquid before starting. Make sure that all the valves on the delivery side are open before starting. The
efficiency of piston pumps is higher than, for instance, centrifugal pumps. The piston pump is a well-known
pump on board an oil tanker. This is the pump, which is used to pump cargo deposits ashore at the end of
the discharging operation. These oil deposits from cargo tanks, lines and cargo pumps are pumped ashore
through a small diameter line.

6.4.21 SCREW PUMP

The screw pump consists of two screws or more, where one of them is activated. The screws are placed
inside a pump house. A common and well-known screw pump is the Swedish manufactured so-called
IMO pump. This pump consists of one active screw placed in the middle and two symmetrical side screws.
The screws tighten to each other and to the housing, but have no metallic contact. When the screw
rotates, the threads are filled with liquid. The liquid is displaced by axial through the pump. In this pump,
the side screw rotates in the opposite direction of the middle screw. These screws are working like an
endless piston which constantly moves forward. The liquid is not exposed to rotation. The pump is self-
priming, running almost soundless and with little exposure for wear and tear when pumping clean liquids.
The screw pumps are used a lot as a lubricating pump, but are also used as a stripping pump on oil
tankers.

6.4.22 PUMP CALCULATION

All pumps are delivered with pump curves from the supplier and it is important to be able to use these
curves properly. On the example curve in this chapter, page 4, a curve is drawn for one pump which runs
with a fixed revolution.
Also drawn is the curve for the pipe, which consists of static and dynamic backpressure. The static
backpressure is caused by the difference between the shore tank’s liquid level and the vessel’s cargo
tank’s liquid level. Friction resistance in valves, bends, pipes, etc causes the dynamic backpressure.
Shore terminals usually have worked out characteristics for their installations (system curve). If the
installation’s system curve or the vessel’s pump curve is on a transparent sheet, these can be applied to
each other. For instance, the vessel’s curve is a transparency and is placed on the top of the terminal’s
curve. Then the maximum delivery (at point of intersection) at existing conditions can be seen.
From the example’s curve, in point "A" (point of intersection), the pump delivers 1560m3/hour at a delivery
head of 58 mlc. The oil’s density in the example is 820kg/m3.
Out of this information, it is possible to find out what 58mlc. corresponds to in pumping pressure
(manometer pressure) by use of the following formula:
p=ρxgxh
- p = pump pressure
- ρ = the liquid’s density - 820kg/ m3
- g = the earth’s gravity acceleration - 9,81m/s2
- h = delivery head - 58mlc.
The values used are just for this example. The denomination, which appears, is called Pascal (Pa).
100000 Pa is equal to 1bar.
Calculate the manometer pressure:
- p=ρxgxh
- p = 820kg/ m3 x 9,81m/s2 x 58mlc.
- p = 466563 Pa.
- p = 4,7 bar. (4,66563).
With a delivery flow of 1560m3/h and a delivery head of 58mlc., the manometer shows 4,7 bar. The
increased pressure above the pump is calculated, which is (on oil tankers) approximately the same as the
delivery pressure because the tank pressure is close to zero. To calculate the correct pressure, it is
necessary to allow for the manometer height above the pump’s inlet and for the liquid height in the cargo
tank above the pump’s height.
In this example the following data is known in addition what already exists:
- Tank pressure =0,1bar(10000 Pa).
- Liquid level above pump inlet = 18 metres.
- Manometer height (manifold) above the pump inlet = 23 metres.
The delivery pressure is now calculated based on the formula:
P = ρ x g x (h + x - y) + Po
- P = delivery pressure
- ρ = the liquid density - 820kg/ m3
- g = the earth’s gravity acceleration - 9,81m/s2
- h = delivery head - 58mvs.
- x = liquid level above the pump inlet - 18 meter
- y = manometer height above the pump inlet - 23 meter
- Po = tank pressure - 0,1bar (10.000 Pa)
The delivery pressure will be as follows:
- P = ρ x g x (h + x - y) + Po.
- P = 820kg/ m3 x 9,81m/s2 x (58 meter + 18 meter - 23 meter) + 10.000 Pa
- P = 820kg/ m3 x 9,81m/s2 x 53 meter + 10.000 Pa
- P = 436342 Pa
- P = 4,4bar (4,36342).
These additional values normally give very small deviations, so in the further calculations these values are
not included.
The dynamic backpressure may change, i.e. when throttling on the pump’s delivery valve. In this example,
the discharge rate will be reduced to 1000m3/h. Choose to do so by throttling the pump’s delivery valve,
and when doing so, calculate the manometer pressure. First, draw a new curve (see the dotted curve)
which crosses the pump curve at a delivery rate of 1000m3/h, which creates the new intersection point "B".
From the point of intersection "B", a horizontal line is drawn on the left side of the curve. The new delivery
head is 98 metres.
With the same formula as before the manometer pressure is calculated:
p=ρxgxh
- p=ρxgxh
- p = 820kg/ m3 x 9,81m/s2 x 98
- p = 788331 Pa
- P = 7,9bar (7,88331bar)
The conclusion is, by throttling the delivery valve to the manometer pressure, we get 7,9 bar with the
delivery rate of 1000m3/h.
Out of the same formula, it is also possible to calculate the delivery head by reading the manometer
pressure. An example using the same curve diagram, the manometer pressure is 6,3bar which compares
to (6,3 x 100000) = 630000 Pa.
Calculate the delivery head by turning the formula p= ρ x g x h, to:
h = p : (ρ x g)
This will give following delivery head:
- h = p : (ρ x g)
- h = 630.000 Pa : (820kg/ m3 x 9,81m/s2)
- h = 78,3 mlc.
From the left side of the curve diagram, at 78mlc, a horizontal line is drawn to the right. Where this line
cuts the pump curve, a new point of intersection is created, "C". From the new point of intersection, a
vertical line is drawn, and from the diagram’s capacity side, the new delivery rate is 1370m3/h. This is also
the delivery rate when the manometer pressure shows 6,3bar.
6.5 EFFICIENT STRIPPING
For the requirements with respect to efficient stripping systems, refer to regulation 5A of Annex II of
MARPOL. It must be stressed that tanks that do not comply with the required pumping capability may not
be used for the carriage of substances in categories B and C.

Stripping arrangement for a deepwell pump system (1).

6.5.1 EXISTING SHIPS UNTIL 1994

When Annex II entered into force, many existing chemical tankers either complied or were retro-fitted to
comply with the pumping and stripping requirements of regulation 5A. Operational procedures on such
ships do not differ from those on new ships. The only difference is that the water test procedure of the
efficient stripping system permits the amount of water remaining after the test to be three times that on
new ships. This does not, however, affect operations.
 Strippingarrangement for a deepwell pump system (2).

Ships not yet fitted with equipment for efficient stripping (the period of grace runs to 2 October 1994) must
also undergo a pumping test, using water. In this case, the quantity of water remaining must not exceed
1m3 in the case of category B substances or 3 m3 in the case of category C substances. After the
completion of pumping, the water remaining in pumps and piping and near the suction point is measured,
and clingage to bulkheads and deckhead and on the tank bottom is calculated. The test procedures are
set out in Appendix A of the Standards for Procedures and Arrangements.
In the case of substances in category C, unloading and prewashing operations remain the same as on
new ships. This is considered acceptable as a transitional measure. It does not apply to ships operating
within a special area, where discharge provisions are similar to those for category B substances outside
special areas.
In the case of category B substances, discharge operations are different from those for new ships. In this
case it must be ensured that:
The quantity discharged is less than 1 m3 (or 1/3000 of the tank capacity) per tank. For low-viscosity
substances this has already been established during the water test.
The concentration of substances in the wake of the ship is not more than 1 ppm. This can only be
achieved when the discharge rate is related to the concentrations of substances in the slops.
How this can be achieved is clearly set out in sections 10.5 and 10.6 of the Standards for Procedures and
Arrangements.
In this context, immiscible substances are considered to be pure products, i.e. the concentration
throughout the slops is considered to be 100 per cent, which results in it being necessary to use extremely
low discharge rates. To ensure that the rules are complied with, these discharges must be monitored and
automatically recorded.

Strippingarrangement for cargo systems with a separate pump-room.

6.5.2 EFFICIENT STRIPPING

Suppose it were possible to discharge the tanks of a chemical tanker down to the last drop, including the
contents of the pump and of the lines. There would be no problem of residues, no need for shore
reception facilities, no pollution of the sea. Simplicity itself. Require a chemical tanker to do just that and
Annex II is off to a flying start.
And this, with some modifications, was the approach taken after the original Standards were found to be
impracticable.
It was, of course, recognized at once that stripping down to the last drop would be impossible - and so a
residual quantity of 100 liters for category B substances was decided upon. For category C substances,
300 liters of residues in tank and associated pipelines was considered permissible. The quantities quoted
apply for residues in the vicinity of the suction point, as well as in the pump and associated pipelines.
Clingage against tank bulkheads is disregarded.
Again, full-scale tests were carried out, first in workshop simulations and later on board a ship. The figures
were found to be achievable. It was also recognized that, for ships already in existence, the requirements
of 0.1 m3 and 0.3 m3 would be unduly harsh and, instead, the figures of 0.3 m3 and 0.9 m3 for efficient
stripping of category B and C substances, respectively, were decided upon. These were considered to be
negligible quantities of residue which could, without too much complication and calculation, be discharged
directly into the sea.
Some precautions remained:
- the ship would have to be at least 12 miles offshore and in water at least 25 meters deep;
- the ship would have to be under way, with the discharge occurring in the boundary layer;
- the discharge would require to be through an underwater discharge opening that was sized to match
the pumping rate.
The requirements for concentrations of less than 1 ppm and 10 ppm of residues in the wake of the ship
were tacitly dropped. They are still Annex II requirements, but they do not require complicated
calculations. It is considered that, since the original quantity requirements (1 m3 or 3 m3 per tank) have
been reduced by a factor of 10 (to 0.1 or 0.3 M3), the quality requirement can be relaxed somewhat. The
requirement to discharge into the boundary layer still applies, however.
And so it would seem that the problems associated with the handling of category B and C substances are
over, with the advent of simplified operations, no need for shore reception facilities, and better out-turn of
cargo.

6.5.3 REMAINING PROBLEMS

Not quite! Existing ships need time for modification in order to achieve the required efficient stripping.
This means that some of the original requirements, albeit simplified, would have to be maintained. This
problem would of course be solved in time.
A greater problem is posed by those substances which, through their physical properties cannot be
efficiently stopped. Efficient stripping, after all, makes use of small-diameter piping and with certain
substances those lines will block, leading to enormous operational difficulties. Consideration of this led to
the approach taken towards the so-called solidifying substances and high-viscosity substances.

6.5.4 SOLIDIFYING SUBSTANCES

Although it would depend upon melting point and ambient temperature, solidifying substances have, in
principle, to be heated to well above their melting point to remain pumpable in the small-diameter piping.
In the Standards, a distinction is made between substances with a melting point between 0º C and 15º C
and those with a melting point of 15º C and above. For the former group, the requirement is that they be
discharged at 5º C or more above their melting point. Substances in the latter group must be heated to
10º C or more above their melting points. Such substances, if of category B, are to be carried in tanks
which have heating arrangements and which are not adjacent to the ship's shell plating.
Even so, there will remain substances which no careful seafarer will allow into his small diameter piping.
For those substances there is still the prewash.

6.5.5 HIGH-VISCOSITY SUBSTANCES

High-viscosity substances will not always be heated during unloading. There is also no requirement that
they be carried in tanks which may be heated; therefore, a different approach was taken.
It must be realized that, with efficient stripping, residues of substances can be reasonably cleared from
pump and pipelines, up to a certain point; however, with greater viscosity, the amount of clingage of
residues progressively rises. Therefore, there must be a point where total residues approach 1 or 3 m3,
which, it may be recalled, is the absolute maximum that may be discharged into the sea from a tank having
contained category B or C substances. In actual fact, in order to meet the requirement for uncontrolled
discharge rates, the quantity of residue must be considerably less than 1 or 3 m3.
Somewhat arbitrarily, the viscosity figures denoting the limits for efficient stripping were set at 25 mPa-s for
category B substances and 60 mPa-s for category C substances - both to be measured at the discharge
temperature. For substances exceeding the stated viscosity, a prewash is applicable.

6.6 CARGO HEATING SYSTEM

In addition to the provision of cargo compartments, pipelines and pumps for handling the cargo, the tanker
must also provide adequate heating systems for some types of cargo and cooling systems for others.
Properly constructed ventilation systems are necessary in all tankers in order to avoid excessive loss of
cargo from evaporation and to control the escape of dangerous gases.

6.6.1 HEATING SYSTEMS

Heavy fractions, such as fuel oil become very thick and sluggish when cold, and, in order that such oils
can be loaded and discharged without delay it is necessary to keep them heated.
Today the oil trade is so vast and wide spread, that the average oil tankers may be trading in the tropics
one voyage, and in Arctic conditions the next. It is therefore necessary that cargo heating systems be
designed to cope with extreme conditions.
Due to the fact that a loaded tanker has comparatively little freeboard, the temperature of the sea water
through which the vessel is passing is of major significance. Cold water washing around the ship's side
and bottom, and across the decks, rapidly reduces the temperature of the cargo and makes the task of
heating it much harder. Warm sea water, however, has the reverse effect, and can be very useful in
helping to maintain the temperature of the cargo with a minimum of steam.
Steam is used to heat the oil in a ship's tank. It is piped from the boilers along the length of the vessel's
deck. Generally the cat walk or flying bridge is used for this purpose, the main cargo heating steam and
exhaust pipes being secured to either the vertical or horizontal girder work immediately below the foot
treads. At intervals, manifolds are arranged from which the steam for the individual cargo tanks is drawn.
Each tank has its own steam and exhaust valves, which enables the steam to be shut off or reduced on
any of the tanks at will. Generally the main steam lines are well lagged, but obviously it would not be a
practical proposition to lag the individual lines leading from the manifold to the cargo tanks.
The heating arrangements in the actual cargo tanks consist of a system of coils which are spread over the
bottom of the tank at a distance of six to eighteen inches from the bottom plating. In wing tanks it is the
usual practice to extend the coil system as far as the turn of the bilge but not up the ship's side.
When it becomes necessary to heat cargo, the steam is turned on the individual tanks. The coils in the
bottom of the tanks become hot, heating the oil in the immediate vicinity. The warm oil rises slowly and is
replaced by colder oil, thus setting up a gradual circulation system in each tank.
The wing tanks insulate the centre tanks on both sides, while they are subject themselves to the cooling
action of the sea, not only through the bottom plating, but through the ship's side. It is therefore advisable
to set the steam valves so that the wing tanks obtain a larger share of the steam than the centre tanks.
This is particular true in some of the more modern vessels, where the coils are passed through the
longitudinal bulkheads between the centre and wing tanks.

Heavy fuel oils are generally required to be kept at a temperature ranging between 120o F. and 135o F.
Within this temperature range they are easy to handle. Lubricating oils of which the heavier types require
heating, are always the subject of special instructions as they vary widely in quality, gravity and viscosity.
Some types of Heavy Virgin Gas Oil or Cat Feed have very high pour points, and it is necessary to keep
the cargo well heated to avoid it going solid. Provided the temperature of this type of oil is twenty to thirty
degrees above its pour point, it offers no difficulty when loading or discharging though a wax skin will form
on the sides and bottom of the ship.
Some crude oils which contain paraffin wax or have high-pour points are also heated when transported by
sea. The main reason for this is to stop excessive deposits of wax forming on cooling surfaces. The
heating requirements for such cargoes varies considerably. Waxy crudes with pour points over 100o F.
may require heating to 120o – 135o F.
Bitumen cannot normally be carried in ordinary ships, as it requires far more heat than the normal cargo
system is capable of. For this reason, bitumen ships are generally designed so that the cargo tanks are
insulated by wing tanks which are reserved for ballast, and by double bottoms under the cargo tanks. This
coupled with extra coils, arranged on platforms at different levels, helps to keep the bitumen heated.
In ships carrying heavy lubricating oils which require heating, the coils are generally ordinary steel pipe,
but vessels carrying crude oils which have to be heated, are now equipped with cast iron or alloy coils.
The reason for this is that the heating surfaces are subjected to excessive corrosion from the lighter
fractions in the crude, and ordinary steel pipes do not stand up to the corrosive action so well as the other
materials mentioned.
A heating system should be made of materials that can withstand the temperature and also suitable for
use with the product intended to carry, heating-coils are today mainly made of stainless steel. Also the
heating medium, steam, water or thermal oil should be approved for use with the specific cargo.

The system should be provided with valves to isolate each tank by itself and also to allow manual
regulation of the flow. There should also be means to for measuring the cargo temperature. Today this is
mostly done by fixed meters, remote controlled.
We are also in need of an alarm system which can give a warning if the temperature is going too high or
too low.
For toxic cargo there must be a sampling system of the heating medium to check for toxic cargo presence
before returning into machinery area, or it have to be of a closed type where you are heating the medium
outside machinery area.

Deck mounted cargo heating system

6.7 TANK-WASHING AND SLOPS-RETAINING SYSTEMS

The type of cleaning system on chemical tankers depends on the ship’s cargo and its trade.

Tank washing and slops handling.

6.7.1 CLEANING SYSTEMS

A sophisticated cleaning system commonly consists of the following main components:
- tank cleaning pump
- tank cleaning heat exchanger
- tank-washing machines
- water distribution pipeline

Disposal of slops

6.7.2 HEATING CAPACITY

The tank cleaning heat exchanger and the tank cleaning pump must be of approximately the same
capacity.

Tank cleaning machines.

 Modern tank cleaning system.

6.8 INERT GAS SYSTEMS

Inert gas is an essential requirement for chemical tankers, being used to maintain the quality of some
cargoes, reducing cargo or oxidation or the formation of moisture, preventing dangerous chemical
reactions, safety blanketing low flash cargoes, blowing and clearing ships' cargo lines and for ensuring the
safety during washing processes of non-gas-free tanks.
Most vessels are equipped with a system of nitrogen storage tanks or bottles that are replenished when
empty. This method is preferred because it uses pure nitrogen and so is acceptable for all the above
duties. Cargo planners must ensure that topping up facilities are available at sufficient port of call on long
voyages overseas.

Some chemical tankers are fitted with inert gas generators (flue gases are not used because of the
variation of impurities) which burn liquid fuel and air in such a manner that as much oxygen as possible is
burned. After combustion the gas consists mainly of nitrogen, carbon dioxide and water vapour. When
cooled some of the vapour condenses and this liquid is separated off. The remaining gas is fed into a
further cooler where the temperature is lowered to about +3ºC. The gas is then dried by passing it through
silica gel which dries it to a dewpoint of -18ºC. A typical specification for an inert gas is given below:
Nitrogen, N2 84 %
Carbon dioxide, CO2 15 %
Oxygen, O2 0.5 % max.
Carbon monoxide, CO 30 ppm max.
Hydrogen 100 ppm max.
Sulphur dioxide 50 ppm max.
Dewpoint -18ºC

Simplified diagram of an inert-gas generator system.

The inert gas produced is perfectly acceptable for use during tank cleaning and line blowing, and when the
ship is in the products trade, but it is not suitable for blanketing or padding the majority of chemicals. Such
inert gas could contaminate the vapour space above the cargo or leave carbon deposits or acidic
formations detrimental to the coating on tank walls.

An inerted-gas generator
A recent development for producing nitrogen for inerting on gas ships is the pressure swing adsorption
method which uses compressed air and a molecular sieve adsorbent. This method produces nitrogen of at
least 97% purity with just traces of moisture and carbon dioxide and so could well be an alternative method
of inert gas generation on chemical tankers of the future.

A system for separatingnitrogen from air.

There remains a certain amount of controversy as to whether gas produced by a gas generator aboard
ship is really adequate, and whether (as nitrogen manufacturers convincingly argue) a more cost effective
solution is merely to increase the storage facilities for pure nitrogen which is suitable for all purposes,
rather than duplicating equipment.

6.9 INSTRUMETATION

6.9.1 GAUGING
Cargo tanks should be fitted with one of the following types of gaugingdevices:
Open device - which makes use of an opening in the tanks an may expose the gauger to the cargo or its
vapor. An example o this is the ullage opening.
Restricted device - which penetrates the tank and which, when in use, permits a small quantity of cargo
vapor or liquid to b exposed to the atmosphere. When not in use, the device is completely closed. The
design should ensure that no dangerous escape of tank contents (liquid or spray) can take place in
opening the device.
Closed device - which penetrates the tank, but which is part of a closed system and keeps tank contents
from being released. Examples are the float-type systems, electronic probe, magnetic probe and
protected sight-glass. Alternatively, an indirect device which does not penetrate the tank shell and which
is independent of the tank may be used. Examples are weighing of cargo, pipe flow meter.
Open gauging and restricted gauging should be allowed only where:
- open venting is allowed by the Code; or
- means are provided for relieving tank pressure before the gauge is operated.
Types of gauging for individual products are shown in column j in the table of chapter 17 (IBC Code).
6.9.2 VAPOR DETECTION
Ships carrying toxic or flammable products or both should be equipped with at least two instruments
designed and calibrated for testing for the specific vapors in question. If such instruments are not capable
of testing for both toxic concentrations and flammable concentrations, then two separate sets of
instruments should be provided.
Vapor-detection instruments may be portable or fixed. if a fixed system is installed, at least one portable
instrument should be provided.

6.9.3 TOXIC-VAPOR-DETECTION
When toxic-vapor-detection equipment is not available for some products which require such detection, as
indicated in column k in the table of chapter 1 7, the Administration may exempt the ship from the
requirement, provided an appropriate entry is made on the International Certificate of Fitness for the
Carriage of Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk. When granting such an exemption, the Administration should
recognize the necessity for additional breathing-air supply and an entry should be made on the
International Certificate of Fitness for the Carriage of Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk drawing attention to
the provisions of 14.2.4 and 16.4.2.2 in the IBC Code.
Vapor-detection requirements for individual products are shown in column k in the table of chapter 17 in
the IBC Code.

Types of gauging devices.

Complete tank gauging system.
7. TANK ATMOSPHERE

7.1 TANK ATMOSPHERE EVALUATION

The evaluation of the atmosphere is fundamental to ensuring that there are safe working conditions in any
cargo tank or enclosed space.

7.1.1 FLAMMABILITY AND EXPLOSION

Combustion is a chemical reaction, initiated by a source of ignition, in which a flammable vapor combines
with oxygen in suitable proportions to produce carbon dioxide, water vapor and heat. Under ideal
conditions the reaction for propane can be written as follows:
C3H8 + 502 Combustion 3CO2 + 4H2O + Heat
propane oxygen ® carbon water
dioxide vapor
Under certain circumstances when, for example, the oxygen supply to the source of fuel is restricted,
carbon monoxide or carbon can also be produced.
The three requirements for combustion to take place are fuel, oxygen and ignition. The proportions of
flammable vapor to oxygen or to air must be within the flammable limits.
The gases produced by combustion are heated by the combustion reaction. In open, unconfined spaces
the consequent expansion of these gases is unrestricted and the combustion reaction may proceed
smoothly without undue overpressures developing. If the free expansion of the hot gases is restricted in
any way, pressures will rise and the speed of flame travel will increase, depending upon the degree of
confinement encountered. Increased flame speed in turn gives rise to more rapid increase in pressure with
the result that damaging overpressures may be produced and, even in the open, if the confinement
resulting from surrounding pipework, plant and buildings is sufficient, the combustion can take on the
nature of an explosion. In severely confined conditions, as within a building or ship's tank where the
expanding gases cannot be adequately relieved, the internal pressure and its rate of increase may be such
as to disrupt the containment. Here, the resultant explosion is not so much directly due to high combustion
rates and flame speed as to the violent expulsion of the contained high pressure upon containment
rupture.
The term flammable range gives a measure of the proportions of flammable vapor to air necessary for
combustion to be possible. The flammable range is the range between the minimum and maximum
concentrations of vapor (per cent by volume) in air which form a flammable mixture. These terms are
usually abbreviated to LFL (lower flammable limit) and UFL (upper flammable limit). This concept is
illustrated for propane in Figure 7.1.
All the liquefied gases, with the exception of chlorine, are flammable but the values of the flammable range
are variable and depend on the particular vapor. These are listed in Table 7.2. The flammable range of a
particular vapor is broadened in the presence of oxygen in excess of that normally in air; the lower
flammable limit is not much affected whereas the upper flammable limit is considerably raised.
Comparative flammable ranges in air and in oxygen are quoted in Table 7.3 for propane, n-butane and
vinyl chloride monomer. All flammable vapors exhibit this property and as a result oxygen should not
normally be introduced into an atmosphere where flammable vapors exist. The oxygen cylinders
associated with oxyacetylene burners and oxygen resuscitators should only be introduced into hazardous
areas under strictly controlled conditions.
 Figure 7.1. Flammable range for propane

Table 7.2. Ignition properties for various gases

Flammable range (% by volume)

(in air) (in oxygen)
Propane 2.1 - 9.5 2.1 - 55.0
n-Butane 1.8 - 8.5 1.8 - 49.0
VCM 4.0 - 33.0 4.0 - 70.
Table 7.3. Flammability range in air/oxygen for various liquefied gases

The flash point of a liquid is the lowest temperature at which that liquid will evolve sufficient vapor to form a
flammable mixture with air. High vapor pressure liquids such as liquefied gases have extremely low flash
points, as seen from Table 7.2.
The auto-ignition temperature of a substance is the temperature to which its vapor in air must be heated
for it to ignite spontaneously. The auto-ignition temperature is not related to the vapor pressure or to the
flash point of the substance and, since most ignition sources in practice are external flames or sparks, it is
the flash point rather than the autoignition characteristics of a substance which is generally used for the
flammability classification of hazardous materials. Nevertheless, in terms of the ignition of escaping vapor
by steam pipes or other hot surfaces, the auto-ignition temperature of vapors of liquefied gases are worthy
of note and are also listed in Table 7.2.
As mentioned above, the most common inadvertent sources of ignition of a flammable vapor mixture are
flames, thermite sparks (due to metal to metal impact) and electric sparks. The minimum ignition energy
necessary to initiate combustion of hydrocarbon vapors is very low, particularly when the vapor
concentration is in the middle of the flammable range. Minimum ignition energies for flammable vapor
mixtures of the liquefied gases in air are typically less than one millijoule, an energy level which is
substantially exceeded by any visible flame, by most electric lighting or power circuit break sparks or by
electrostatic discharges down to the lowest level generally detectable by human contact. The presence of
oxygen in excess of its normal proportion in air further lowers the minimum ignition energy. be gradually
dispersed downwind. The vapor cloud or plume would be flammable only over part of its downwind travel.
The situation is illustrated in general terms in Figure 7.3. The region B immediately adjacent to the spill
area A would be non-flammable because it is over-rich, i.e. it contains too low a percentage of oxygen to
be flammable. Region D would also be non-flammable because it is too lean, i.e. it contains too little vapor
to be flammable. The flammable zone would be between these two regions as indicated by C.

Figure 7.4. Flammable vapor zones emanating from a gas spill

7.1.2 SUPPRESSION OF FLAMMABILITY BY INERT GAS

Whereas increasing the oxygen concentration in a flammable mixture causes a broadening of the
flammable range and a lowering of the energy necessary for ignition, decreasing the oxygen availability
causes the flammable range to be narrowed and the minimum ignition energy to be increased. If the
oxygen availability is reduced to a sufficient extent, the mixture will become non-flammable no matter what
the combustible vapor content may be. Figure 7.5 illustrates this general concept for a typical hydrocarbon
gas in mixtures of air and nitrogen. The mixtures are represented on the horizontal axis by the resultant
overall percentage oxygen content in the total mixture. The diagram provides a wealth of useful
information. The narrowing of the flammable range as the oxygen in the total mixture is reduced can be
seen from the shape of the area labeled "flammable". It is also clear that an oxygen content of less than
that at the left hand extremity of the flammable envelope, renders the mixture inert. While this value for
most hydrocarbon vapors is around 10 per cent to 12 per cent by volume, the generally accepted
requirement, as defined by the IMO, for an atmosphere which is adequately inert is one which contains
less than 8 per cent by volume oxygen. This allows for a degree of inhomogeneity in practical
circumstances.
 Fig. 7.5. Flammable limits of a typical hydrocarbon gas mixtures of air and nitrogen

The diagram is also useful in illustrating proper inerting and gasfreeing procedures. For example, assume
that the atmosphere in a cargo tank has been determined by adequate sampling and is represented by
point A. If the tank is then gas-freed directly by air, the composition of the tank atmosphere will move along
the line AB to the fully gas-free point B. In so doing, the atmosphere will have passed through the
flammable envelope.
This can be avoided by first purging the tank with inert gas along, say, the line AC to a point below the
critical dilution tine. Gas freeing by air to point B may then be undertaken without the atmosphere
composition passing through the flammable envelope. This result can only be achieved with certainty if
regular and extensive measurements are taken using properly calibrated instruments to evaluate the
atmosphere throughout the tank at the various stages. In this process it is important to use reasonable
margins of safety since the precise shape of the flammable envelope cannot be known for mixtures and a
degree of inhomogeneity in tank atmosphere must be allowed for.

7.1.3 SOURCES OF IGNITION

The principal method of protection against fire and explosion on gas carriers and jetties is achieved
through operational procedures which control atmospheres and avoid liquid spills or leakages and vapor
released to atmosphere. Added protection is essential, though more difficult to achieve, by means of
controlling sources of ignition. A source of ignition is an ever-present hazard because of the possibility of
human error and because its occurrence is usually unexpected.
Smoking is perhaps the most common source of ignition to be found in hazardous areas and, to minimize
this, smoking activities and utensils should always be restricted to pre-defined and approved locations.
Considerable care must be taken to enforce these regulations during cargo-handling operations at the
jetty, particularly when visitors are present who may not appreciate the nature of the cargo being handled.
Hot and cold work should only be permitted under conditions of strict control. This can best be achieved by
the use of work permits which make use of a checklist approach. Atmospheres in areas which could
become hazardous should be continuously monitored during hot and cold work operations, preferably with
instruments which are capable of alarming automatically on the detection of flammable vapor.
The use of "safety" tools in hazardous areas often create a false sense of security. Constructed from soft
copper alloys, these tools are often referred to as "non-sparking" but, it should be appreciated that
fragments of steel can easily become imbedded in the heads of these tools.
Static electricity can arise when liquids or gases are pumped at high velocity. Non-conducting liquids
(static accumulators), emulsions, carbon dioxide and steam are common sources of static electricity. In
general terms, static generation increases with velocity of flow. The removal of clothing in hazardous
areas, particularly in dry atmospheric conditions, can also give rise to static discharge. Helicopters are also
efficient static generators, the risk being greatest in dry atmospheric conditions. Immediately before
approaching any ship for winching or landing, it is generally recommended that the helicopter should drop
an earthing cable into the sea to dissipate any static charge in advance.
Electrical instruments used for essential purposes in hazardous areas should be of flameproof or
intrinsically safe design. The use of wandering electric power leads should be discouraged.
Electrical sparks may occur when making or breaking cargo connections between ship and shore if the
cargo connection hose or hard arm provides an electrical path between ship and jetty structures. Electrical
current will flow through this path due to differences in the electrolytic potential of the ship's structure and
of the jetty structure in relation to the surrounding seawater. Such differences as may occur naturally due
to the different steels or protective coatings of the two structures may be increased by an imbalance
between the degree of cathodic protection being applied to each structure.
Although the resultant potential difference between ship and jetty will never be more than a fraction of a
volt, the electrolytic cells involved are large and electrical resistances in the ship/sea water/jetty/cargo
connection circuit are small. As a result, a heavy current of many amperes may flow through the cargo
connection and this current, on being established or interrupted, may produce a spark of incendive energy.
The intention of the bonding cable traditionally connected between jetty and ship was to provide an
alternative path for this current but, in practical terms, such cables have been shown to be quite ineffective
for this purpose. Since it is ineffective and itself presents some hazard bv virtue of the current it carries, the
use of the bonding cable is now not recommended. The introduction of an electrical discontinuity in the
cargo connection by means of an insulating flange or a length of electrically discontinuous hose, as
appropriate, is completely effective in eliminating the cargo connection current and any resultant sparking
due to its making or breaking. For reasons of accessibility and to avoid the possibility of sparking due to
electromagnetic induction in the hard arm length, insulating flanges are usually located at the lower end of
the outer arm of the hard arm.

7.1.4 STATIC ELECTRICITY PRECAUTIONS

In normal operations, the presence of inert gas prevents the existence of flammable gas mixtures inside
cargo tanks. Hazards due to static electricity may arise, however, mainly in the case of a failure of the inert
gas system. To avoid these hazards the following procedures are recommended:
- If the inert gas plant breaks down during discharge, operations should be suspended; if air has
entered the tank, no dipping, ullaging, sampling or other equipment should be introduced into the tank
until at least 30 minutes have elapsed since the injection of inert gas ceased. After this period
equipment may be introduced provided that all metallic components are securely earthed. This
restriction should be applied until a period of five hours has elapsed since the injection of inert gas
ceased.
- During any necessary re-inerting of a tank following a failure and repair of the inert gas system, or
during initial inerting of a non-gas free tank, no dipping, ullaging, sampling or other equipment should
be inserted until it has been established that the tank is in an inert condition. This should be done by
monitoring the gas vented from the tank being inerted. Should it be necessary, however, to introduce
a gas sampling system into the tank for this purpose, at least 30 minutes should elapse after stopping
the injection of inert gas before inserting the sampling system. Metallic components of the sampling
system should be electrically continuous and securely earthed.

7.1.5 TANK WASHING

Before each tank is washed, the oxygen level must be determined, both at a point 1 meter below the deck
and at the middle level of the ullage space. At neither of these locations should it exceed 8% by volume.
Where tanks have a complete or partial swash bulkhead, the measurement should be taken from similar
levels in each section of the tank. The oxygen content and pressure of the inert gas being delivered during
the washing process should be continuously recorded.
If during washing:
- the oxygen level in the tank exceeds 8% by volume, or
- the pressure of the atmosphere in the tanks is no longer positive,
washing must be stopped until satisfactory conditions are restored.
7.1.6 PURGING
When it is required to gas free a tank after washing, it should first be purged with inert gas to reduce the
hydrocarbon content to 2% or less by volume so that during the subsequent gas freeing no portion of the
tank atmosphere is brought within the flammable range. The tank may then be gas freed.
The hydrocarbon content must be measured with an appropriate meter designed to measure the
percentage of hydrocarbon gas in an oxygen deficient atmosphere. The usual flammable gas indicator is
not suitable for this purpose.
If the dilution method of purging is used, it should be carried out with the inert gas system set for maximum
capacity to give maximum turbulence within the tank. If the displacement method is used, the gas inlet
velocity should be lower to prevent undue turbulence.

7.1.7 PREPARATION FOR TANK ENTRY

To ensure the dilution of the toxic components of inert gas to below their Threshold Limit Values (TLV),
gas freeing should continue until tests with an oxygen analyzer show a steady oxygen reading of 21 % by
volume and tests with a flammable gas indicator show not more than 1 % LFL.
If the presence of a toxic gas such as benzene or hydrogen sulphide is suspected, gas freeing should be
continued until tests indicate that its concentration is below its TLV.
Positive fresh air ventilation should be maintained throughout the period that personnel are in a tank, and
frequent tests should be made of both oxygen and hydrocarbon content of the tank atmosphere.
When other tanks in an inert condition are either adjacent or interconnected (e.g. by a pipeline) to the tank
being entered, personnel should be alert to the possibility of inert gas leaking into the gas free tank
through, for example, bulkhead fractures or defective valves. The risk of this occurring can be minimized
by maintaining a small but positive inert gas pressure.
When a gas free tank is re-connected to the inert gas main it should immediately be reinerted.

7.1.8 HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH THE HANDLING AND CARRIAGE OF PETROLEUM

The toxic hazards to which personnel are exposed in tanker operations arise almost entirely from contact
with gases of various kinds.
A convenient indicator of the toxicity of gases and the avoidance of health hazards is provided by the
Threshold Limit Value - Time-Weighted Average (TLV-TWA) (in this compendium, all references to TLVs
are to time-weighted average TLVS).
TLV-TWAs are kept under regular review and the values quoted in this guide are those adopted at the
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists in 1983. The values are expressed as parts
per million (ppm) by volume of gas in air.

7.1.9 TOXICITY OF PETROLEUM

§ Liquid petroleum
The risk of swallowing significant quantities of liquid petroleum during normal tanker and terminal
operations is very slight. Petroleum has low oral toxicity to man, but when swallowed it causes acute
discomfort and nausea. There is then a possibility that liquid petroleum may be drawn into the lungs during
vomiting; this can have serious consequences, especially with higher volatility products such as gasolines
and kerosenes.
§ Skin contact
Many petroleum products, especially the more volatile ones, cause skin irritation and remove essential oils
from the skin, leading to dermatitis. They are also irritating to the eyes. Certain heavier oils can cause
serious skin disorders on repeated and prolonged contact.
Direct contact with petroleum should always be avoided by wearing the appropriate protective equipment,
especially gloves and goggles.
§ Petroleum gases
The main effect of petroleum gas on humans is to produce narcosis. The symptoms include headache and
eye irritation, with diminished responsibility and dizziness similar to drunkenness. At high concentrations
these symptoms are followed by paralysis, insensibility and death.
The toxicity of petroleum gases can vary widely, depending on the major hydrocarbon constituents of the
gases. It can be greatly influenced by the presence of some minor components such as aromatic
hydrocarbons (e.g. benzene) and hydrogen sulphide. A TLV of 300 ppm corresponding to about 2% LFL,
has been established for gasoline vapors. Such a figure may be used as a general guide for petroleum
gases, but must not be taken as applicable to gas mixtures containing benzene or hydrogen sulphide.
Since TLV is an indication of how much of a toxic substance is acceptable during working hours (8) day
after day, the human body can tolerate concentrations somewhat greater than the TLV for short periods.
The following are typical effects at higher concentrations:

Concentration % LEL Effects

0.1 % vol. (1,000 ppm)
0.2 % vol. (2,000 ppm)
0.7 % vol. (7,000 ppm)
1.0 % vol. (10,000 ppm)
2.0 % vol. (20,000 ppm)
10 % Irritation of the eyes within 1 hour
20 % Irritation of the eyes, nose and throat, dizziness and
unsteadiness within an hour.
70 % Symptoms as of drunkenness within 15 minutes
100 % Rapid onset of drunkenness which may lead to
unconsciousness and death if exposure continues
200 % Paralysis and death occur very rapidly

The smell of petroleum gas mixtures is very variable, and in some cases the gases may fool the sense of
smell. The impairment of smell is especially serious if the mixture contains hydrogen sulphide. It must be
stressed that the absence of smell should therefore never be taken to indicate the absence of gas.
§ Benzene and other aromatic hydrocarbons
The aromatic hydrocarbons include benzene, toluene and xylene. They are components, in varying
proportions, of many typical petroleum cargoes such as gasolines, gasoline blending components, naphtas
and special-boiling-point solvents.
The TLV of aromatic hydrocarbons is generally lower than that of the other hydrocarbons in petroleum
gases. In particular, benzene has a TLV of 10 ppm an exposure level that should not be exceeded.
Exposure to benzene vapors in high concentration leads to chronic disorders of the blood and of the bone
marrow. Precautions should be taken to avoid harmful exposure during the loading of cargoes containing
benzene.
The concentration must be reduced to below the TLV of 35 ppm by dilution or by displacement with air.
Carbon monoxide poisoning is caused by carbon monoxide combining with the blood's hemoglobin instead
of oxygen, so that the blood loses its ability to take up oxygen in the lungs. This results in internal
suffocation, and death occurs when 60 to 70% of the hemoglobin has combined with carbon monoxide.
The symptoms are headache and drowsiness, deterioration of consciousness and vomiting. In the
treatment of carbon monoxide poisoning it is of the utmost importance to supply oxygen, if necessary in
combination with artificial respiration.
Nitrous gases are present as nitrogen monoxide (also known as nitric oxide) (NO) and nitrogen dioxide
(NO2) in concentrations of about 0.02% by volume in inert gas after it has passed through the scrubber,
corresponding to 200 ppm. The TLV for nitrogen monoxide is 25 ppm and that for nitrogen dioxide is 5
ppm by volume. Nitrous gases form acids by reaction with the moisture in the air, and may destroy the lung
tissue.
The sulphur dioxide content of inert gas will be very low, provided the scrubber is efficient.

7.1.10 OXYGEN DEFICIENCY

Oxygen deficiency must always be suspected in any enclosed space which has not been ventilated for
some time. It may be caused by vapor emitted from volatile liquids, by the displacement of air by inert gas
or by the consumption of the available oxygen in the air by chemical reactions such as rusting or the drying
of paint. Air contains 21 % oxygen, and spaces should not be entered before establishing that the oxygen
content of the atmosphere that is to be entered is in fact 21 %.
TEST…VENTILATE…TEST
DON'T BE A FOOL,
USE YOUR OXYGEN METER AS YOUR TOOL.
MAKE SURE IT’S SAFE!!!
Before personnel enter tanks which have contained petroleum products such as those listed above, the
tanks should be ventilated to a reading of not more than 1 % LFL on a combustible gas indicator and then
checked to ensure that the TLV of 10 ppm is not exceeded. Tests for benzene at this low concentration
can only be made with a special chemical tube indicator.
· Gasolines containing tetraethyl-lead or tetramethyl-lead
The amounts of tetraethyl-lead (TEL) or tetramethyl-lead (TML) normally added to gasolines are
insufficient to render the gases from these products significantly more toxic than those from unleaded
gasolines. The effects of the gases from leaded gasolines are therefore similar to those described above
for petroleum gases.

7.1.11 TOXICITY OF INERT GAS

Cargo tanks filled with an inert atmosphere must be ventilated with air before they are entered, both to
increase the oxygen content from less than 5% by volume to 21 % by volume and to sufficiently reduce the
amounts of carbon monoxide, nitrous gases and sulphur dioxide. Carbon monoxide (CO) may typically be
present in a concentration of about 0. 0 1 % by volume in inert gas, corresponding to 100 ppm. In certain
cases it may become significantly higher.

7.1.12 CARRIAGE OF PRODUCTS HAVING A FLASHPOINT EXCEEDING 60°C

The 1974 SOLAS Convention, as amended, implies that tankers may carry petroleum products having a
o
flashpoint exceeding 60 C (i.e. bitumens, lubricating oils, heavy fuel oils, high flashpoint jet fuels and
some diesel fuels, gas oils and special boiling point liquids) without inert gas systems having to be fitted or,
if fitted, without tanks containing such cargoes having to be kept in the inert condition.
o
However, when cargoes with a flashpoint exceeding 60 C are carried at a cargo temperature higher than
o
their flashpoint less 5 C, the tanks should be maintained in an inert condition because of the danger that a
flammable condition may occur.
It is recommended that, if inert gas systems are fitted, cargo tanks are maintained in an inert condition
whenever there is a possibility that the ullage space atmosphere could be within the flammable range.
When a non-volatile cargo is carried in a tank that has not been previously gas freed, the tank should be
maintained in an inert condition.

7.2 FIRE PREVENTION AND EQUIPMENT

Fire requires a combination of fuel, oxygen and a source of ignition. Most combustible or flammable
substances, some only when heated, give off gas which burns if ignited when mixed with an appropriate
quantity of oxygen, as in air.
Fires can be controlled and extinguished by the removal of heat, fuel or air. The main aim when fighting
fires must therefore be to reduce the temperature or to remove the fuel or to exclude the supply of air with
the greatest possible speed.

The fire triangle

7.2.1 COMBUSTIBLE MATERIAL FIRES

Examples of such fires are bedding, clothing, cleaning rags, wood, canvas, rope and paper fires.
Cooling by large quantities of water, or the use of extinguishing agents containing a large proportion of
water, is of primary importance when fighting fires of such ordinary combustible material. Cooling the
source and surrounding area should continue long enough to prevent any possibility of re-ignition.

7.2.2 LIQUID PETROLEUM FIRES

Foam is an efficient agent for extinguishing most liquid petroleum fires. It should be applied so as to flow
evenly and progressively over the burning surface, avoiding undue agitation. This can best be achieved by
directing the foam jet against any vertical surface adjacent to the fire, both in order to break the force of the
jet and to build up an unbroken smothering blanket. If there is no vertical surface the jet should be
advanced in oscillating sweeps with the wind, taking care to avoid plunging it into the liquid. Foam spray
streams, while limited in range, are also effective.
Volatile oil fires of limited size can be extinguished by water fog or water spray. Dry chemical powder or
vaporizing halon liquids are also effective in dealing with such fires.
Non-volatile oil fires which have not been burning for too long can be extinguished by water fog or water
spray if the whole of the burning surface is accessible. The surface of the liquid transfers its heat rapidly to
the water droplets which present a very large cooling surface and the flame can be extinguished with
advancing and oscillating sweeps of fog or spray across the whole width of the fire.
Any oil fire which has been burning for some time is more difficult to extinguish with water, since the oil will
have been heated to a progressively greater depth and cannot readily be cooled to a point where it ceases
to give off gas. Furthermore, the use of a water jet may spread the burning oil by splashing or overflow.
Spreading can also occur through agitation of the oil caused by violent boiling of water. Water should only
be applied to oil fires as a spray or fog, although jets of water can play a valuable role in cooling hot
bulkheads and tank walls.
The best way of dealing with such fires in tanks is by means of a smothering agent, such as foam, carbon
dioxide, or in some cases dry chemical, coupled if possible with sealing off the tank and cooling adjacent
areas or spaces.
The risk of re-ignition of a liquid petroleum fire must be borne constantly in mind. Having extinguished
such a fire, a watch should be maintained and fire-fighting equipment and personnel kept in a state of
immediate readiness.

7.2.3 LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GAS FIRES

Fires involving escaping liquefied petroleum gas should, where possible, be extinguished by stopping the
gas flow. If the flow of gas cannot be stopped it may be safer to allow the fire to continue to burn, at the
same time using water spray to cool and control the effect of radiant heat.
Extinguishing the flame may result in a wide spread of un-ignited gas and subsequent wider spread of
flame if it is re-ignited.
In order to reach and close the valve controlling the flow of gas, it may be necessary to extinguish flames
from small leaks in its vicinity. In this case dry powder extinguishers should be used.
Water jets should never be used directly into a liquefied petroleum gas fire. Foam will not extinguish such
fires.

7.2.4 ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT FIRES

These may be caused by short circuit, overheating or the spreading of a fire from elsewhere. The
immediate action should be to de-energize the equipment, and a non-conductive agent, such as carbon
dioxide, halon or dry chemical, should then be used to extinguish the fire.

7.2.5 EXTINGUISHING AGENTS - COOLING

Water
Water is the most common cooling agent. This is largely because water possesses very good heat
absorbing qualities and is available in ample quantities at terminals and on ships.
A water jet, although excellent for fighting fires involving combustible materials, should not be used on
burning oil, or on burning cooking oil or fat in galleys, because of the danger of spreading the fire.
Water spray and water fog may be used effectively against oil fires and for making a screen between the
fire-fighter and the fire.
Owing to the danger of electrical shock, water should not be directed towards any electrical equipment.
A wetting agent may be added to water when it is to be used on tightly packed combustible materials. This
has the effect of lowering its surface tension and thus increasing its effective penetration.

7.2.6 EXTINGUISHING AGENTS - SMOTHERING

Foam
Foam is an aggregation of small bubbles, of lower specific gravity than oil or water, which flows across the
surface of a burning liquid and forms a coherent smothering blanket. It will also reduce the surface
temperature of the liquid by the absorption of some heat.
There are a number of different types of foam concentrates available. These include standard protein
foam, fluoro-protein foams and synthetic concentrates. The synthetics are divided into aqueous film
forming foam (AFFF) and hydrocarbon surfactant type foam concentrates. Normally the protein, fluoro-
protein and AFFF concentrates are used at 3% to 6% by volume concentration in water. Hydrocarbon
surfactant concentrates are available for use at 1 % to 6% by volume concentration.
High expansion foam has an expansion ratio from about 150:1 to 1500:1. It is made from hydrocarbon
surfactant concentrates and is used to extinguish a fire in an enclosed space by filling the compartment
rapidly with foam, thus preventing the movement of free air. The foam generator, which may be fixed or
mobile, sprays the foam solution on to a fine mesh net through which air is driven by a fan. High
expansion foam is unsuitable for use in outside locations as it cannot readily be directed on to a hot fire
and is quickly dispersed in light winds.
Medium expansion foam has an expansion ratio from about 15:1 up to 150:1. It is made from the same
concentrates as high expansion foam, but its aeration does not require a fan. Portable applicators can be
used to deliver considerable quantities of foam on to spill fires, but their throw is limited and the foam is
liable to be dispersed in moderate winds.
Low expansion foam has an expansion ratio from about 3:1 up to about 15:1. It is made from protein
based or synthetic concentrates and can be applied to spill or tank fires from fixed monitors or portable
applicators. Good throw is possible and the foam is resistant to wind.
Foam applicators should be directed away from liquid petroleum fires until any water in the system has
been flushed clear.
Foam should not come into contact with any electrical equipment.
The various foam concentrates are basically incompatible with each other and should not be mixed in
storage. However, some foams separately generated with these concentrates are compatible when
applied to a fire in sequence or simultaneously. The majority of foam concentrates can be used in
conventional foam making devices suitable for producing protein foams. The systems should be
thoroughly flushed out and cleaned before changing agents, as the synthetic concentrates may dislodge
sediment and block the proportioning equipment.
Some of the foams produced from the various concentrates are compatible with dry chemical powder and
are suitable for combined use. The degree of compatibility between the various foams and between the
foams and dry chemical agents varies and should be established by suitable tests.
The compatibility of foam compounds is a factor to be borne in mind when considering joint operations with
other services.
Foam concentrates may deteriorate with time depending on the storage conditions. Storage at high
temperatures and in contact with air will cause sludge and sediment to form. This may affect the
extinguishing ability of the expanded foam. Samples of the foam concentrate should therefore be returned
periodically to the manufacturer for testing and evaluation.

7.2.7 CARBON DIOXIDE

Carbon dioxide is an excellent smothering agent for extinguishing fires, when used in conditions where it
will not be widely diffused. Carbon dioxide is therefore effective in enclosed areas such as machinery
spaces, pumprooms and electrical switch rooms where it can penetrate into places that cannot be reached
by other means. On an open deck or jetty area, carbon dioxide is comparatively ineffective.
Carbon dioxide does not damage delicate machinery or instruments and, being a nonconductor can be
used safely on or around electrical equipment.
Due to the possibility of static electricity generation, carbon dioxide should not be injected into any space
containing a flammable atmosphere, which is not on fire.
Carbon dioxide is asphyxiating and cannot be detected by sight or smell. No one should enter confined or
partially confined spaces when carbon dioxide extinguishers have been used unless supervised and
protected by suitable breathing apparatus and lifeline. Canister type respirators should not be used. Any
compartment, which has been flooded with carbon dioxide, must be fully ventilated before entry without
breathing apparatus.

7.2.8 STEAM
Steam is inefficient as a smothering agent because of the substantial delay that may occur before
sufficient air is displaced to render the atmosphere incapable of supporting combustion. Steam should not
be injected into any space containing an unignited flammable atmosphere due to the possibility of static
electricity generation.

7.2.9 SAND
Sand is relatively ineffective as an extinguishing agent and is only useful on small fires on hard surfaces.
Its basic use is to dry up small spills.

7.2.10 FLAME INHIBITORS

General
Flame inhibitors are materials, which interfere chemically with the combustion process, and thereby
extinguish the flames. However cooling or removal of fuel is necessary if re-ignition is to be prevented.

Dry Chemical Powder

Dry chemical powder is discharged from an extinguisher as a free flowing cloud. It is most effective in
dealing initially with a fire resulting from an oil spill on a jetty or on the deck of a tanker but can also be
used in confined spaces. It is especially useful on burning liquids escaping from leaking pipelines and
joints. It is a non-conductor and therefore suitable for dealing with electrical fires. It must be directed into
the flames.
Dry chemical powder has a negligible cooling effect and affords no protection against reignition, arising, for
example, from the presence of hot metal surfaces.
Certain types of dry chemical powder can cause a breakdown of a foam blanket and only those labeled
"foam compatible" should be used in conjunction with foam.
Dry chemical powder clogs and becomes useless if it is allowed to become damp when stored or when
extinguishers are being filled.
Vaporizing Liquids (Halons)
Vaporizing liquids, in the same way as dry chemical powder, have a flame inhibiting effect and also have a
slight smothering effect. There are a number of different liquids available, all halogenated hydrocarbons,
often identified by a system of halon numbers.
The halons are most effective in enclosed spaces such as computer centers, storage rooms, tanker engine
or pump rooms, generator enclosures and similar locations.
All halons are considered to be toxic to some degree because contact with hot surfaces and flames
causes them to break down, yielding toxic substances. All personnel should therefore evacuate the area
where halons are to be used, although it is possible to start the discharge of halons before the evacuation
is complete as the normal concentrations encountered in extinguishing fires are acceptable for brief
periods. After the fire has been extinguished the area should be thoroughly ventilated. If it is necessary to
enter the area before ventilating, suitable breathing apparatus should be used.
Halon gases are known to have significant ozone depleting properties and, under the terms of the
Montreal Protocol, production of Halon is to be phased out by the year 2000. New shipboard installations
have been prohibited since July 1992.
Carbon tetrachloride should not be used as it is highly toxic.

7.2.11 TANKER FIRE-FIGHTING EQUIPMENT

The requirements for ships' fire-fighting equipment are laid down by the regulations of the particular
country in which the tanker is registered. These regulations are generally based on the principles of the
International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), 1974, as amended, and for chemical
tankers additional requirements in the IBC Code.

7.2.12 TANKER FIXED FIRE-FIGHTING INSTALLATIONS - COOLING

All tankers are provided with a water fire-fighting system consisting of pumps, a fire main with hydrant
points, fire hoses complete with couplings, and jet nozzles or, preferably, jet/ spray nozzles. A sufficient
number of hydrants are provided and located so as to ensure that two jets of water can reach any part of
the ship. Certain bulkheads are sometimes fitted with permanent water spray lines.
An International Shore Fire Connection should be provided on tankers so that an external water supply
can be coupled to any hydrant in the ship's fire main. These connections should be available for
immediate use.

7.2.13 TANKER FIXED FIRE-FIGHTING INSTALLATIONS - SMOTHERING

One or more, or a combination of, the different smothering systems listed below may be installed on board
tankers.
Carbon Dioxide Flooding System
This system is designed to fight fires in the engine room, boiler room and pumproom. The system
normally consists of a battery of large carbon dioxide cylinders. The carbon dioxide is piped from the
cylinder manifold to suitable points having diffusing nozzles. An alarm should be activated in the
compartment before the carbon dioxide is released to give personnel time to evacuate the compartment.
Foam Systems
These are used for fighting fire in the cargo spaces, on the cargo deck, in the pumproom or in the engine
spaces. A foam system has storage tanks containing foam concentrate. Water from the fire pumps picks
up the correct proportion of foam concentrate from the tank through a proportioner and the foam solution is
then conveyed through permanent supply lines to offtake points.
Water Fog
Water fog is supplied through a system of high-pressure water lines and fog nozzles. A ring of nozzles
around the inside of the tank opening effectively blankets a cargo tank hatch fire. Some ships are also
fitted with fixed pressurized water fog protection for boiler rooms, machinery spaces, and pumprooms.
Water Curtain
Some ships have a fixed system to give a protective water curtain between the cargo deck and the
superstructure.
Inert Gas System
The purpose of an inert gas system is to prevent cargo tank fires or explosions. It is not a fixed fire-fighting
installation, but in the event of a fire, the system may be of assistance in extinguishing it.

7.2.14 PROTECTIVE CLOTHING

The most effective fire protective clothing presently available is made of light weight fire resistant fabric
incorporating an aluminum covering, and is sometimes referred to as a fire proximity suit. This type of suit
is not suitable for direct entry into fire areas. Heavier weight suits, termed fire suits, permit personnel
actually to enter the fire area wearing breathing apparatus.
Although early suits were made of asbestos, this type is not now recommended. Asbestos absorbs and
transmits heat much more quickly than newer types of material, and clothing made of asbestos provides
protection only for a short period. Asbestos must be kept dry, otherwise there is a danger that the wearer
will be scalded when exposed to fire. Personnel wearing gloves should be standing by ready to remove
asbestos clothing that has become very hot.
A fireman’s outfit shall consist of (Extract from SOLAS Chapter II-2 Regulation 17):
1.1 Personal equipment comprising:
1.1.1 Protective clothing of material to protect the skin from the heat radiating from the fire and from burns
and scalding by steam. The outer surface shall be water-resistant.
1.1.2 Boots and gloves of rubber or other electrically nonconducting material.
1.1.3 A rigid helmet providing effective protection against impact.
1.1.4 An electric safety lamp (hand lantern) of an approved type with a minimum burning period of 3 h.
1.1.5 An axe to the satisfaction of the Administration.
1.2 A breathing apparatus of an approved type which may be either:
1.2.1 A smoke helmet or smoke mask which shall be provided with a suitable air pump and a length of air
hose sufficient to reach from the open deck, well clear of hatch or doorway, to any part of the holds or
machinery spaces. If, in order to comply with this subparagraph, an air hose exceeding 36 m in length
would be necessary, a self-contained breathing apparatus shall be substituted or provided in addition as
determined by the Administration; or
1.2.2 A self-contained compressed-air-operated breathing apparatus, the volume of air contained in the
cylinders of which shall be at least 1,200 l, or other self-contained breathing apparatus which shall be
capable of functioning for at least 30 min. A number of spare charges, suitable for use with the apparatus
provided, shall be available on board to the satisfaction of the Administration. In passenger ships carrying
more than 36 passengers, at least two spare charges for each breathing apparatus shall be provided, and
all air cylinders for breathing apparatus shall be interchangeable.
2 For each breathing apparatus a fireproof lifeline of sufficient length and strength shall be provided
capable of being attached by means of a snaphook to the harness of the apparatus or to a separate belt in
order to prevent the breathing apparatus becoming detached when the lifeline is operated.
3 All ships shall carry at least two fireman's outfits complying with the requirements of paragraph 1.
3.1 In addition, there shall be provided:
3.1.1 In passenger ships for every 80 in, or part thereof, of the aggregate of the lengths of all passenger
spaces and service spaces on the deck which carries such spaces or, if there is more than one such deck,
on the deck which has the largest aggregate of such lengths, two fireman's outfits and two sets of personal
equipment, each set comprising the items stipulated in paragraphs 1.1.1, 1.1.2 and 1.1.3. In passenger
ships carrying more than 36 passengers, two additional fireman's outfits shall be provided for each main
vertical zone;
3.1.2 In tankers, two fireman's outfits.
3.2 In passenger ships carrying more than 36 passengers, for each pair of breathing apparatus there shall
be provided one water fog applicator which shall be stored adjacent to such apparatus.
3.3 The Administration may require additional sets of personal equipment and breathing apparatus, having
due regard to the size and type of the ship.
4 The fireman's outfits or sets of personal equipment shall be so stored as to be easily accessible and
ready for use and, where more than one fireman's outfit or more than one set of personal equipment is
carried, they shall be stored in widely separated positions. In passenger ships at least two fireman's outfits
and one set of personal equipment shall be available at any one position. At least two fireman's outfits
shall be stored in each main vertical zone.

7.3 A.POLLUTION PREVENTION

7.3.1 GENERAL
The pollution risks from chemical tankers are minimized through regulations for the construction and
equipment of such ships and by regulations for handling the NLS they carry. However, for the rules and
regulations to have the intended effect, ship's personnel should, through their "everyday precautions" and
through safe working routines and proper maintenance of equipment for pollution control, do their best to
avoid damage to our environment.
As a rule, no noxious cargo liquid or vapor should be released to the environment, and the applicable
pollution regulations should be strictly followed.
Principles and definitions relating to the discharge of noxious liquid substances at sea. Before going into
the discharge provisions, which are complicated, it is useful to look at the underlying principle. This may
best be expressed as ensuring that a ship is unloaded in such a way that it cannot afterwards cause any
harm to the marine environment, as its residues are virtually non-existent. At the same time, it is realized
that total elimination of residues cannot be achieved, and some realistic limits have been set.
Discharge provisions
The discharge provisions are set out in regulation 5 of Annex II of MARPOL.
It may be noted that those provisions concerning categories A and D are easy to understand and to follow
even if they may pose technical difficulties. The discharge provisions applicable to categories B and C
initially posed great difficulties. The operations set out in regulation 8 of Annex II of MARPOL,
supplemented by chapters 5, 6, 10 and 11 of the Standards, must be followed after unloading substances
in categories B and C.
Underwater discharge outlet
To more effectively mix noxious liquid substances with the seawater, the effluent should be directed into
the ship's wake. This can best be achieved by ensuring that the effluent remains within the boundary layer,
which is the area of turbulent water that surrounds a ship moving through the water. The means to do this
have been found by relating the rate of discharge of the effluent to the diameter of the discharge outlet, the
speed of the ship and the distance between the outlet and the stem of the ship.

7.3.2 INTRODUCTION
Annex 11 of the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as modified by
the Protocol of 1978 relating thereto (MARPOL 73/78), aims at control of discharge into the marine
environment of noxious liquid substances, or chemicals, carried in bulk.
Annex I - Prevention of Pollution by Oil - and Annex II comprise the two mandatory Annexes of MARPOL
73/78. MARPOL 73/78 entered into force on 2 October 1983, but the implementation of Annex II was
delayed for three years, or until such time as agreed by the Marine Environment Protection Committee
(MEPC) of IMO, because of the technical problems involved. These have now been solved, and MEPC
decided that Annex II should be implemented now that the amendments thereto have entered into force on
6 April 1987.
A chemical tanker can pollute the marine environment intentionally, i.e. through discharges into the sea of
noxious liquid substances as a consequence of its trade, and unintentionally, through discharges resulting
from accidents (i.e. collisions or strandings) to the ship. Control of the discharges is sought by:
· laying down discharge criteria
· requiring the ship to be provided with certain equipment to minimize the amounts of residues of noxious
liquid substances remaining after unloading
· requiring the ship to follow approved procedures when unloading its cargo, again to minimize the
amounts of residues of noxious liquid substances remaining after unloading
· requiring some extent of survival capability and protection of cargo tanks in cases of collision or stranding
damage.
Furthermore, measures of control are to be taken by the Port States to ensure compliance by ships with
the sometimes complex procedures.
In order to provide, for an Administration, a uniform basis for approving procedures and arrangements for
the discharge of noxious liquid substances from a specific ship, the Standards for the Procedures and
Arrangements for the Discharge of Noxious Liquid Substances (P & A Standards) have been developed.
Each chemical tanker is required to carry on board a Procedures and Arrangements Manual, which must
be in a standardized format that has been approved by the Administration on the basis of the P & A
Standards. If the procedures laid down in the P & A Manual are followed, the chemical tanker is
considered as satisfying the requirements of the Convention.
It should be noted that, unless otherwise specified, the Regulations and Appendices quoted in the
following text are those of Annex II to MARPOL 73/78.

7.3.3 NOXIOUS LIQUID SUBSTANCES

All liquid products carried in bulk are evaluated for the impact their release may make upon the
environment, and are either listed in Appendix II - List of Noxious Liquid Substances Carried in Bulk - or in
Appendix III, which is a list of other liquid substances not covered by Annex II. Regulation 3 divides the
noxious liquid substances into categories A, B, C and D, depending on the degree of hazard they present
to the marine environment, category A being the most hazardous and categories B, C and D being
progressively less hazardous.
The work of evaluation of the hazards of products carried by sea was entrusted to GESAMP (Group of
Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution), as part of the preparation for the 1973 Conference
and as a continuing task. To date, GESAMP has evaluated some 1,800 substances; over 500 of the
noxious liquid substances are listed in Appendix II, and about 100 of the liquid substances are listed in
Appendix III. When a new product is offered for carriage in bulk, the Flag State, the exporting State and
the importing State must agree on a provisional assessment in accordance with the guidelines set out in
Appendix 1, pending formal evaluation and categorization. If such agreement is not reached, the product
must be carried under the most severe conditions proposed [regulation 3(4)]. There are still substances
which are known to be carried in bulk, but which have not yet been evaluated.
In order to avoid any confusion which might arise from applying the procedure laid down in regulation 3(4)
after the Annex went into operation on 6 April 1987, the IMO Sub-Committee on Bulk Chemicals has
assigned provisional pollution categories and minimum carriage requirements to those substances.
Even so, all problems have not yet been solved. Notably, mixtures being offered for shipment may cause
problems since it is impossible to evaluate each conceivable mixture on its hazard rating. Instead,
categorization and allocating ship type are done on the basis of the percentage of the mixture's main
constituent. for which the pollution category and the ship type allocation are known.

7.3.4 APPLICATION
The provisions of Annex II apply to all ships carrying noxious liquid substances in bulk, including chemical
tankers, dry cargo ships, supply vessels, etc. With respect to dry cargo ships, the Marine Environment
Protection Committee has agreed that such ships shall not carry noxious liquid substances of categories
A, B and C. Regarding the carriage of such substances by offshore supply vessels, guidelines have been
developed by the Organization. When oil is carried in a cargo space of a chemical tanker, the relevant
requirements of Annex I of MARPOL 73/78 apply, or conversely, oil (product) tankers carrying noxious
liquid chemicals are considered as chemical tankers (except if they carry certain oil-like chemicals which
oil tankers, with the approval of the Administration, can carry and treat as if they are Annex I oil) (see
paragraph 12).

7.3.5 DISCHARGE CRITERIA

Regulation 5 prohibits discharge of noxious liquid substances, or of ballast water, tank washings, etc.
containing such substances, unless certain conditions are met. When a category A substance is unloaded
and the tank is to be washed, tank washings must be discharged to a reception facility until the
concentration in the effluent reaches the level prescribed in Appendix II [regulation 8(3)] or the tank must
be washed in accordance with the "prewash procedure" prescribed in the ship's Procedures and
Arrangements (P & A) Manual [regulation 8(4)]. Any water subsequently introduced into the tank could be
discharged to the sea when the following conditions are satisfied:
· the ship is proceeding en route at a speed of at least 7 knots in the case of self-propelled ships or at least
4 knots in the case of non-self-propelled ships;
· the discharge is made below the waterline; and
· the discharge is made at least 12 nautical miles from the nearest land and in a depth of water of not less
than 25 meters.
The idea is that, if those conditions are met, the substance discharged will mix with seawater and disperse
quickly without harming the marine environment.
Operational discharges (discharges due to deballasting or tank-washing operations) of category B and C
substances are controlled through quantity and quality requirements. For category B substances, the
quantity limit is 1 cubic meter per tank discharged. For category C substances this limit is 3 cubic metes.
In addition, the discharge is to be made from a ship proceeding en route, at least 12 miles from the nearest
land and in a water depth of at least 25 meters. Furthermore, the discharge is to be made in accordance
with approved procedures and arrangements which shall ensure that the concentration in the wake astern
of the ship does not exceed 1 ppm (category B) or 10 ppm (category C).
The amount of residue dischargeable is controlled by restricting the use of tanks in which such a cargo
may be carried to those proven capable of unloading a cargo to such an extent that the residue left in the
tank and associated pumps and piping complies with regulation 5A. If cargo residue exceeds the
prescribed level because of physical characteristics of the cargo, equipment malfunction, etc., the tank
must be prewashed in accordance with the ship's P & A Manual and tank washings must be discharged to
a reception facility.
Tank washings, except in those cases where prewashing is required, and any water added into the tank
may be discharged when all other conditions relating to the ship's speed, location, etc. (as listed above for
discharge of category A substances) have been satisfied.
The residue of category D substances may be discharged into the sea when it is diluted ten (10) times and
when the ship has complied with other conditions, as specified, regarding its speed and distance from the
shore (the water depth condition does not apply).
 In order to ensure that a ship can work in accordance with approved procedures and arrangements, it
should be supplied with an approved P & A Manual.

7.3.6 SPECIAL AREAS

As with Annex I, Annex II also defines special areas where more stringent discharge requirements apply.
These are the Baltic and the Black Sea areas. Discharge provisions for special areas so far only apply in
the Baltic Sea area. They will become applicable for the Black Sea area when the governments which are
Parties to the Convention and which have coastlines bordering on the area have collectively agreed to
establish a date when adequate reception facilities will be ready.

7.3.7 VENTILATION OF CARGO TANKS

Cargo tanks may be vented to remove cargo residues, if such a procedure is not prohibited by local rules.
Procedures and arrangements for ventilation must be approved by the Administration, which follows the P
& A Standards as a guide, and set out in the ship's P & A Manual.

7.3.8 PUMPING, PIPING AND UNLOADING ARRANGEMENTS

As briefly mentioned in paragraph 7.3.7 above, the new Regulation 5A lays down requirements for the
cargo-unloading capability for tanks carrying category B or C substances. This capability must be shown,
by a water test, to be in accordance with table below.

Table
Acceptable maximum quantity of water left in a tank after water testing the system for the carriage of:
category B substances category C substances
Ships constructed on or 0.1m 3 0.3 m3
3
after 1 July 1986 0.3 m 0.9 m3
3 3
Ships constructed (until 2 October 1994, 1 m or 1/3,000 of (until 2 October 1994, 3 m or 1/1,000 of
before 1 July 1986 the tank capacity in cubic meters may the tank capacity in cubic meters may be
be accepted) accepted)

Therefore, before a tank is certified as fit to carry category B or C substances, the tank must be tested,
based on the procedure in the P & A Standards, using water as a medium, to prove that residues left in the
vicinity of the pump's suction point and associated pumps and piping are less than the figures quoted in
table above. This would usually require some form of stripping system. If existing ships cannot meet the
0.3/0.9 cubic meter criteria, until 1994 they may, provided the amount of residue does not exceed 1 cubic
meter (category B) or 3 cubic meters (category C), carry these substances. When verifying the 1 or 3 cubic
meter criteria, clingage must be included.
There are two exemptions from the above requirements:
· for ships engaged in restricted voyages between ports or terminals within a State Party or of States
Parties to MARPOL 73/78, whose tanks are always prewashed and whose washings are discharged to a
reception facility [new regulation 5A(6)]; and
· for ships of which the design, the construction, the equipment and the trade pattern (dedicated trade) are
such that ballasting of cargo tanks is not required and tank washing is required only for repair or dry-
docking [new regulation 5A(7)].

7.3.9 MEASURES OF CONTROL

Although the carriage requirements of regulation 5A partly alleviate the reliance on operational procedures
to protect the marine environment, there is a need for proper control to ensure that operational procedures
laid down in the ship's P & A Manual are followed. One of the measures is the requirement to keep a
Cargo Record Book, the form of which appears in the revised Appendix IV. (The new form of the Cargo
Record Book follows the format of the revised form of the Oil Record Book, which is considered better and
easier to keep than the original form.) Another measure is the Port State control measures prescribed in
Regulation 8.
The basic principle of Annex II is that, after unloading noxious liquid substances, a chemical tanker may
only proceed to sea when residues of such substances have been reduced to quantities that cannot pose
a threat to the marine environment. These small quantities may be achieved either by efficient stripping or
by prewashing, and these procedures are worked out in regulation 8.
In the case of category A substances, either the tank must be washed after unloading and the washings
must be discharged to a reception facility until the concentration of the substance in the effluent reaches
the level specified in Appendix II and the tank is empty [regulation 8(3)] or it must be washed in
accordance with the procedure(s) detailed in the ship's P & A Manual (prewash procedure) and the
washings must be discharged to a reception facility [regulation 8(4)] and witnessed by a surveyor
appointed or authorized by the government of the port State. When the tank is washed, the surveyor must
certify that:
· the tank and its pump and piping systems have been emptied;
· the prewash has been carried out in accordance with the prewash procedure approved by the
Administration for that tank and that substance; and
· the tank washings resulting from such prewash have been discharged to a reception facility and the tank
is empty.
In the cases of category B or C substances outside special areas, prewashing is required when the
substance unloaded is identified in the ship's P & A Manual as resulting in a quantity of residue exceeding
1 cubic meter or 1/3,000 of the tank capacity in cubic meters for a category B substance or exceeding 3
cubic meters or 1/1,000 of the tank capacity for category C substances. These limits may not be attained
for several reasons: because of the viscosity or high melting point of the substances or because unloading
is not carried out in accordance with the pumping conditions for the tank laid down in the ship's P & A
Manual, and alternative measures are not taken to remove the cargo residues from the ship to reduce
them to the quantities specified in regulation 5A and to the point where the surveyor is satisfied.
Regulation 8 also provides that, at the request of the master, exemption from the requirements for
prewashing may be granted by the port State surveyor when:
· the tank that has been unloaded is to be reloaded with the same cargo or with a compatible substance,
and the tank will not be washed or ballasted before loading;
· the tank that has been unloaded is to be prewashed in another port, provided that it has been confirmed
in writing that a reception facility is available and is adequate for the purpose; or
· the cargo residue will be removed by ventilation.
Within the special areas, category B and C substances are treated as if they are category A and B
substances, respectively, outside special areas; therefore, the same "prewash" requirements apply as
outlined above, except that the residues that would be dischargeable outside a special area could be
retained on board.

7.3.10 CARGO RECORD BOOK

Every ship engaged in the carriage of noxious liquid substances in bulk is issued with a Cargo Record
Book (in the form given in the new Appendix IV) to record, on a tank-to-tank basis, the following
operations:
· loading of cargo;
· internal transfer of cargo;
· unloading of cargo;
· cleaning of cargo tanks;
· ballasting of cargo tanks;
· discharge of ballast from cargo tanks;
· disposal of residues to reception facilities; and
· discharge into the sea or removal by ventilation of residues in accordance with Regulation 5.
Each operation is recorded without delay, and this ensures that the Book is always kept up to date. Each
entry must be signed by the officer(s) in charge of the operation concerned and each page must be signed
by the master. The Cargo Record Book must be kept on board the ship for at least three years after the
last entry has been made.
The entry in the Cargo Record Book must be made in the official language of the flag State; for those ships
of which the official language is not English or French and which are engaged in international voyages, the
entries must be accompanied by a translation into one of these languages, since the Cargo Record Book
may be inspected by the surveyor appointed by port States. The certified copy of any entry made in the
Cargo Record Book is admissible in any judicial proceeding as evidence of facts stated in the entry.
7.3.11 SURVEYS AND CERTIFICATION
Regulations 10 to 12 provide for the surveys and for the issuance of the International Pollution Prevention
Certificate for the Carriage of Noxious Liquid Substances in Bulk (NLS Certificate) and its duration. These
provisions, particularly the system of initial, annual, intermediate and renewal surveys and certification
requirements, are almost identical with those of Annex 1. The new form of the NLS Certificate appears in
Appendix V of Annex II.
As most chemical tankers are surveyed and certified under the BCH Code or, in the years to come, the
IBC Code, Annex II recognizes the Certificate of Fitness issued under these Codes as having the same
force and the same recognition as the NLS Certificate (the new regulation 12A). The survey and
certification requirements of the Codes are similar to those of Annex II.

7.3.12 ACCIDENTAL POLLUTION

In 1972, the IMO Assembly adopted, by resolution A.212(VII), the BCH Code, which provides an
international standard for the safe carriage of dangerous chemicals in bulk by prescribing the
constructional features of ships and the equipment they should carry so as to minimize the risk to the ship,
to its crew and to the environment, having regard for the nature of the products involved. The BCH Code
has been kept up to date through regular amendments. The Code is recommendatory, although in fact
nine States required foreign vessels visiting their ports to have the Certificate of Fitness. Through the 1983
Amendments to SOLAS 1974, the IBC Code was made mandatory for new chemical tankers built after 1
July 1986.
These Codes were extended to cover pollution aspects and were adopted by MEPC at its 22nd session in
December 1985. The Codes so adopted have entered into force under MARPOL 73/78 on the day of
implementation of Annex 11 (6 April 1987).
Regulation 13 requires chemical tankers carrying category A, B and C substances to comply with the BCH
or IBC Codes in order to minimize the uncontrolled discharge of such substances, as follows:
· chemical tankers built on or after 1 July 1986 must comply with the requirements of the IBC Code;
· other chemical tankers must comply with the requirements of the BCH Code, except that those engaged
in international voyages and whose building contract was placed before 2 November 1973 and those
engaged in domestic voyages and whose building contract was placed before 1 July 1983 must comply
with the requirements as ships referred to in paragraph 1.7.3 of the Code. For ships of less than 1,600 grt.
that were constructed before 1 July 1983 and are engaged in domestic voyages, compliance with the
Code in respect of construction and equipment requirements may take effect not later than 1 July 1994.
For ships other than chemical tankers carrying category A, B or C substances in bulk, the Administration
must establish measures based on the Guidelines developed by IMO to ensure that the uncontrolled
discharges of such substances are minimized. As stated above, the MEPC has decided that dry cargo
ships shall not carry such substances, while guidelines have been finalized for offshore support vessels.

7.3.13 OIL-LIKE SUBSTANCES

Some noxious liquid substances behave like oil and can be monitored by an oil content meter. It was
therefore agreed that the carriage of such 'oil-like' substances of category C and D on board a product
carrier is permitted, and that residues may be discharged under the requirements of Annex I of Marpol
73/78, which would result in less residue being discharged into the sea than occurs when applying the
discharge criteria in Annex II.
The criteria for the selection of oil-like substances that have been agreed by MEPC (MEPC 20/19, Annex
3) are as follows:
· they are hydrocarbons;
· their mass density (specific gravity) is less than 1 at 20 °C;
· they are only regulated by the IBC or BCH Code for pollution reasons; and
· their ship type requirement, assigned in accordance with the criteria for establishing ship type
requirement from the marine pollution point of view under the IBC or BCH Code (MEPC 20/19, Annex 2),
is a type 3 ship.
In order to carry oil-like substances, the IOPP Certificate of the product tanker is endorsed to indicate that
the ship may carry oil-like substances in conformance with the new regulation 14 of Annex 11 and to show
the list of such substances the ship is allowed to carry.
The oil content meter of the ship's oil discharge monitoring and control system should be approved by the
Administration for use in monitoring the substances to be carried. In cases of category C substances, the
ship must comply with the ship type 3 requirements of the IBC or the BCH Code, as applicable.

7.3.14 RECEPTION FACILITIES

In order for a port to receive residues of noxious liquid substances, regulation 7 requires that the
Government of each Party undertakes to provide reception facilities in cargo loading and unloading ports
and terminals as well as ship repair ports. Through the new regulation 8 and the P & A Standards, the
main need for such facilities is at cargo unloading ports which receive cargoes of:
· category A substances; and
· potentially solidifying substances (i.e. those with melting points equal to or above 0o C) of categories B
and C and highly viscous substances of category B (viscosity equal to or higher than 25 mPa-s at 20o C)
or category C (60 mpa-s at 20o C outside special areas and 25 mpa-s at 20o C within special areas).
The requirements for substances in categories B and C to be carried in ships fitted with efficient stripping
systems should reduce the reception facilities that need to be provided under the Convention. The ports
concerned will be able to estimate the need for such facilities for the limited numbers of noxious liquid
substances referred to above. The MEPC developed a revised Part II of the Guidelines for the Provision of
Adequate Reception Facilities. There are, of course, needs for ships' washing tanks for backloading;
however, such a commercial need for reception facilities is beyond the requirements of the Convention
and does not form part of the scope of this paper.

7.3.15 CONCLUSION
Chemical tankers engaged in the carriage of noxious liquid substances must comply with the requirements
of Annex II, and in the unloading of the cargo and discharging of cargo residues they must follow the
procedures and arrangements detailed in the ship's P & A Manual, which is approved by the
Administration and based on the P & A Standards. Those chemical tankers engaged in the carriage of
noxious liquid substances of categories A, B and C also have to comply with the requirements of the BCH
Code or the IBC Code. These Codes prescribe, from the point of view of both safety and pollution
prevention, carriage requirements (ship type, tank type, overflow control and other equipment).
In May 1985, the MEPC, in approving the proposed amendments to Annex II, the P & A Standards and the
amendments to the IBC and BCH Codes, acknowledged that the proposed amendments to Annex II will
not only effect a remarkable reduction of marine pollution by noxious liquid substances from ships, by
bringing about a significant reduction in the generation of wastes resulting from shipboard operations, but
will also drastically reduce the environmental problems ashore involved with the treatment and ultimate
disposal of wastes received from ships. In addition, the amendments provide for improved possibilities for
executing effective Port State control, thus ensuring full compliance with the provisions of Annex II.

7.4 PROTECTION AND SAFETY EQUIPMENT

7.4.1 APPLICATION (EXTRACTS FROM THE IBC CODE)

Quote
The requirements for tankers in chapter II-2 of the 1983 SOLAS amendments should apply to ships
covered by the Code, irrespective of tonnage, including ships of less than 500 tons gross tonnage, except
that:
.1 regulations 60, 61, 62 and 63 should not apply;
.2 regulation 56.2, i.e. the requirements for location of the main cargo control station, need not
apply;
.3 regulation 4, as applicable to cargo ships, and regulation 7 should apply as they could apply
to tankers of 2,000 tons gross tonnage and over;
.4 the provisions of 11.3 should apply in lieu of regulation 61; and
.5 the provisions of 11.2 should apply in lieu of regulation 63.
11.1.2 Notwithstanding the provisions of 11.1.1, ships engaged solely in the carriage of products
which are non-flammable (entry NF in column i of the table of minimum requirements) need
not comply with part D of chapter 11-2 of the 1983 SOLAS amendments, provided that they
comply with part C of that chapter, except that regulation 53 need not apply to such ships and
11.2 and 11.3 hereunder need not apply.
o
11.1.3 For ships engaged solely in the carriage of products with flashpoint above 60 C (entry "yes"
in column i of the table of minimum requirements), requirements of chapter 11-2 of the 1 983
SOLAS amendments may apply as specified in regulation 11-2/55.4 in lieu of the provisions of
this chapter.
11.2 Cargo pump-rooms
11.2.1 The cargo pump-room of any ship should be provided with a fixed fire-extinguishing system as
follows:
.1 a carbon dioxide system as specified in regulation 11-2/5.1 and .2 of the 1983 SOLAS
amendments. A notice should be exhibited at the controls stating that the system is only to be
used for fire extinguishing and not for inerting purposes, due to the electrostatic ignition
hazard.
The alarms referred to in regulation 11-2/5.1.6of the 1983 SOLAS amendments should be
safe for use in a flammable cargo vapor-air mixture. For the purpose of this requirement, an
extinguishing system should be provided which would be suitable for machinery spaces.
However, the amount of gas carried should be sufficient to provide a quantity of free gas
equal to 45% of the gross volume of the cargo pump-room in all cases; or
.2 a halogenated hydrocarbon system as specified in regulation 11-2/5.1 and .3 of the 1983
SOLAS amendments. A notice should be exhibited at the controls stating that the system is
only to be used for fire-extinguishing and not for inerting purposes, due to the electrostatic
ignition hazard. The alarms referred to in regulation 11-2/5.1.6 of the 1 983 SOLAS
amendments should be safe for use in a flammable cargo vapor-air mixture. For the purpose
of this requirement, an extinguishing system should be provided which would be suitable for
machinery spaces but utilizing the following minimum design quantities, based on the gross
volume of the cargo pump-room:

halon 1301 7%

halon 1211 5.5%

halon 2402 0.3 kg/m3

11.2.2 Cargo pump-rooms of ships which are dedicated to the carriage of a restricted number of
cargoes should be protected by an appropriate fire extinguishing system approved by the
Administration.
11.2.3 A fire-extinguishing system consisting of either a fixed pressure waterspray system or a high-
expansion foam system could be provided for a cargo pump-room if it can be demonstrated to
the Administration that cargoes will be carried which are not suited to extinguishment by
carbon dioxide or halogenated hydrocarbons. The International Certificate of Fitness for the
Carriage of Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk should reflect this conditional requirement.
11.3 Cargo area
11.3.1 Every ship should be provided with a fixed deck foam system in accordance with the
requirements of 11.3.2 to 11.3.12.
11.3.2 Only one type of foam concentrate should be supplied, and it should be effective for the
maximum possible number of cargoes intended to be carried. For other cargoes for which
foam is not effective or is incompatible, additional arrangements to the satisfaction of the
Administration should be provided. Regular protein foam should not be used.
11.3.3 The arrangements for providing foam should be capable of delivering foam to the entire cargo
tanks deck area as well as into any cargo tank, the deck of which is assumed to be ruptured.
11.3.4 The deck foam system should be capable of simple and rapid operation. The main control
station for the system should be suitably located outside of the cargo area, adjacent to the
accommodation spaces and readily accessible and operable in the event of fires in the areas
protected.
11.3.5 The rate of supply of foam solution should be not less than the greatest of the following:
.1 2 l/min per square meter of the cargo tanks deck area, where cargo tanks deck area means
the maximum breadth of the ship times the total longitudinal extent of the cargo tank spaces;
.2 20 l/min per square meter of the horizontal sectional area of the single tank having the largest
such area;
.3 10 l/min per square meter of the area protected by the largest monitor, such area being
entirely forward of the monitor, but not less than 1,250 I/min. For ships of less than 4,000
tonnes deadweight, the minimum capacity of the monitor should be to the satisfaction of the
Administration.
11.3.6 Sufficient foam concentrate should be supplied to ensure at least 30 minutes of foam
generation when using the highest of the solution rates stipulated in 11.3.5.1, 11.3.5.2 and
11.3.5.3.
11.3.7 Foam from the fixed foam system should be supplied by means of monitors and foam
applicators. At least 50% of the foam rate required in 11.3.5.1 or 11.3.5.2 should be delivered
from each monitor. The capacity of any monitor should be at least 10 l/min of foam solution
per square meter of deck area protected by that monitor, such area being entirely forward of
the monitor. Such capacity should be not less than 1,250 l/min. For ships of less than 4,000
tonnes deadweight, the minimum capacity of the monitor should be to the satisfaction of the
Administration.
11.3.8 The distance from the monitor to the farthest extremity of the protected area forward of that
monitor should be not more than 75% of the monitor throw in still air conditions.
11.3.9 A monitor and hose connection for a foam applicator should be situated both port and
starboard at the poop front or accommodation spaces facing the cargo area.
11.3.10 Applicators should be provided for flexibility of action during firefighting operations and to
cover areas screened from the monitors. The capacity of any applicator should be not less
than 400 l/min and the applicator throw in still air conditions should be not less than 15 m. The
number of foam applicators provided should be not less than four. The number and
disposition of foam main outlets should be such that foam from at least two applicators can be
directed to any part of the cargo tanks deck area.
11.3.11 Valves should be provided in the foam main, and in the fire main where this is an integral part
of the deck foam system, immediately forward of any monitor position to isolate damaged
sections of those mains.
11.3.12 Operation of a deck foam system at its required output should permit the simultaneous use of
the minimum required number of jets of water at the required pressure from the fire main.
11.3.13 Ships which are dedicated to the carriage of a restricted number of cargoes should be
protected by alternative provisions to the satisfaction of the Administration when they are just
as effective for the products concerned as the deck foam system required for the generality of
flammable cargoes.
11.3.14 Suitable portable fire-extinguishing equipment for the products to be carried should be
provided and kept in good operating order.
11.3.15 Where flammable cargoes are to be carried, all sources of ignition should be excluded from
hazardous locations referred to in 10.2.
11.3.16 Ships fitted with bow or stern loading and unloading arrangements should be provided with
one additional foam monitor meeting the requirements of 11.3.7 and one additional applicator
meeting the requirements of 11.3.10. The additional monitor should be located to protect the
bow or stern loading and unloading arrangements. The area of the cargo line forward or aft of
the cargo area should be protected by the above-mentioned applicator.

Unquote

7.4.2 PERSONAL PROTECTION

Breathing apparatus
It is always preferable to achieve a gas-free condition in a tank or enclosed space prior to entry by
personnel. Entry into tanks where this is not possible should only be permitted in exceptional
circumstances and when there is no practical alternative, in which case breathing apparatus (and if
necessary, protective clothing) must be worn. There are three types of respiratory protection:
Canister filter respirators
Fresh air respirators
Compressed air breathing apparatus.

Canister filter respirators

These consist of a mask with a replaceable canister filter attached through which contaminated air is
drawn by the normal breathing of the wearer. They are simple to operate and maintain, can be put on
quickly and have been used extensively as personal protection for emergency escape purposes on ships
certified for carrying toxic cargoes. They are, however, only suitable for relatively low concentrations of
gas, once used there is no simple means of assessing the remaining capacity of the filter, filter materials
are specific to a limited range of gases and, of course, the respirator gives no protection in atmospheres of
reduced oxygen content. For these reasons, the IMO Code requirement for emergency escape protection
is now usually met by lightweight portable packaged self-contained breathing apparatus.

Fresh air respirators

These consist of a helmet or facemask linked by a flexible hose (maximum length 120 feet') to an
uncontaminated atmosphere from which air is supplied by a manual bellows or rotary blower. The
equipment is simple to operate and maintain and its operational duration is limited only by the stamina of
the bellows or blower operators. However, movement of the user is limited by the weight and length of
hose and great care must be taken to ensure that the hose does not become trapped and kinked. While in
general this respirator has been superseded by the self-contained or airline compressed air breathing
apparatus, it will be found on many ships as an always available backup to that equipment.

Compressed air breathing apparatus

In the self-contained version (SCBA), the wearer carries his air for breathing in a compressed air cylinder
at an initial pressure of between 135 and 200 bars. The pressure is reduced at the outlet from the cylinder
to about 5 bars and fed to the facemask as required through a demand valve providing a slight positive
pressure within the mask. Working duration depends upon the capacity of the air cylinder and the
respiratory demand. Indicator and alarm features are usually provided to warn of air supply depletion.
A typical set, providing approximately 30 minutes operation with physical exertion, may weigh about 13 kg
and the bulk of the cylinder on the back of the wearer imposes some restriction on his maneuverability in
confined spaces. Although when properly adjusted, the SCBA is simple and automatic in operation, its
maintenance requires care and skill. To ensure their serviceability when required, all such breathing sets
should be checked monthly and worn and operated during appropriate exercises preferably using special
exercise air cylinders in order to keep the operational cylinders always fully charged.
Although modern demand valves are designed to maintain a slight positive pressure within the face mask,
it should not be assumed that this feature will prevent leaks from the contaminated atmosphere into an ill-
fitting face mask. While face mask materials and contours are designed to accommodate a range of
typical facial shapes and sizes, it is essential that, before entry to a dangerous space, the air tightness of
the mask on the wearer's face be thoroughly checked in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions.
Comprehensive practical tests have shown that it is virtually impossible to ensure continued leak tightness
in operational conditions on a bearded face.
Most compressed air breathing sets may be used in the air line version (ALBA) whereby the compressed
air cylinder and pressure reducing valve are placed outside the contaminated atmosphere and connected
to the face mask and demand valve by a trailed air hose. At the expense of decreased rangeability and
the need for extra care in guiding the trailing air hose, the wearer is relieved of the weight and bulk of the
air cylinder and his operational duration may be extended by the use of large air cylinders or continuous
supply cylinder changeover arrangements.
Short duration breathing apparatus may be provided in accommodation spaces for each crew member or
for carrying slung in its easy-to-open package on inspections of non-contaminated and gas-free enclosed
spaces as an insurance against encountering a foul atmosphere. These sets consist of a small
compressed air cylinder and a polythene hood which may be rapidly placed over the head. Their duration
is limited to about 15 minutes of comparatively non-exertive effort and the sets must be used purely for
escape purposes.

Oxygen resuscitators
This equipment is to provide oxygen enriched respiration to assist the recovery of victims overcome by
oxygen deficiency or toxic gas. Modern equipments are sufficiently portable to be taken into enclosed
spaces to give immediate treatment to a casualty and consist of face mask, pressurized oxygen cylinder
and automatic controls to av6id damage to the victim and give audible warning in the event of airway
obstructions. The equipment is provided with a standard 8-meter extension hose so that the carrying case
with cylinder and controls may be securely placed and the mask taken to the victim if he is lying in a
confined location. Some ships provide a further 15-meter extension hose. If the equipment is taken into a
contaminated atmosphere, only pure oxygen can be given with due caution against its use if flammable
gas is present. If treatment is given when the victim has been removed from the contaminated space,
there are means to provide the victim with mixtures of air and extra oxygen.
Training is essential if the optimum use of this valuable life saving appliance is to be realized. Specially
marked cylinders should be used for training to ensure that in an emergency only fully charged cylinders
are selected for use. Cylinder pressures should be regularly checked and the cylinders replaced promptly
if necessary.

7.4.3 PROTECTIVE CLOTHING

In addition to breathing apparatus full protective clothing should be worn when entering an area where
contact with cargo is a possibility. Types of protective clothing vary from those providing protection against
liquid splashes to a full positive pressure gas-tight suit which will normally incorporate helmet, gloves and
boots. Such clothing should also be resistant to low temperatures and solvents.
Full protective clothing is particularly important when entering a space which has contained toxic gas such
as ammonia, chlorine, ethylene oxide, propylene oxide, VCM, or butadiene.

7.4.4 GAS INDICATORS

Sampling lines and pumps
It is very important to realise that the quality of the sampling hose has influence on the measuring result,
and that correct use and maintenance are important. If the hose is not properly chosen, it is likely that a
poor quality hose will absorb hydrocarbon gases.
Make sure that the quality of hoses, being used on your ship, is approved. Examples of hoses which have
proved acceptable:

Teflon inner hose, neoprene outer hose.

This hose’s inside diameter is 3mm, which corresponds to an inner volume of about 7cm3 per meter
length.
"Tanol" (Trade mark of MSA). This hose is marked: "Tanol" - synthetic rubber sampling line, low solvent
absorption, anti-static. Note: In an enclosed container use adequate electrical bonding. The inside
diameter is 5mm corresponding to an inner volume of about 20cm3 per meter length.
When ordering a measuring hose make sure you are getting an approved one. Always ask the deliverer
for a certificate, which shows the authorisation. It is very important to use a high quality hose for the safety
of the crew and the vessel.

Pumps
The hand pumps used are often in a rubber form with a volume of 40cm3 or more. When using long
hoses, it is important to know the number of pump strokes from the sampling point that are necessary for
the gas to reach the instrument. The number of strokes depends on the hose length, as well as, the inside
diameter of the hose.
The number of strokes may vary from 6 to 15 for a hose length of 30 metres, depending on the inner
diameter. The numbers mentioned are based on a pump volume of 40cm3. Some types of instruments
are fitted with built-in pumps. Follow the user instruction for such a pump.

Cleaning of hose
If the sampling hose gets dirtied with oil on the outside, immediately clean it with a dry cotton rag. If the
hose is dipped by accident in oil and oil is drawn into the hose, discard the hose because it is very hard to
clean it.
Always follow this rule: Each gas-measuring instrument has its own hose only for using with the specific
instrument. Do not mix hoses with hoses, which belong to another instrument.

Leakage, plugging, contamination

Always check the hose, instruments and pumps before use, in order to detect any leakage, plugging or
contamination. Follow the procedure check for the instrument being used.
Place a finger on the hose opening and check that the hand pump remains squeezed together for about 1
minute. If there is a built-in pump, the flow indicator gives an alarm. See the illustration to your right.
Carry out measurements with and without the sampling hose to check that the hose does not influence the
measurement by absorbing or releasing gases. For this purpose use clean air and a calibration gas,
depending on the type of gas measuring instrument being checked. Also carry out a leakage test on the
instrument, and if applicable, on a drop catcher or other optional equipment that has been fitted. See the
illustration.

Maintenance
Make it a rule to always purge the hose by pumping clean air through it after use. And blow the measuring
hoses with compressed air from time to time to remove water droplets and dust. As the analyzers are of
vital importance, they must be carefully maintained and tested strictly in accordance with the manufacturer
instructions.

Filters
Normally used in hydrocarbon gas meters are cotton filament type filters, catalytic or non-catalytic.
Additional filters are not normally needed. In extremely moist or wet conditions, for example during tank
washing, excessive water can be removed from the gas sample using materials that retain water, but do
not affect the hydrocarbons.
Materials for this purpose are granular calcium chloride or sulphate. If required, soda asbestos will
selectively retain hydrogen sulphide without affecting the hydrocarbons. However, it also retains carbon
dioxide and sulphur dioxide and must not be used in tanks, which are inerted with scrubbed flue gas.
The use of water retaining filters is essential when using an oxygen analyser, especially the analysers
based on the paramagnetic principle. This is because the presence of water vapours in the sample can
damage the measuring cell. Use only manufacture recommended filters.

Calibration gas
Always have the appropriate calibration gas for the instruments on board. This calibration gas has to be
the right type and the availability has to be good. Also, knowledge how to use the different types of
calibration gas must be properly understood. Always follow the manufacture's recommendation when
ordering calibration gas. Also demand a certificate on the ordered calibration gas to be sure that you are
receiving a gas of high quality.
Explosimeters use a mixture of hydrocarbon gas and air, approximately 50% LEL or lower, as a calibration
gas. (It is important to have a certificate on the specified hydrocarbon gas, showing the exact percent of
LEL).
Various types of hydrocarbon gas measuring instruments may have different requirements of calibration
gas. Make sure you have the right one on your vessel.
Oxygen analysers used at low concentrations usually use nitrogen as the calibration gas in order to get a
zero adjustment and dry air is used for the 21% O2 by volume adjustment.

Attention
Those using the measuring instruments on board must have sufficient knowledge about the instrument,
and all such instruments must have the operating instructions attached to the instrument. Also keep a log
for each instrument, where records are made of the calibration performed, replacement of parts or other
repairs, faults and irregularities. Always have additional spare parts in supply, which may have to be
replaced from time to time.
If the instrument not is in use for a long period of time, remove the batteries; even the leak proof ones.
"Warning" - For the sake of safety, all instruments must be operated and serviced by qualified personnel
only. Read and make sure you fully understand the instruction book before using or servicing the
instrument.
7.4.5 VOLUME % HYDROCARBON GAS MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
We are going to discuss various principles for the measurement of hydrocarbon gases given off by crude
oil.
In order to measure hydrocarbon gases in a mixture with other gases, for example inert gas, an instrument
is used, which measures the absorption of infrared light. Such infrared absorption instruments are found
both as laboratory instruments and as instruments for fixed installations on board ships.
In the early 1970’s, when trying to find portable gas measuring instruments for the determination of % by
volume HC in a tank atmosphere, there were few commercial instruments, which appeared suitable. An
interferometer was modified and the Riken Interferometer Type 17HC, with the measuring ranges 0-5% by
volume and 0-30% by volume HC, was developed in collaboration with Riken Keiki Fine Instrument Co.,
Japan. At this time, only a few ships had an inert gas system on board. The instrument was used for
measuring hydrocarbon concentrations in air, which were higher than the lower explosive limit, to check for
freeing gas with air before tank washing in a "too lean" atmosphere. Later on, the instrument also came to
be used for the measurement of hydrocarbon gas concentration in an inerted atmosphere.

7.4.6 RIKEN PORTABLE "HYDROCARBON" INDICATOR MODEL 17 HC

Operating Principles
This instrument measures volume by percent of hydrocarbon gases above crude oil using an optical
registration at the speed of light, which passes through the air and gas/air mixture respectively. The gas in
question is sucked into two chambers that are placed in sequence and equipped with glass end walls
enabling the light to pass through. The volume percentage is registered on a double scale that is
graduated 0-5 and 0-30 and is read through an adjustable lens.
With Riken 17HC one can measure concentrations of hydrocarbon gases by utilizing the difference
between the speed of light through air and the gas. The difference increases with increasing hydrocarbon
gas concentration.
The refractive index for a gas is an expression of the ratio between the speed of light in vacuum and in the
gas. The speed in the gas will depend on pressure and temperature. The refractive index is normally
quoted at a pressure of 1 atmosphere and either 00C or 200C.
Compared with the refractive index for the various hydrocarbon gases, the hydrocarbon mixture index
used by Riken is closest to butane.
The instrument is tested for working within a temperature range of +1130F (450C) to -220F (-300C).
Hotter gases should be cooled down to come within this range.
The interferometer was originally chosen to determine hydrocarbon gases in air. The conditions become
more complicated if the interferometer is used for measuring hydrocarbon gases in inert gas. There will be
a difference between the zero adjusts for air without hydrocarbon gas and inert gas without hydrocarbon
gas.
Oxygen and nitrogen have rather similar refractive indexes, but there will be a positive deviation in relation
to air when the oxygen content decreases from 21% by volume. If the oxygen content is reduced from
21% by volume to 5% by volume, the reading on the interferometer increases from 0% by volume HC to
0,5% by volume HC.
Carbon dioxide has a higher refractive index than air, so the reading on the interferometer for 1% by
volume CO2 is approximately 0,15. Inert gas, which contains close to 14% by volume CO2 and
approximately 5% by volume O2, will therefor give a reading on the interferometer of 2,5. (Approximately
2,0 is due to carbon dioxide and about 0,5 is due to low oxygen content). When the interferometer is used
for measuring hydrocarbon gas in inert gas, a correction is therefor necessary for the difference between
zero setting in clean air and zero setting in inert gas.
Previously a method was used whereby carbon dioxide was removed from the gas mixture before the
introduction to the interferometer. The gas mixture was passed through a tube filled with soda lime, as an
absorption material. Experience has shown that the absorbent often is not very efficient, so that
measurements with the interferometer have given too high values. It is therefor recommended to correct
for the difference between zero setting in clean air and in inert gas by using a method, which does not
include the use of the external filter. Inert gas contains 12-14% CO2. To remove such a large
concentration by means of the external filter has proved difficult. Instead of using the filter the
measurement is read directly and the values read are reduced by 2,5%. If there is a risk of sucking in
water vapour/condensate, one can use a moisture collector (which usually accompanies the instrument)
and install it between the suction hose and the instrument.
When measuring hydrocarbon gases in an inerted tank atmosphere with an interferometer without the
soda lime, the reading must be corrected by subtracting 2,5 from the values read. For example, the
correct value will be 2,5% by volume HC for a reading of 5,0.

Optical diagram

How to use
Function of parts:
1. Inlet port to which the sampling tube is connected.
2. Outlet port to which the aspirator tubes is connected.
3. Push button switch to illuminate the scale.
4. Screw off cover to protect zero setting from any disturbance in handling the instrument during tests.
5. Zero adjusting knob for setting interference fringe to zero position in fresh air.
6. Cock to change the sampling route either HIGH RANGE or LOW RANGE.
7. Eyepiece lens and protecting push on cover (on chain) to the right. The lens can be focused for
personal vision by turning in either direction.
8. Aspirator bulb.
9. Screw on covers, replaceable moisture absorbent cartridge and single cell flashlight battery.
10.Cover for electric bulb for the light source.
Preparation:
1. a) Secure auxiliary filter in leather strap. Connect rubber tube to gas inlet port (1) through auxiliary
filter.
2. b) Connect rubber aspirator to gas outlet port (2).
3. c) Place cock (6) in position 5 and squeeze aspirator (8) at least five times in fresh air to clean gas
chamber.
4. d) Press the switch (3) and observe interference fringe through eyepiece.
5. e) Remove protective cover (4) of zero setting knob (5). Adjust the right one of two black lines, just on
the zero position of scale, by rotating the zero setting knob.
6. f) Put the cover back on, in order to protect the knob from any accidental movement.
Reading:
1. Suck the gas to be examined into instrument by squeezing aspirator about 5 times or more if
extension tube is used.
2. Press the switch and examine amount of shift of marked black line through eyepiece, which gives
percentage of gas on 0 - 5% scale.
3. If the marked black line or fringe is beyond scale, gas concentration is higher than 5%. In such case,
change cock position to 0 - 30% scale.
4. Suck clean air into instrument by squeezing aspirator 3 to 5 times.
5. Press the switch and examine amount of shift of marked black line through eyepiece, which gives
percentage of gas on scale 0 - 30%.
After reading:
Place cocks position to 5 and clean gas chamber with fresh air.

Taking readings:
In gaseous atmosphere draw in test sample by squeezing bulb at least 4 times for each meter of sampling
hose in use.
Press the switch (3) and observe new position on scale of RIGHT HAND EDGE of INDEX STRIPE.
The reading indicates the percentages of hydrocarbon gas. Repeat for further gas tests.

7.4.7 PERCENT LEL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS & EXPLOSIMETERS

Most types of instruments giving concentration of flammable gas in air in %LEL use catalytic combustion
as the measuring principle. Such instruments are usually called explosimeters.
A catalyst is a substance, which helps a chemical reaction to take place. Explosimeters normally use
platinum metal or platinum alloyed with other metals as a catalyst. To make the reaction take place, the
catalyst has to be heated to a high temperature.
Certain types of explosimeters use a platinum wire as a catalyst and the reaction between flammable gas
and the oxygen in the air takes place on the surface of the metallic wire. The temperature of the wire may
then be 1000°C. Other types of explosimeters have a coating on the outside of a heated metal wire, and it
is the coating which catalyses the reaction. The reaction takes place somewhat easier on this coating, and
a temperature of 500°C may be sufficient. The part of the instrument where the reaction takes place is
normally called a sensor or detector.
The flammable gas to be measured is burned on the surface and the heat generated results in a
temperature increase. The electrical resistance of the metallic wire increases with the temperature.
The change in resistance is proportional to the increasing temperature and to the concentration of
flammable gas in the air. This applies only to a lean mixture below the lower explosive limit.

The instruments are usually designed in such away that they first have to be adjusted to zero with clean
air. Then the atmosphere that should be measured is sucked into the instrument where the sensor is
located and a reading is made. Finally, clean air is sucked in again and the zero setting checked. Some
types of instruments are intended for monitoring and are designed so that the sensor is located at the spot
where the measurement is to be performed
Explosimeters are calibrated with a certain gas, for example butane. It should be marked on the
instrument, which gas is used for calibration gas. To some extent the explosimeter will also be suitable for
measurement of other flammable gases, and many manufactures of instruments quote the correction
factors for various gases other than the calibration gas. The most frequently used calibration gases for
commercial explosimeters are methane, propane, butane, pentane, hexane or nonane. For ships carrying
crude oils, it is recommended to use butane in air or alternatively propane in air.
Theoretical calculations of the sensitivity of an explosimeter for various flammable gases show that the
reading for 100% LEL of the gas mixture is proportional to the heat of combustion, to the diffusion
coefficient of the flammable gas and to the gas concentration at the lower explosive limit. The diffusion
coefficient is an expression for the speed at which the molecules can move to the catalyst surface where
the reaction takes place, and the lighter molecules move faster than the heavy ones. For example, the
methane molecules move faster than the propane molecules.
Theoretical calculations of sensitivity have been performed for nearly 100 different flammable gases, and
the value for hydrocarbon gases are given in the table below:

Type of HC gas Sensitivity

Methane 100
Ethane 68
Propane 55
Butane, n 59
Butane, i 52
Pentane, n 46
Hexane 37
 Heptane 38
Octane 38
Nonane 31

The above figures are given in arbitrary units. As an example, an explosimeter calibrated with propane will
theoretically give a deflection for 100% LEL of hexane which is (37:55) x 100 = 67% LEL. There is
however, some difference between theory and practice.
In practice there will not be the same conversion factors for different types of explosimeters, since the
details of how the instruments are designed are of great importance. There may also be a large difference
from one instrument to another instrument of the same type, which is greatly dependent on how good of a
control the manufacturer has over own production.
From what we have seen so far, explosimeters calibrated with butane should show higher values for
methane, lower values for pentane, hexane and the other heavier hydrocarbon gases.
There is a complicating factor, however, in that methane is a gas, which requires a more efficient catalyst
and/or a higher catalyst temperature. On the market there are some types of explosimeters with low
sensitivity for methane and several types of explosimeters which have been investigated showing that the
sensitivity to methane may drop after a short period of time of using the instrument. However, it still gives a
correct reading for the heavier hydrocarbon gases.
For explosimeters being used on board LNG-carriers, methane must be used as the calibration gas. For
explosimeters to be used on ships carrying crude oil, butane is recommended to use as calibration gas,
alternatively propane. This is because the gas mixture given off by crude oil contains relatively small
amounts of methane gas and the gas given off from sediments and oil residues contain quite negligible
concentrations of methane. Be aware that the explosimeter will give somewhat misleading low values for
the hydrocarbon gases that are heavier than the calibration gas.
The catalyst will, when used gradually, lose its ability to bring about combustion, and all types of
explosimeters have, to a greater or lesser extent, the regrettable characteristic that the sensitivity is
reduced. All explosimeters must therefor from time to time be checked with its calibration gas. Certain
gases may poison the catalyst, and it is known that hydrogen sulphide from sour crude may act in this
manner. A poisoning will lead to the properties of the catalyst being temporarily or permanently damaged
so that the sensitivity of the instrument to flammable gases is greatly reduced or vanishes altogether. The
best-known catalyst poisons are silicones and vapours from leaded gasoline, which give a solid deposit on
the outer surface of the catalyst.
We have mentioned that the reading of the explosimeter depends on the concentration and diffusion
coefficient of the flammable gas. This only applies when we have a lean mixture of flammable gas in air.
For high concentration of flammable gas, the reading will instead depend on the concentration and
diffusion coefficient of oxygen. Very high concentrations of flammable gas, in relation to oxygen, at the
catalyst surface may result in the combustion reaction being completely prevented, so that the
explosimeter gives reading of close to zero for such a high concentration.
High concentrations of flammable gas and/or low concentrations of oxygen give misleading, ambiguous
readings and may also damage the catalyst in that a sooty layer is formed. Therefor, never use the
explosimeter at concentrations of flammable gas higher than 100% LEL, and never at lower oxygen
concentrations than approximately 10% O2 by volume.

7.4.8 RIKEN, PORTABLE COMBUSTIBLE DETECTOR, MODEL GP-204

General description
The model GP-204 hand held portable gas detector is a compact battery operated portable instrument
used for taking an air sample and indicating the presence and concentration of combustible gas. Samples
of the air under test are drawn by means of a rubber aspirator bulb and analysed for combustible gas
content on a heated platinum filament in a Wheatstone bridge measuring circuit. A built-in meter indicates
combustible gas content in units of explosibility. Power for operation of the instrument is provided by built-
in dry cells. A probe and extension hose permit sampling from remote locations and the instrument fits in
a compact leather case with an over the shoulder-carrying strap. The model GP-204 is suitable and
recommended for testing tanks, manholes, vessels other spaces to determine presence or absence of
combustible gas in pressure cylinders, pipe lines and other closed systems. It is a valuable aid to safety of
operations whenever combustible gases or vapours are handled.
Samples of air, which may contain flammable gases or vapours, are sucked through the instrument by
means of a suction bellow.
The content of flammable Gases effects a heated platinum filament (D = detecting element) which forms
part of a Wheatstone bridge measuring circuit as shown in the circuit diagram on the right hand side.
Besides the measuring filament "D", this circuit includes a compensating filament "C" and two fixed
resistance’s "R1 & R2".
The flammable gases or vapours in the air are oxidised and burn at the surface of the measuring filament
"D", and the evolution of heat causes a change in the resistance of the platinum wire which gives rise to an
imbalance in the Wheatstone bridge. This corresponds to the content of flammable gases in the sample.

"D" is exposed to the gas.

"C" is isolated from the gas.
The resistance "D" increases during catalytic combustion.

Operation:
In a gas hazardous area the instrument should always be in the carrying case and strapped to this.
Before taking the instrument to the hazardous area, check the battery voltage. To check the voltages, put
the switch in "VOLT ADJ:" position. Meter should rise to the "check" position near top of the scale. Lift
and turn VOLT ADJ. Control clockwise to determine maximum voltage setting. If the needle cannot be set
beyond the VOLT ADJ. mark, batteries need recharging or replacing for full capacity. Do not attempt to
use instrument at all if reading cannot be set up to the mark or beyond the mark.
Do not replace batteries in a hazardous area; bring the instrument to a safe area before changing taking
place.
If the voltage is satisfactory, continue with the next steps of preliminary adjustment, as follows:
Confirm operating of pilot light/meter illuminating lamp.
With sample inlet in fresh air, squeeze bulb several times to flush out any remaining gas from the
instrument.
1. Check zero setting by turning the switch in "ON" position. Meter should read close to zero. If not, lift
and turn the "ZERO" knob to bring the reading exactly to "0".
2. Couple the sampling hose to the instrument’s inlet pipe, which is located on the left-hand end, and
also connect the probe to the end of the hose.
3. Admit a sample of some combustible gas to the end of probe and confirm that the meter rises upscale.
Instrument is adjusted and ready to use. Now it may be turned off and carried to the job area. To run a
gas test, proceed as follow:
1. Turn the instrument to VOLT ADJ. position, adjust voltage if necessary
2. Turn the instrument to ON position, zero adjust if necessary.
3. Hold probe within space to be tested. Squeeze bulb several times (4 times for each metre of sampling
hose being used) while watching the meter and observe maximum reading.
4. After completion of test, remove probe from test space. Flush the instrument with fresh air and turn it
off.
The sampling hose being used for this instrument should not be used for sampling with other instruments.
Make it a rule that a specific measuring instrument has its own sampling hose.

Interpretation
Meter readings are taken on a scale graduated 0 – 100% LEL. The abbreviation LEL stands for Lower
Explosive Limit and represents the lowest concentration that can be ignited by a source of ignition, hence
the lowest concentration that can produce an explosion. This quantity is also spoken as the LFL – Lower
Flammable Limit.
The mode GP – 204 is calibrated before shipment to read directly in percent of LEL of iso-butane in air,
based on the known LEL for iso-butane of 1,8% by volume.
This 1,8% by volume will produce a reading of 100% LEL and lower concentrations will be read in
proportion.
Other combustible gases will read approximately correctly in terms of explosibility, but for the maximum
accuracy a calibration curve for various gases has to be used. This curve is delivered together with the
instrument. This curve is drawn in terms of percent LEL for both co-ordinates. See the table below.

Maintenance:
Calibration and adjustment - In addition to the normal operating controls found on the top of the panel,
the following auxiliary controls are available.
Calibration potentiometer - This adjustment is used to set meter reading to the desired level, while
sampling a known concentration of combustible gas. In the GP-204 the top plate must be removed by
taking out the screws in each corner. The calibration potentiometer is a slotted-shaft control located above
right upper corner of meter. Turn clockwise to increase meter reading.
Element replacement - The element assembly, consisting of an active filament and a similar but enclosed
reference filament, should be replaced if zero cannot be set within range of "ZERO ADJ.", or if reading
cannot be set high enough on a calibration gas, using calibration potentiometer.
1. Loosen the two panel hold-down screws, remove and invert top panel.
2. With switch off, loosen (do not remove) the three screws holding the terminals for red, black and white
wires. Pull wires from terminal.
3. Remove the two Phillips head screws holding cross-shaped element retainer in place. Pull out both
filaments and replace with new ones in same position.
4. Check that gaskets are in place on element before installation. Be sure that the active (black wire)
filament is in the cavity with the flame arrestor. Install wires on terminals as before.
5. Turn instrument on and adjust zero.
6. If a calibration gas is available reset span.

Batteries
The model GP-204 is furnished with two standard size "D" dry cells. These dry cells (UM-1/1,5 size D/R
20 Maxell 100) will give 3 hours (maximum) of operating time.
When meter cannot be set as high as the "Check" line with switch in "VOLT ADJ:" position and "VOLT
ADJ." knob all the way clockwise, batteries require replacement or recharging.
To replace batteries, remove instrument from hazardous area. Take the instrument out of the leather
case, and loosen the coin slotted captive screw found in centre of bottom plate. Remove bottom plate,
exposing batteries in their spring contact holders. Pull old batteries out and install new ones in the same
position. Observing polarity as marked on holder.
Sample system

Hose
The hose used is Teflon lined synthetic rubber jacketed and immune to absorption or attack by any
combustible vapours or solvents. Keep hose clean and be sure that couplings make airtight contact.
Check occasionally by holding finger over hose inlet. Bulb should remain flattened after squeezing if there
is no leak. Extension hoses in various lengths are available.

Flame arrestor
The active filament is installed within a sintered bronze porous metal cup, which acts as a flame arrestor to
retain explosions that may occur when sampling explosive gas/air mixtures. The flame arrestor may be
removed by taking out the four screws that hold the plate in which the elements are installed. If flame
arrestor is dusty, wet, oily or corroded, it must be cleaned or replaced.
Preferred cleaning method is by washing in detergent solution, rinsing from the inside out, and drying
thoroughly in air. Before re-installing flame arrestor in instrument, be sure that the reaction chamber cavity
and incoming lines are clean and dry.

Meter Lamp
The meter lamp is on whenever the instrument is on, and provides illumination to permit reading meter in
dark places. If lamp fails, replace it as follows:
- Remove four screws holding top plate to the top panel. Take off top plate exposing lamp. Loosen set
of screws, which lock lamp wires to terminal and pull the lamp out. Install new lamp in the same
position.

Precautions and notes on operation

1. Heated samples - When sampling spaces such as hot tanks that are warmer than the instrument
remember that condensation can occur as the sample passes through the cool sample line. Water vapour
condensed in this way can block the flow system and corrode the flame arrestor. A water trap can be used
to control this, and is available as an accessory. If heated hydrocarbon vapours of the heavier
0
hydrocarbons (flash point 90 F or above) are present, they may also condense in the sample line and fail
to reach the filament. Thus an erroneous low reading may be obtained.
2. Element poisoning - Certain substances have the property of desensitising the catalytic surface of the
platinum filament. These substances are termed "Catalyst Poison" and can result in reduced sensitivity or
in failure to give a reading on samples containing combustible gas. The most commonly encountered
catalyst poisons are the silicone vapours, and samples containing such vapours even in small proportions
should be avoided. Occasional calibration checks on known gas samples are necessary, especially if the
possibility exists of exposure to silicones. A calibration check on a known iso-butane gas is the most
dependable as an indication of normal sensitivity. A convenient calibration accessory is available and
described under "Accessories".
3. Rich mixture - When high concentrations of gas are sampled, especially those above the LEL,
considerable heat is liberated at the filament. This heat may cause damage to the filament or tend to
shorten its life, so sustained testing of samples beyond the meter range should be avoided. When
sampling rich mixtures, the following instrument action may be expected.
- Mixture up to 100% LEL reading on scale.
- Mixtures between LEL and Upper Explosive Limit (UEL) readings at top of meter.
- Mixtures above UEL – When a sample is introduced, the meter is sent to the top of scale, then comes
back down on scale or below, depending upon concentration. Very rich mixtures will give a zero or
negative reading. The alarm circuit thus insures that a very rich sample will not be overlooked, as it
could otherwise be with a simple indicating instrument
4. Oxygen deficient mixtures - Samples, which do not have the normal proportion of oxygen, may tend to
read low if there is not enough oxygen to react with all combustible gas present in the sample. As a
general rule, samples containing 10% oxygen or more have enough oxygen to give a full reading on any
combustible gas sample up to the LEL.
5. Oxygen enriched mixtures - Samples having more than the normal proportion of oxygen will give a
normal reading. However, they should be avoided because the flame arrestor used is not dense enough
to arrest flames from combustible gas in oxygen, which can be much more intense than those in air can.
Do not attempt to use the model GP-204 on samples of combustible gas in oxygen.
6. Accessories - Additional lengths of extension hoses may be used for sampling from deep tanks and
spaces. The polyurethane hoses are satisfactory for most samples including natural gas, hydrogen, and
gasoline vapours. Where there is danger of water being drawn into the instrument, a water trap should be
used. This glass-bodied trap, with sintered metal filter, couples to the indicator inlet and will collect water
that is drawn into or condensed in sample hose. Inspect trap periodically while in use, and empty or clean
bowl and filter whenever visible water or dust accumulate. Regular sample hoses connect to inlet of trap
when it is installed on the instrument.

7.4.9 SERVOMEX, OXYGEN ANALYZER, TYPE OA262

WARNING!
To ensure safe operation in hazardous applications, the analyser must be used to comply
with the conditions of certification, relevant standards and codes of practice. Failure to do
so may invalidate the certification.
Any modification to the standard analyser, or repairs or servicing using parts that are not
specified or approved by Servomex, will invalidate certification. In case of doubt contact
Servomex or their agents.

General description
The Servomex portable oxygen analyser type 262A is a robust lightweight instrument built for industrial,
marine and laboratory applications.
The oxygen content of the gas is indicated directly on a 70mm scale taut band meter after suitable zero
and span adjustments. The ranges, 0-100, 0-25, and 0-10% are selected by a rotary switch on the front
panel. Battery checks are also selected with this switch.
This analyser is used on marine applications throughout the world. The front panel controls are symbolic,
such that engineers from many different nations can understand them.
All analysers are supplied with a hand aspirator and silica gel dryer. Batteries are not supplied with the
analyser.
Dry cells batteries that are housed in a waterproof compartment at the rear of the analyser power the
Servomex OA 262.
The analyser is supplied with a filter, elements of which are and simply replaced from the front of the
instrument.
Hazardous area and shipboard use
Hazardous area - For hazardous areas the 262A is certified by BASEEFA as intrinsically safe code Ex ia s
IIC T4 to SFA 3012, SFA 3009. Certificate BAS No. 74149.
Instruments up to serial no. 2983 are approved by "Factory Mutual" for use in class 1, division 1, groups B,
C and D hazardous locations. Report 25243 dated August 30th, 1975 applies.
Seaworthiness - Lloyds has approved the analyser as suitable for shipboard use. Certificate Lon.
409515.574 applies.
The Norwegian Maritime Directorate (Sjøfartsdirektoratet) has also approved the analyser for use on board
ship.

Specification Specification
Oxyen ranges 0-10%, 0-25%, 0-100% O2. Selected by front panel
switch. Indication on front panel meter.
Accuracy Range:
:0-100% O2. +/- 3% F.S.D.
:0-25% O2. +/- 3% F.S.D.
:0-10% O2. +/- 3% F.S.D.
Effect of ambient temperature The analyser will operate between the temperature of -
0 0 0
10 C to 50 C (14 to 122 F). The accuracy will be
maintained for a temperature change of +/- 100C (180F)
of the calibration temperature.
Effect of tilt 0,01% oxygen per degree.
Weight (net) 3kg. (6,5Ib).
Sample pressure Maximum inlet pressure, 2 psi. (14kPa).
Flow rate pressure 0 to 3 I/min, depending on sample.
Materials contact with sample gas Acetal copolymer, Glass micro fibre, Nickel, Platinum,
Polypropylene, Pyrex glass, Quartz glass, Stainless steel
316, Synthetic rubber, Viton.
Calibration gases Zero on O2 free nitrogen (N2). Span on clean dry air or
high purity O2 if desired.
Accessories Waterproof case with shoulder strap. Drying tube. Two
hexagon wrenches (2,5 and 3mm).
Case material Polypropylene. The case is splash proof and sealed
against ingress of water, provided the sealing gaskets
around the front panel and battery compartment are in
good condition.

How the Servomex oxygen analyzer works

The physical property, which distinguishes oxygen from most other gases, is its paramagnetism. Faraday
discovered this in 1851, who demonstrated that a magnet attracted a hollow glass sphere at the end of a
horizontal rod supported by silk fibres when filled with oxygen.
In portable oxygen analysers, the convenience and sensitivity of Faraday’s arrangement are increased by
having a sphere at both ends of the bar, forming a "dumb-bell", which seals the gas surrounding it. The
dumb-bell is suspended in a symmetrical non-uniform magnetic field, and being slightly diamagnetic, it
takes up a position away from the most intense part of the field. When the surrounding gas contains
oxygen, the dumb-bell spheres are pushed further out of the field by the relatively strongly paramagnetic
oxygen. The strength of the torque acting on the dumb-bell will be proportional to the paramagnetism of
the surrounding gas: it can therefor be used as a measure of the oxygen concentration.
The only common gases having comparable paramagnetic susceptibility are NO, NO2 and CO2. A
magnetic oxygen analyser cannot therefor be used where these gases occur in the mixture other than in
trace amounts. It is important to note, however, that in the direct method of measuring susceptibility no
other physical property of the gases has any significant effect.

The heart of the Servomex analyser is a measuring cell using these principles, but having a rare metal
suspension in place of the delicate materials used in earlier designs. The "zero" position of the dumb-bell
is sensed by a split photocell receiving light reflected from a mirror on the suspension. The output from the
photocell is amplified and fed back to a coil wound on the dumb-bell, so that the torque, due to the oxygen
in the sample, is balanced by a restoring torque, due to the feedback current. The measuring system is
thus "null-balanced", and has all the inherent advantages of this type of system.

Because of the extremely linear relationship between the feedback current and the susceptibility of the
sample, a proportional output voltage can be developed, and various ranges can be obtained by means of
a switched attenuator. Linearity of scale also makes it possible to calibrate the instrument for all ranges by
checking at two points only. For example, accurate calibration is obtained by using nitrogen for zero and
air for setting the span at 21%
Operating procedures
Installation and changing of the batteries. The following batteries are required:
3 of 1,5V Type IEC LR6 (HP7)
1 of 9V Type IEC 6F22 (PP3).
It is recommended that alkaline batteries be used.
The batteries are housed in a waterproof compartment at the bottom of the analyser. This compartment is
opened using the 3mm-hexagon wrench supplied with the analyser.
A battery strap is provided for easy removal of old batteries. The batteries must be installed with the
correct polarity, as indicated by + and - signs moulded into the plastic holder.
Various resistors are potted into a recess in the battery compartment.
Underno circumstances should these components be removed or tampered with.
The stud of a 1,5V battery is "+" and the base "-". These batteries will not make contact if fitted the wrong
way round. The 9V battery has a terminal clip that can only mate when the battery is correctly positioned.
Care must be taken, when fitting new batteries, not to damage the gasket sealing the edge of the battery
compartment. If the analyser is to be stored for a longer period of time, remove the batteries.
Do not replace batteries in a hazardous area
Battery checks
Check that the batteries are fully operational:
Select switch position "B1". The reading should be greater than 60 on the 0-100 scale. Change the 9V
battery if the reading is low.
Select switch position "B2". The reading should be greater than 60 on the 0-100 scale. Change the 1,5V
batteries if the reading is low.
Calibration
Frequency of calibration – Check the zero adjustment weekly. If there is a large difference in ambient
temperature between the point of measurement and the last calibration, it is advised that calibration should
be rechecked.
The span adjustment should be checked daily, due to variance in atmospheric pressure.
Set Zero - Switch the control to 10% range. Introduce oxygen free nitrogen into the instrument at a
pressure between 1 to 2 psig. (7 to 14 kPa). Stop the gas flow. Adjust the screw for zero adjustment so
that the meter reads 0% oxygen.
Span
Switch the control to the 25% range. Introduce dry air into the instrument at a pressure between 1 and 2
psig (7 to 14 kPa).
The hand aspirator and a drying tube are convenient for this. Stop the gas flow. Adjust the screw for the
span adjustment so that the meter reads 21% oxygen on the 0-25% scale.
When changing from air or oxygen to nitrogen or vice-versa, ensure that the filter, cell and sample lines
have been purged thoroughly. One minute with the standard hand aspirator should be enough. With long
sample lines a pump is recommended.
When using the instrument for higher concentrations of oxygen it is recommended that pure oxygen is
used on the 0-100% range for optimum accuracy.
To prevent possible damage, it is not recommended that air or pure oxygen be put into the analyser when
it is switched to the 0-10% range.

Measuring sample gas

Connect the hand aspirator to the sample inlet by means of the drying tube. Connect sample tube to the
aspirator and place in space to be checked.
Check the battery voltage. Set switch to range required.
Pump the hand aspirator until the reading is steady. Ensure that sufficient sample gas has been taken to
flush out the sample lines.

CAUTION.
The drying tube must always be used, unless the sample is known to be dry. The analyser will be
damaged if water or liquids are allowed to get into the instrument.

However, the crystals can be regenerated by removing from the drying tube and drying in an oven at about
0
110-120 C.

Maintenance
WARNINGS
Only qualified personnel who are familiar with good workshop practice should do maintenance
of the analyser.
Replacement parts should be to the quality specified by Servomex in the part lists. The use of
inferior replacement components may degrade the performance of the analyser and invalidate
any certificates, which may apply.

Replacement of measuring cell

1. Remove the six hexagon socket stainless steel screws holding the front panel into the case and keep
them in a secure place.
2. Remove the chassis by placing one hand over the front, and turn the analyser upside down. This will
prevent the chassis falling out accidentally. Should the chassis not come out very readily, bring the
analyser sharply down on the flat of the hand, which is guarding the front. Never substitute a hard surface
for a hand.
3. Unscrew the nuts on the cell supporting the gas connections (use non-magnetic spanners).
4. Unsolder the electrical leads. Apply minimal heat to the pins on the cell.
5. Remove the two hexagon socket screws, which retain the cell and slacken the third retaining screw,
which is situated between the inside of the lower magnet space and the chassis wall.
6. Withdraw the measuring cell and replace it with a new cell type 286. When fitting a new cell, ensure
that the ball of the dumbbell, which is nearest to the cell window, is nearest the front panel.
7. Tighten the remaining screws in the reverse order described for the removal of the cell.
8. Solder the electrical connections to the solder pins on the cell. Black to the pin with a black spot near it
and yellow to the pin with a yellow spot.
9. Reconnect the cell gas connections.
10. Adjust the zero and span of the analyser.
Should the analyser not zero or the adjustment is at one end of its travel, readjust the photocells. It may
not be possible to span the analyser, in this case change R23 on the printed circuit board 00262905, to a
value, which gives a reading with air between 20 and 22 % oxygen. For circuit diagram, see the instruction
manual.

Replacement of photocells
1. The photocells are located to the side of the magnet assembly, just in front of and above the
measuring cell.
2. Release the two screws, which fix the retaining plate to the photocell mount.
3. Remove the screws and plate and manoeuvre the photocell mount through the springs of the support.
4. Unsolder the leads.
5. Replace the new photocells on their mount in reverse order.
6. Leave the two retaining screws slack and pass nitrogen into the analyser.
7. Ensure the zero adjustment is at the centre of its travel and move the photocells until the analyser
reads as near to zero as possible.
8. Tighten the screws and make a final zero adjustment.
9. Adjust the span.
10. Confirm with the analyser’s instruction book.

Replacement of LED
1. Remove the two screws, which hold the photocell mount to the control magnet assembly.
2. Allow the photocell assembly and mount to lay away from the magnet.
3. Remove the two screws holding the LED mount. Withdraw the LED and mount and unsolder the leads
to the LED.
4. Remove sleeving from old LED and discard lamp. Replace with new LED and sleeve and solder the
leads.
5. Replace the LED and secure the retaining strip.
6. Replace the photocell assembly and mount.
7. Replace the cell.
8. Adjust the zero and span.
9. Confirm with the analyser’s instruction manual.
For replacing the amplifier board, meter, filter block and circuit description do confirm with the instruction
manual.
Any doubts about the analyser or its equipment, contact the manufacturer or any of the manufacturer's
agents.

7.4.10 RIKEN PORTABLE OXYGEN INDICATOR, MODEL OX-226

ƒ
ƒ

1. Summary
Riken portable oxygen indicator, Model OX-226 and OX-227 provide a quick, convenient method for
determination of oxygen content of any atmosphere. It is intended primarily as an indicator of oxygen
deficiency, with good readability from 0 – 25%. The instrument is routinely calibrated on normal
atmospheric oxygen concentration (21%). These models are most suitable and recommended for testing
tanks, manholes, vessels and other spaces to determine safety from the standpoints of oxygen deficiency
before entering and while work is in progress.

2. Principle
The oxygen cell operates by an electro-chemical process in which a voltage is set up between two
electrodes. Under a test where one electrode is exposed to the atmosphere, a change in oxygen
concentration on this electrode produces a proportional change in the cell’s output voltage.
Therefor, an increase in oxygen concentration will "speed up" the electro-chemical process, producing a
higher output voltage, and a decrease in oxygen concentration will "slow down" the process, lowering the
output voltage. The centre electrode is exposed to the atmosphere by means of a Teflon membrane
placed directly in contact with the polished top surface. This Teflon membrane serves two functions
simultaneously. First, it has the ability to pass oxygen molecules freely, thus placing the electrode in direct
contact with the atmosphere and secondly, it keeps the electrolyte contained in the cavity between the two
electrodes.

3. Measurement procedure
a). Preparation - Connect the sampling hose (6) to the gas sampling probe (7) and then connect it to the
gas inlet of the instrument.
b). Voltage checks of battery - Turn the control switch (1) to "Batt" zone and check the meter needle
marks inside of "Batt" zone. If the case of model OX-226, the battery drop can be heard as a buzzer
sound.
c). Span adjustment - Turn the control switch (1) to "25" and make span adjustment by spanning adjusting
knob so as to bring the meter needle to 21%. When making span adjustment of Model OX-227, try it with
0-25% range.

4. Measurement
After finishing the above procedure items 1, 2 and 3, the instrument is ready to run. Introduce the sampling
probe to the source and start measurement. In the case of Model OX-226, when the oxygen concentration
is less than 18% by volume, alarm light (4) illuminates and it gives us the warning of oxygen deficiency by
buzzer sound.

Caution
1. Check the flow pump by the flow monitor during operation.
2. Operate the instrument in leather case when in use.
3. The replacement of batteries and recharging procedure must be done in non-hazardous areas.

Maintenance procedure
The replacement of batteries and recharging procedure:
a). Take off the leather case from the instrument and turn the battery box knob (11) to "open" position.
b). Pull out the whole battery box and replace the batteries with new ones.
c). When the replacement of batteries is finished, put back the battery box in correct position and turn the
battery box knobs (11) to "Lock" position with finger press.

Replacement procedure (Ni-Cd battery).

When Ni-Cd batteries are used for the instrument, detach the label (12) of charging inlet and insert the
exclusive charger to the charging jack, and plug the charger into AC 100V. The recharging takes 15 hours.

Replacement of sensor.
When the meter needle can not be adjusted to 21% by turning the span adjusting knob and the indication
of meter needle gets unstable, this is the sign to replace the sensor. In this case, take off the bottom
screws of the instrument and remove the cover. The cover come off by sliding it sidewise. Turn the sensor
to left and adjust the mark to "open". Now the sensor can be removed. Insert the new sensor and turn it in
clockwise direction to the mark "lock". Place the cover back.

Replacement of filter
The filters are filled in the gas-sampling probe and in instrument. When they appear dirty, replace them
with new ones.

Take off the tip of the sampling probe by turning the metal part of roulette and replace the cotton filter with
a new one.
Pull out the filter holder (10) of the instrument’s flank and take out the filter. Replace it with a new one.

Zero adjustment
As the zero adjustment is factory set, there is no need of zero adjustment procedure in normal operation.
But, when it is high sensitive type instrument such as Model OX-227A with 0-5 and 0-25% etc., make zero
adjustment. Induct 100% clean nitrogen and turn the adjusting screw to bring the needle to zero.
7.4.11 DETECTOR TUBES FOR HEALTH HAZARDOUS GASES
Health hazardous gases may be detected through chemical colour reactions, and several manufacturers
make metering pumps and accompanying detector tubes for a great number of various gases.
Probably the most convenient and suitable equipment to use for measuring very low concentrations of
toxic gases on board tankers are chemical indicator tubes.
These tubes consist of a sealed glass tube containing a proprietary filling which is designed to react with a
specific gas and to give a visible indication of the concentration of that gas. To use the device, the seals at
each end of the glass tube are broken, the tube is inserted in a bellows-type fixed volume displacement
hand-pump, and a prescribed volume of gas mixture is drawn through the tube at a rate fixed by the
bellow’s expansion rate. A colour change occurs along the tube and the length of the discoloration, which
is a measure of the gas concentration, is read off a scale integrated with the tube. In some versions of
these instruments, a hand operated injection syringe is used instead of a bellow pump.
It is important that all the components used for any measurement should be from the same manufacturer.
It is not permissible to use a tube from one manufacturer with a hand pump from another manufacturer. It
is also important that the manufacturers’ operating instructions are carefully observed.
Since the measurement depends on passing a fixed volume of gas through the glass tube, if an extension
hose is used it should be placed between the glass tube and the hand pump.
The tubes are designed and intended to measure concentrations of gas in the air. Thus measurements
made in a ventilated tank, in preparation for tank entry, should be reliable.
Under some circumstances errors can occur if several gases are present at the same time, as one gas can
interference with the measurement of another. The manufacturer should be consulted for guidance.
For each type of tube the manufacturer must guarantee the standards of accuracy laid down by national
standards. Tanker operators should consult the regulatory authority appropriate for the ship’s flag.

7.4.12 DRÄGER MULTI GAS DETECTOR

In our experience, detector tubes and metering pumps made by "Dräger" are the most frequently used. A
more detailed description is given in the instruction book for "Dräger Multi Gas Detector".
Various chemical substances are used for tube fillings, depending on the gas to be analysed. For some
gases there are several types of tubes, so that there are tubes for measuring very low concentrations and
for measuring larger concentration ranges. In some cases two scales will be marked on the tube,
corresponding to different numbers of pump strokes.
It is important that the pump is checked to see if it is tight before it is being used, sealing the opening with
an unused detector tube does this. The bellows should then use more than 10 minutes to expand for the
pump to be satisfactory. Cleaning the valves, according to the instructions accompanying the instrument
may usually eliminate any leakage that has arisen.
To avoid corrosion, the pump must be purged with air by performing a number of pumping strokes each
time after use.
To perform measurements with difficult accessibility, an extension hose may be used. The detector tube is
placed in the suction of the hose.

Opening of the tubes

Both ends of the tube are opened in the hole, which is provided for that purpose in the pump. A breaking
socket accompanying the apparatus can also be used for this. This prevents glass fragments from falling
down.

Installation of the tube in the pump

The opened sampling tube is inserted into the pump head so that the arrow on the tube points toward the
pump. The tube must be attached firmly and tightly in the pump head so that false air is not sucked in.

Suction of a gas sample

The bellow is pressed together completely and is then released. During the compression the air is
squeezed out of the bellow through an exhaust valve. The suction action of the pump takes place when
the compression springs inside the bellow expand after the compression. The air (to be measured) flows
through the sampling tube and into the bellow while this again expands to its original volume. The suction
movement comes to an end when the distance chain is tight once again, and at this stage 100cm3 has
been sucked through the tube.
The operating instructions, which accompany each packet of tubes, give i.e. the approximate time for each
pump stroke, for example 15 - 25 seconds. The time will depend on how tightly the powder is packed in
the tube.
The specified number of pump strokes, indicated in the operating instructions, should be used for each
sampling tube.

7.4.13 MSA – DETECTOR TUBES AND KWIK-DRAW PUMP

Features
1. Quick and inexpensive to use.
2. A reliable method of testing more than 120 hazardous gases and vapours.
3. Kwik-draw pumps offer accurate one-handed automatic stroke counter and unique end of stroke
indicator on deluxe version.
4. Tubes are printed with easy-to-read scales.
5. Specialised kits are available for use in HAZMAT work and underground storage tank applications.

Description
SA’s Kwik-Draw and Kwik-Draw Deluxe Pumps can be used with an assortment of MSA
detector tubes to spot-test the atmosphere for a wide variety of toxic substances. Kwik-Draw
Pumps are designed for one-hand operation and consistent delivery of a sample draw volume
of 100 millilitres (ml). The pumps are constructed with a shaft-guided compression system for a
more consistent and replicable flow rate and volume per stroke than may be available with
hand-guided pumps. MSA offers detector tubes for measuring more than 150 gases and
vapours.
Kwik-Draw Detector Tube Pumps
Kwik-Draw Pumps allow detection of gases and vapours with the squeeze of a handle. To
obtain a precise (100ml) sample volume, the user simply grasps the handgrip and pushes the
knob. The pump’s compression system provides the guiding action to drive a spring-loaded
bellow pump.
An internal easy-to-read stroke counter shows the exact number of strokes performed and
provides a positive stop when the stroke is fully compressed.
A second model, the Kwik-Draw Deluxe Pump has a unique end-of-stroke indicator that "winks"
after the precise volume of air is drawn, confirming that enough air has been sampled for a
successful reading.

Detector tubes.
MSA/Auer detectors are made of glass, have break-off tips and are filled with treated chemical
granules for sampling a variety of substances. Most MSA/Auer detector tubes are packaged 10
in a box.
For ordering information, see the Detector Tube Summary Chart which follows the Detector.
After selecting the appropriate tube, the user would break off the tubes’ end tips and attach the
tube to the sampling pump. After air is drawn through the tube by the pump, the chemical layer
in the tube changes color if the test gas or vapor is present in the air.
The length or shade of the color-change indicates the concentration of the gas or vapor in the
air. A scale is printed on each tube for interpretation of data.

Controlled Interchangeability of MSA/AUER Detector Tubes and Pumps with Other Manufacturers’
Tubes and Pumps.
As long as a pump meets the following criteria, it may be used with any detector tube designed for use
with that kind of pump. Pumps meeting these criteria are interchangeable.
1. The characteristics of the pump- volume per stroke, sampling time and flow – must be within the same
accuracy range.
2. The detector tubes must have an outer diameter of 7 mm and be factory-calibrated with a pump that
meets the criteria of (1) above.
3. The manufacturer of tubes and pumps must operate under a certified quality assurance program.
Based on these criteria, the following pumps are interchangeable:
MSA's Kwik-Draw Pumps.
AUER's Gas Tester II H Pump.
Dräger's Model 31 Bellow Pump.
Dräger's Accuro Pump.

Sampling Pump Operation and Maintenance.

The Kwik-Draw Pump is designed to measure concentrations of gases and vapours when used with
AUER/MSA Detector Tubes.
Description - The Kwik-Draw Pump is a one-handed, manually operated bellow pump of 100cc capacity.
Tube Holder - This rubber part permits mounting of detector tubes, remote sampling lines or other
detectors.
Filter Disc - This porous plastic disc mounted in the rubber tube holder protects the pump from dirt and
dust particles, which may alter the flow or damage the pump.
Exhaust Valve - Located under the valve cover, this valve closes as the bellow re-inflates, and readily
opens on the exhaust stroke so that blow-back through the tube holder is negligible.
Stroke counter - For convenience, a stroke counter is incorporated into the pump handle.
End-of-stroke indicator - As the bellow begins to re-inflate, and after the knob is released, the indicator
eyeball turns high visibility green. As the vacuum decreases, the eye begins to roll back to black. The
stroke is over when the eye is all black.

Note! - Kwik-Draw Pump (part no. 488543) does not have an end-of-stroke indicator.

Operation
1. Using the breaker on the pump, break off both tips of the detector tube.
2. Using a twisting motion, insert the tube into the rubber tube holder. The arrow on the tube should point
toward the pump.
3. Re-zero stroke counter.
4. With all four fingers on the handle, depress the knob with your palm.
Note! Watch the stroke counter to ensure proper sample volume, the counter will only advance if a full
pump stroke is taken.
5. Release the knob.
6. As the pump re-inflates, the end-of-stroke indicator turns to high-visibility green. The stroke is over
when the eye returns to the all black state.
Note! If your pump does not have the end-of-stroke indicator, wait 30 seconds after full bellow inflation to
ensure that all 100cc of the sample has been drawn through the tube. The detector tube must be held in
the sampling area during this period.
7. To evaluate the stain, follow the instructions provided with the detector tubes.

Remote sampling
Remote sampling is accomplished by putting the pump, connecting tube, remote sampling line and
detector tube together, in this order.

Maintenance
Under conditions of normal use, this pump should require little maintenance. Depending on the frequency
of use, periodic cleaning and checks for correct performance as recommended.
Tube holder - Replace tube holder when it shows signs of wear or loss of elasticity. If filter is not clogged
or cracked, save the filter disc for re-use in new tube holder.
Filter disc - Periodically remove the filter disc for cleaning or replacement.
Remove filter disc from tube holder by rolling flange part of tube holder down and away from the
disc.
Gently tap or blow on the surface to remove any foreign matter.
Replace disc so previously exposed surface is once again facing away from pump.

Shaft
If shaft becomes dirty or if bellow inflation is jerky, remove shaft by unscrewing, then clean with auto wax.
Valves
With the valve cover removed, check the valves for dirt or debris.
Remove dirt with a gentle puff of air or by using a soft brush.
Replace valve(s) if necessary.

Pump performance test

After extended idleness and periodically during use, check the pump for proper performance with the
following test:
Plug pump inlet by inserting an unbroken detector tube into tube holder.
Deflate pump fully, release, and wait 10 minutes. The pump is leak-free if the distance from the bellow to
the frame is ½ inch or greater after 10 minutes. If the pump leaks check the tube holder and, if necessary,
the valves (see Maintenance). After repair, re-test for leakage.
Warning! Use of a pump that leaks may result in the under-estimation of a hazard and could result
in property damage, injury or death.
Read the instruction book following the Detector!

7.4.14 MSA – GASCOPE, MODEL 62

Warning!
Use only genuine MSA replacement parts when performing any maintenance procedures provided in this
manual. Failure to do so may seriously impair instrument performance. Repair or alteration of the Gascope
Combustible Gas Indicator Industrial Model 62, beyond the scope of these maintenance instructions or by
anyone other than a certified MSA serviceman, could cause the product to fail or perform as designed and
persons who rely on this product for their safety could sustain severe bodily injury or death.

ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Accuracy Power supply life Power supply Range
Factory calibrated to 8 hours min. Eight carbon-zinc 0 to 100% LEL and
(+/-) 5% of full-scale continuous usage "D" cells. (Everready 0 to 100% gas
on pentane or other with fresh batteries 950 or Burgess (calibration gas
specific gas (for at normal ambient 800). marked on label
example methane or temperature. inside cover).
natural gas).

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Sample flow rate Construction Dimensions Weight

0.03 to o.o5 cfm (0.8 Plastic case with 6-1/2 x 7-1/4 x 4 in. 5 lb 2 oz.
to 1.4 Lpm). stainless steel
hardware.
Operation:

Introduction
This section provides instructions on unpacking and inspecting the Gascope, making initial checks,
operating the instrument and using the Gascope for various applications.

Initial inspection
Remove the instrument from its shipping container and examine the unit carefully. If damage or shortage is
noted, advise the carrier promptly. Make the proper claim with the carrier and, if necessary, reorder from
MSA.

Initial checks
To verify that the instrument is operating properly and retains factory calibration, perform the procedure,
which follows in an atmosphere free of combustible gases. If the proper indications cannot be obtained,
contact the local sales office or return the instrument to Mine Safety Appliances Co., Repair and Customer
Service Department, Walden Road, Mars, PA 16046.
Open cover and set RANGE switch to LEL.
Set ON/OFF switch to ON, Ready indicator should turn on within approximately 4 seconds. BATT indicator
pointer should be at least halfway into white zone.
Squeeze aspirator bulb eight to ten times to purge instrument with fresh air. Permit bulb to inflate
completely after each squeeze.
Lift and adjust LEL ZERO control to obtain zero indication on meter. (To make zero adjustments, lift and
turn outer sleeve on Zero controls).
Set Range switches to GAS. The READY indicator should momentary turn off and then turn on within
approximately 4 seconds.
Lift and adjust GAS ZERO control to obtain zero indication on meter.
Connect source of 100% methane to inlet fitting of instrument. Pass gas through instrument and then shut
off flow. Meter should indicate 78 to 86 on an instrument factory calibrated on pentane and at least 95 if
calibrated on methane.

WARNING
Do not introduce 100% methane gas to an instrument located near a source of ignition; otherwise, an
explosion may occur.
Repeat step 3 and then set RANGE switch to LEL.
Connect flow control of Calibration Check Kit, Model R, to Calibration Check Gas Cylinder (0.75%
pentane) and connect adapter hose between flow control and inlet fitting of instrument. For hose
instruments calibrated on methane, use 2 % methane cylinder.
Turn flow control valve counter-clockwise to pass gas through instrument. Turn valve clockwise and, when
needle stabilises, meter should indicate between 45 and 55 on an instrument factory calibrated on pentane
and between 37 and 43 if calibrated on methane.
Turn flow control valve clockwise, disconnect hose from inlet fitting and remove flow control from gas
cylinder. Squeeze aspirator bulb eight to ten times to purge instrument with fresh air.

Operating the Gascope

To measure the concentration of the specific combustible gas for which the instrument is calibrated,
perform the procedure which follows. Leak, flow and calibration checks should be made periodically as
described in the instruction book. (Section 4).
Open cover and set RANGE switch to LEL.
Set ON/OFF switch to ON. BATT indicator pointer should be well into white zone and the READY indicator
should turn on within approximately 4 seconds. If it does not turn on, replace batteries.
Squeeze aspirator bulb eight to ten times to purge instrument with fresh air. Permit bulb to inflate
completely after each squeeze. NOTE: if the bulb does not inflate within 2 seconds, check the flow system
as described in the instruction book. (Section 4).
Lift and adjust LEL ZERO control to obtain zero indication on meter. (To make zero adjustments, lift and
turn outer sleeve on ZERO control).
Set RANGE switch to GAS.
When READY indicator turns on, lift and adjust GAS ZERO control to obtain zero indication on meter.
In area to be tested, squeeze aspirator bulb seven to eight times to draw sample into instrument. When the
needle stabilizes, the meter indicates the concentration of the gas in air in percent by volume. NOTE:
meter indications are valid only when the READY indicator is on. (When using a sampling line, squeeze
the aspirator bulb two additional times for each 10 feet of line. If a line trap is connected, squeeze the bulb
four additional times).

CAUTION
When sampling over liquids, take care that end of sampling line does not touch surface of liquid. A closed-
end probe tube or line trap should be used in this type of test to prevent liquid from being drawn into
instrument. Sampling dusty or smoky atmospheres may clog the flow system. If either the speed of
response of the instrument decreases or the aspirator bulb does not inflate within 2 seconds, check the
flow system as described under Sampling System Checks in the instruction book (Section 4).
If the meter indicates less than 5, set RANGE switch to LEL and draw sample into instrument by
squeezing aspirator bulb. The meter now indicates the percentage of the lower explosive limit (LEL) of the
gas for which the instrument is calibrated. One of the following conditions may exist, depending on the
deflection of the meter needle:

Explosion hazard not present:

Needle moves upscale slowly and comes to rest somewhere on-scale (not near 100). Gas concentration
below LEL. (Gas concentrations less than 100% of LEL support combustion, but do not propagate flame
on contact with source of ignition).

Explosion hazard exists:

Needle comes to rest near or at 100% gas concentration at LEL.

Explosion hazard exists:

Needle deflects past 100 and remains off-scale when aspirator bulb is squeezed; gas concentration above
LEL and exceeds calibrated range of instrument.

Potential explosion hazard exists:

Needle deflects rapidly above 100 and then deflects rapidly downscale. Gas concentration may be above
explosive range; however, addition of air to gas/air mixture will create concentration in explosive range.
In atmosphere free of combustible gases, squeeze aspirator bulb eight to ten times to purge instrument
with fresh air. Set ON/OFF switch to OFF, or simply close cover.

WARNING
Do not use the instrument on the LEL range in oxygen deficient (less than 10% oxygen) areas; the meter
may not indicate the actual gas concentration.
The instrument is not designed to test mixtures of hydrogen, acetylene or other combustible gases, in
which the oxygen content exceeds that of normal air (oxygen – enriched atmospheres). The Gascope is
unsafe for use in measuring concentrations of acetylene or hydrogen in pure oxygen unless specially
modified by MSA; however, it can be used to measure hydrogen or acetylene in air mixtures. It is not
suitable to test high boiling point hydrocarbons which have vaporised in ovens and which will condense in
the instrument flow system at room temperature. In addition, it will not indicate the presence of
combustible mists or sprays such as lubricating oil, or dusts as grain or coal dusts.
Even though the instrument responds to such combustible gases as propane, acetylene and/or gasoline or
solvent vapours, it provides accurate measurements of the specific gas for which it has been calibrated at
the factory. The indications on both ranges are affected by all combustibles and also may be affected by
non-combustibles, due to their thermal conductivity effects.

CAUTION
Do not use the instrument at locations where compounds such as tetraethyl lead or hydraulic fluids or
lubricants, which contain silicates or silicones, may be present in the atmosphere. These chemicals
contaminate the sensor and thus reduce measurement accuracy. If it is suspected that such compounds
may be present in the test area, check the calibration of the instrument after making a maximum of five
measurements.
When testing atmospheres contaminated with leaded gasoline, replace the standard cotton filter in the inlet
of the instrument with an inhibitor filter; otherwise, the catalytic sensor may become coated with lead after
several measurements, causing sensitivity to be lost.

Using optional sampling equipment.

Sampling Lines
Sampling lines permit samples to be taken at remote locations or inaccessible areas to test the
atmosphere in such spaces as manholes, sewers and bar-holes. The available sampling lines, which
range in length from 5 to 50 feet, are made of synthetic material specially compounded to resist absorption
of combustible vapors.

CAUTION
Do not use sampling lines made of ordinary rubber or any synthetic material which absorbs solvent
vapours since the absorption will result in erroneous indications that are usually lower than the actual
value.
The shortest possible length of sampling line should always be used to minimize the number of times the
aspirator bulb must be squeezed to obtain a valid indication.
To test the atmosphere at a remote location, position the male coupling of the sampling line at the desired
sampling point so that dirt particles do not clog the tube or liquids are not drawn into the instrument.
Connect the coupling on the other end of the line to the inlet fitting of the instrument, (fig. 2-2 in the
instruction book). Make sure that the connection is gas-tight. The concentration of the gas at the sampling
point can then be measured by performing the procedure under OPERATING THE GASCOPE.

Probes:
Probes permit samples to be taken in areas that cannot be reached with a sampling line. Bar-holes,
manholes and sewers behind obstructions or accessible only through narrow openings can be examined
by connecting the probe to a sampling line, (see fig. 2-2 in the instruction book). Three probes are
available for use with the Gascope; a four-foot, solid probe rod; a three-foot, hollow-brass probe tube; and
a three-foot, dielectric probe tube. The probe rod may be used to prevent liquids from entering the
instrument if the open end of a sampling line inadvertently dips into the liquids in tanks etc.

Warning
Do not use the brass probe where shock hazards exist; that is, where contact may be made with electrical
equipment or power lines. The high dielectric plastic probe, which does not conduct electrical current,
should be used in these areas.

Line Trap:
The line trap is used primarily to prevent liquids from being inadvertently drawn into the instrument when
the atmospheres in tanks, sewers or sumps are sampled. (Refer to the sheet supplied with the line trap for
instructions on how to install and use the trap).

7.4.15 DETECTING PETROLEUM VAPORS IN NATURAL GAS.

To detect the presence of petroleum vapors in natural gas, perform the following procedure:
Set ON/OFF switch to ON and set RANGE switch to GAS.
Aspirate sample into instrument and record meter indication when needle stabilizes. If indication is less
than 5, set RANGE switch to LEL.
Remove caps on both ends of activated charcoal filter cartridge and insert cartridge in external cartridge
holder (see fig. below).
Connect cartridge holder to inlet fitting of instrument and, if required, connect sampling line to holder.
Aspirate sample into instrument and record meter indication when needle stabilizes. If this indication is
less than the indication obtained in step 2, the sample contains petroleum vapors. (The filter absorbs
petroleum vapor, but passes natural gas). If both indications are the same, the sample consists entirely of
natural gas.
Remove holder from inlet for standard testing.
7.4.16 TESTING LEAD CONTAMINATED ATMOSPHERES
When atmospheres contaminated with leaded gasoline are tested repeatedly with the Gascope, the
catalytic sensor may become coated with a solid product of the combustion of lead. To minimize the
possibility of a loss in sensitivity resulting from this coating effect, the standard cotton filter in the inlet of
the instrument is replaced with the inhibitor filter. Material in this filter reacts with tetraethyl lead vapors to
produce a more volatile lead compound.
Before testing in a lead-contaminated atmosphere, remove the inlet fitting of the instrument and the cotton
filter in the filter chamber. Crush the inhibitor filter between the fingers and insert it in the chamber. (See
fig. below). Then replace the inlet fitting and gasket, ensuring that the connection is gas-tight. One inhibitor
filter provides protection for eight continuous hours of operation.

7.4.17 THEORY OF OPERATION

This section contains a summary of the flammable property of combustible gases, a brief discussion on
how the Gascope measures high and low concentrations of combustible gas in air and a functional
description of the Gascope`s flow system and circuitry.

Flammable property of combustible gases:

When flammable or combustible gas is introduced into an area, fresh air is gradually displaced until the
area may be completely filled with gas. During this process, the air/gas mixture passes through three
specific regions: lean, explosive and rich.
Mixtures in the lean region, which extends from fresh air to the lower explosive limit (LEL), contain too little
gas in relation to the amount of air to burn; that is, propagation of flames does not occur on contact with a
source of ignition. A mixture at the LEL is the lowest concentration of combustible gas in air that will
explode or burn when ignited.
Mixtures in the explosive or flammable region, which extends from the LEL to the upper explosive limit
(UEL), will propagate flame. Large volumes of combustible gases or vapors in these concentrations, if
ignited, can cause damage and personal injury. A mixture at the UEL has the highest concentration of
combustible gas in air that will burn.
Mixtures in the rich region, which extend from the UEL to 100% gas, contain too much gas in relation to air
to be combustible. However, since the addition of air to these high concentrations of gas mixture creates
mixtures in the flammable region, they must be considered equally dangerous.

Combustible Gas Measurements.

Low-Range Operation.
The Gascope utilizes the flammable property of the combustible gas for which it is calibrated to measure
its concentration in air below the LEL of the mixture.
The instrument contains a catalytic platinum filament which comprises one arm of a bridge circuit (see the
block diagram in the instruction book). This hot wire filament is activated to permit combustible gas to
combine with oxygen at a much lower temperature than would be required for normal combustion. In the
event that the flammable mixture is drawn into the hot-wire filament well where ignition can occur, the
flashback arresters prevent propagation of the flame.
When the combustible gas in the atmosphere enters the catalytic filament well and makes contact with the
catalyst on the surface of the filament, a combustible gas-oxygen reaction occurs which increases the
temperature of the filament. This increase in temperature causes a corresponding increase in filament
resistance, which unbalances the bridge. The resultant bridge signal voltage is read out on the meter as
the percentage of LEL.

High-Range operation.
To measure the concentration of combustible gas in air above the LEL of the mixture, the Gascope
employs a heated thermal conductivity (TC) filament which comprises one arm of a second bridge circuit
(see the block diagram in the instruction book). This filament, a catalytically inert wire that has a high
temperature coefficient of resistance, is specially treated to ensure stable measurements. When
combustible gas in the atmosphere enters the TC filament well and passes over the filament, it lowers the
temperature of the filament. This decrease in temperature causes a corresponding decrease in filament
resistance, which unbalances the bridge. The resultant bridge signal is read out on the meter as the
percentage of gas in the atmosphere between 0 and 100% by volume.

Functional description of operation

When the aspirator bulb is squeezed, a sample of the atmosphere being tested is drawn through the
cotton filter, into the TC filament and catalytic filament wells and then through the flow regulating orifice in
the outlet fitting. The sample enters the TC filament well through a flashback arrester flows around an
absorber and diffuses into the filament area. It then enters the catalytic filament well, strikes a deflector
plate and exits through a flashback arrester.
The rubber suction bulb, fitted with double acting check valves, creates suction at the outlet to draw the
sample through the instrument. The cotton filter prevents large particles of dust and dirt from entering the
filament wells. The flow-regulating orifice maintains the flow rate of a sample through the instrument
between 0.03 and 0.05 cubic feet per minute (0.8 to 1.4 liters per minute).
If the RANGE switch is set to the GAS position and the instrument is turned on, the meter and READY
indicator circuits are de-energized for approximately 4 seconds to allow the TC filament to warm up and
stabilize. Once the stabilization is complete, the READY indicator turns on to signify that the instrument
can be used.
If the sample drawn into the TC filament well contains no combustible gas, the bridge remains balanced;
the bridge signal is read out on the meter as zero. If the sample contains up to 100% combustible gas, the
amplitude of the bridge signal is proportional to its actual concentration. The resultant signal is read out on
the meter as the percentage of combustible gas for which the instrument is calibrated in the atmosphere
by volume.
If the RANGE switch is now set to the LEL position, the meter and READY indicator circuits are de-
energized for approximately 4 seconds to allow the catalytic filament to warm up and stabilize. After the
stabilization period, the READY indicator turns on to signify that the instrument cam be used.
If the sample now drawn into the catalytic filament well contains no combustible gas, the bridge remains
balanced and the meter indicates zero. If the sample contains up to the LEL of the combustible gas, the
amplitude of the bridge signal is proportional to its actual concentration. The resultant signal is read out on
the meter as the percentage of the LEL of the mixture. If the sample contains between the LEL and UEL of
the gas, the bridge remains unbalanced and the resultant signal causes the meter needle to deflect and
remain off-scale. If the concentration of gas exceeds the UEL, the bridge initially becomes unbalanced and
the needle deflects off-scale. The needle then deflects rapidly downscale because the gas absorbs heat
from the filament, increasing its resistance.
The zero adjustments are used to null the bridge signals for both ranges so that the meter indicates zero
when air free of combustible gases is drawn into the instrument. The span adjustment is used to set the
meter indications on both ranges to a given concentration of calibration gas.
The voltage regulator circuit maintains a constant 0.94 V across the bridges, even as the battery voltage
decreases from its nominal value of 1.5 V to 1.1 V. When the battery voltage decreases below 1.1 V, the
regulator drops out of regulation. When the dropout point is reached, the READY indicator turns off to
automatically signify the end of battery life. The BATT indicator pointer will either be in or very near the red
zone at the end of battery life.

Maintenance:
The following maintenance procedures refer to the indicator’s instruction book.

- Instrument cleaning.

- Sampling system checks.

- Troubleshooting.

- Corrective maintenance.

- Replacing catalytic filament.

- Replacing TC filament.

- Replacing flashback arresters.

- Replacing batteries.

- Ordering parts.

7.4.18 CALIBRATION
This section contains a detailed procedure for calibrating the Gascope. Read the entire procedure before
making any adjustments. Note that the Model 62 is normally factory calibrated on pentane, but may be
specially calibrated on other specific combustible gases, including methane.

Calibration procedure
The Gascope should be calibrated periodically by performing the procedure which follows in an
atmosphere free of combustible gases. This procedure should also be used if either the catalytic or
thermal conductivity filament has been replaced. If the instrument cannot be calibrated with this procedure,
refer to TROUBLESHOOTING in the instruction book.
Open cover and loosen clasps securing top and bottom sections of case.
Remove bottom section of case and position instrument on rubber bumpers, so that meter can be read.
(see the location of span adjustments in the instruction book, figure 5-1).
Set RANGE switch to LEL and ON/OFF switch to ON. Needle should come to rest near 0 and READY
indicator should turn on. If indicator does not turn on, refer to table 4-1 in the instruction book.
Squeeze aspirator bulb eight to ten times to purge instrument with fresh air. Permit bulb to inflate
completely each squeeze.
Adjust LEL ZERO control to obtain zero indication on meter.
Connect flow control of calibration Check Kit., Model R, to Calibration Check Gas Cylinder (0.75%
pentane) and connect adapter hose between flow control and inlet fitting of instrument. For instruments
with factory calibration on methane, use 2% methane cylinder.
Turn flow control valve counter-clockwise. When needle stabilises, meter should indicate 50 for standard
instruments factory calibrated on pentane. For instruments calibrated on methane, reading should be 40. If
it does not, turn LEL span adjustments to obtain 50 (40 on methane) on meter. If 50 (40 on methane)
cannot be obtained by turning LEL span adjustment, perform procedure under Replacing Catalytic
Filament in the instruction book and then repeat this procedure.
Turn flow controls valve clockwise and disconnect adapter hose from inlet fitting.
Squeeze aspirator bulb eight to ten times to purge the instrument with fresh air. Meter should indicate 0. If
it does not, adjust LEL ZERO control to obtain zero indication on meter; then connect adapter hose to inlet
fitting and repeat steps 7 and 8. Remove flow control from gas cylinder.
Set RANGE switch to GAS and, when READY indicator turns on, adjust GAS ZERO to obtain zero
indication on meter.
Connect source of 100% methane to inlet fitting. Pass gas through instrument and then shut off flow. Meter
should indicate 82 on an instrument factory calibrated on pentane. If it does not, turn GAS span
adjustment to obtain 82 on meter. If 82 cannot be obtained by turning GAS span adjustment, refer to
Replacing TC Filament in the instruction book, and then repeat this procedure. For instrument factory
calibrated on methane, meter should indicate 100; if it does not, turn GAS span adjustment to obtain 100
on meter.

WARNING!
Do not introduce 100% methane gas to an instrument located near a source of ignition; otherwise an
explosion may occur.
Disconnect source of methane and squeeze aspirator bulb eight to ten times to purge instrument with fresh
air. Meter should indicate zero. If it does not, adjust GAS ZERO control to obtain zero indication on meter;
then repeat steps 11 and 12.
Place instrument in bottom section of case and clasp top and bottom section together. Close cover.
8. CARGO HANDLING AND BALLAST OPERATION

8.1 GENERAL
The Master is overall responsible for the safety of the vessel and all cargo and ballast operations.
However, the Chief Officer is normally appointed by him to be in charge of these operations.
The Chief Officer should have sufficient experience as non-commissioned officer before he is promoted.
He should also be familiar with all of the arrangements on deck before he takes over in this position. On
ships with four deck officers, the Chief Officer’s working hours are not regulated by the STWC 95, but
where he is watchgoing, there are rules for working and resting.
Therefor, the Chief Officer often delegates tasks to other certified deck Officers if they are certified to be in
charge of loading/discharging operations and found capable of performing their duties in a safe way.
The key to a efficient and safe port stay is planning. Prior to arrival any port where loading/discharging
operations will take place, all systems which will be used must be tested and recorded condition of. A pre-
arrival meeting should also be held where at least all implicated deck officers must participate. When
calling ports where heavy turnarounds will occur, it’s a good idea also to include deck crew in these
meetings.
The agenda should consist of at least the following :
· Cargoes to be loaded/discharged.
· Stowage.
· Hazards/Special precautions for the cargoes in question.
· Safety equipment to be used and first aid in case of an emergency.
· Manifold connections to be used.
· Berth rotation.
In addition all deck officers should be equipped with stowage plans and manifold connection plans in
written.
An entry should be made in the deck log verifying that such meeting have been held.
Before any commencement of loading/discharging safety equipment resistant of the cargo in question
should be prepared and ready for use. It is the Chief Officer’s responsibility that the officers and crew on
duty uses this equipment.
90 % of the personal accidents during cargo operation happens because of lack of wearing safety
equipment.
Most installations have regulations, which make completion of certain checklists mandatory prior to
transfer of cargo and ballast.
For U.S. Ports, each item on such lists shall be initialized. Such check lists are to be completed in addition
to, but not instead of the vessel’s own.
In the "pre-transfer" conferences whit shore installation, all the necessary ship’s information should be
handed over to the loading-master.
A ship-shore check-list is also filled in and signed by both loading-master and chief officer. If there is a
board-board (ship to ship) operation, a ship-ship checklist is to be filled in together with the chief officer on
the other vessels.
All cargo operations and non-segregated ballast operations should be recorded in the ship’s logbook. A
"scrap" log is normally used during these operations and later inserted in the deck log. A permanent pen is
to be used in the "scarp" log.
In addition to the "scrap" and deck log, all cargo actions concerning Marpol A, B, C and D cargoes should
be recorded in the Cargo Record book.
To keep a good track, Appendix 2 cargoes, are also normally recorded in the Cargo Record Book even it’s
not mandatory.
All procedures for handling cargo and non segregated ballast are specified in the ship specific Procedures
and Arrangement Manual (P&A) To perform a satisfactory loading and discharging program, this manual
must be fully complied with.
8.2 CARGO PLANNING
In order to obtain a safe and good stowage, there are many considerations, which must be taken. These
demands can be customer, safety or rules and regulations related. In order to comply, the following must
be taken into consideration when planning a stowage:
Tank size.
Normally a tank is not loaded more than 98 % of the total volume, but in order to utilize the vessel’s
capacity it’s essential to try to load as close as possible to this volume. If the cargo require a nitrogen
blanket, it’s also easier to maintain this with as little ullage space as possible. When carrying heated
cargoes, expansion must be taken into consideration. (calculate with the maximum temperature the cargo
will reach.) If loading in a tank adjacent to a heated cargo, a raise in temperature must, also be calculated.
If the product is included in The Certificate of Fitness.
All transport of hazard or noxious substances require a certificate. (Certificate of Fitness or NLS
Certificate.)
The Certificate of Fitness is included in the ship’s P&A manual. A part of this is called List of Products. As
the name states, this list includes all the products the vessel is allowed to carry and in which tanks. If a
loading order shows a product which is not listed in this certificate the vessel is not allowed to take the
cargo, but as soon as the class and authorities in loading and discharging port receives the carriage
requirement and pollution category and other necessary information form the producer of the product, the
class issues an amendment to the vessel’s certificate of fitness. This is called Tripartite Agreement. This
happen fast and the vessel receives this normally by fax within 24 hours.

8.2.1 COATING RESISTANCE.

Each manufacturer of cargo tank coatings is obligated to issue a resistance guide. This guide shows which
chemicals the coating is resistant to and therefor possible to load in the tank in question. Many products
appears with a footnote which means that some special criterias must be present in the cargo loading
order. The most common of these footnotes is that the tank must be completely dry and the cargo in
question does not contain more than 100 or 200 ppm of water. Many of the major chemical manufactures
issues their own lists which states the tank lining they want to carry their products on.
BCH/IBC Code ( whichever applicable) for carriage requirements.
Handling requirements, IBC code for new ships (constructed on or after 1 July 1986), BCH code for
existing ships (constructed before 1 July 1986).
Compatibility (U.S.C.G.)
US Coast Guard has divided all chemicals into groups from 0 to 43. With this as base, a Compatibility
Chart has been formed. This chart simply shows which chemical groups are compatible and therefor
possible to stow next to each other. However, there are exceptions to this table, some products within a
group may be compatible to a group or a product that it was not supposed to be originally. The
compatibility chart and all updated exceptions is available in USCG Rules for shipping Cfr 46.
8.2.2 POLLUTION CATEGORY (MARPOL)
Determine if the product is categorized or if it’s not covered by IBC/BCH. Take into consideration
discharging port and any limitations regarding cleaning/overboard pumping. Reception facilities in
discharging port? Discharging in or outside special areas? Space onboard for possible slops for
discharging outside special areas or disposal to shore in next port?
8.2.3 REQUIREMENTS AS TO PREVIOUS CARGOES, INCLUDING FOSFA/NIOP/EU1 COMPLIANCE.
The requirements for tank cleanliness prior loading are getting stricter and stricter. The last cargo is often
essential when preparing a stowage proposal. When loading cargoes to be used for food purposes i.e.
vegoils there are lists with acceptable and banned last cargoes.
The three major institutes are: FOSFA, NIOP and EU.
Requirements from shipper may be as follows:
· Last cargo not to appear on the banned list.
· Last cargo to appear on the acceptable list.
Some cargoes, like Styrene Monomer, are not acceptable as one of the three last cargoes when the
FOSFA regulations is to apply.
We also see that the big manufactures of chemicals often reject a tank with certain last cargoes, i.e.
luboils.
When loading sensitive cargoes as Methanol and Mono Ethylene Glycol the demand to tank cleanliness is
very strict and therefor, if possible, it’s a good idea to stow these cargoes in tanks with easy last cargoes.
These parcels are however often shipped large quantities so most of the times a heavy tank cleaning
operation is unavoidable prior loading.

8.2.4 LIST OF ACCEPTABLE PREVIOUS CARGOES

EFFECTIVE FROM 1 July 1999
FOSFA INTERNATIONAL
LIST OF ACCEPTABLE PREVIOUS CARGOES
Acetic Acid Ethanoic acid, vinegar acid, methane carboxylic acid
Acetic Anhydride Ethanoic anhydride
Acetone Dimethylketone, 2-propanone
Acid Oils and Fatty Acid Distillates From vegetable oils and fats and/or mixtures thereof and animal and
marine fats and oils
Ammonium Hydroxide Ammonium hydrate, ammonia solution, aqua ammonia
Ammonium Polyphosphate
Animal, Marine and Vegetable (including Other than cashew shell nut oil and tall oil
hydrogenated) Oils and Fats
Beeswax
Benzyl Alcohol NF and reagent grades only
Beverages Alcoholic and non-alcoholic including fruit juices and potable water. NOTE:
Potable water is acceptable only where the immediate previous cargo to it
is on the List of Acceptable Previous Cargoes.
Butyl acetates n-, sec-, tert-
Calcium ammonium nitrate
Calcium chloride solution
Calcium lignosulphonate Sulphite lye, lignin liquor
Calcium nitrate
Candelilla wax
Carnauba wax Brazil wax
Caustic potash Potassium hydroxide
Caustic soda Sodium hydroxide, sodium hydrate, lye, white caustic
Cyclohexane Hexamethylene, hexanaphthene, hexalhydrobenzene
Cyclohexanol Hexahydrophenol
Cyclohexanone Pimelic ketone, ketohexamethylene
Dairy products
Dextrose solution
Epoxidised soyabean oil With a minimum 7% oxirane oxygen content
Ethanol Ethyl alcohol, spirits
Ethyl acetate Acetic ether, acetic ester, vinegar naphtha
2-Ethylhexanol 2-Ethylhexyl alcohol
Fatty acids -
Butyric Acid n-Butyric Acid, Butanoic Acid, Ethyl Acetic Acid, Propyl Formic Acid
Valeric Acid n-Pentanoic Acid, Valerianic Acid
Caproic Acid n-Hexanoic Acid
Heptoic Acid n-Heptanoic Acid
Caprylic Acid n-Octanoic Acid
Pelargonic Acid n-Nonanoic Acid
Capric Acid n-Decanoic Acid|
Lauric Acid n-Dodecanoic Acid
Lauroleic Acid Dodecenoic Acid
Myristic Acid n-Tetradecanoic Acid
Myristoleic Acid n-Tetradecenoic Acid
Palmitic Acid n-Hexadecanoic Acid
Palmitoleic Acid cis-9-Hexadecenoic Acid
Stearic Acid n-Octadecanoic Acid
Ricinoleic Acid Cis 12-Hydroxy Octadec-9-enoic Acid, Castor oil acid
Oleic Acid n-Octadecenoic Acid
Linoleic Acid 9,12 - Octadecadienoic Acid
Linolenic Acid 9,12,15 - Octadecatrienoic Acid
Arachidic Acid Eicosanoic Acid
Behenic Acid Docosanoic Acid
Erucic Acid Cis 13-Docosenoic Acid
Fatty Alcohols Natural alcohols
Butyl Alcohol 1-Butanol, butyric alcohol
Caproyl alcohol 1-Hexanol, hexyl alcohol
Enanthyl alcohol 1-Heptanol, heptyl alcohol
Capryl alcohol 1-n-Octanol, Heptyl carbinol, the secondary alcohol is also frequently
known as capryl alcohol - n-nonyl alcohol, methyl hexyl carbinol
Nonyl alcohol 1-Nonanol, pelargonic alcohol, octyl carbinol
Decyl alcohol 1-Decanol
Lauryl alcohol n-Dodecanol, Dodecyl alcohol
Myristyl alcohol 1-Tetradecanol, Tetradecanol
Cetyl alcohol Alcohol C-16, 1-Hexadecanol, Cetylic alcohol, Palmityl alcohol, n-Primary
Hexadecyl alcohol
Stearyl alcohol 1-Octadecanol
Oleyl alcohol Octadecenol
Lauryl Myristyl alcohol C12 - C14 blend
Cetyl Stearyl alcohol C16 - C18 blend
Fatty Alcohols Synthetic primary alcohols (C9-C15), including Tridecylalcohol (1-
Tridecanol)
Fatty acid esters Any ester product by the combination of any of the above listed fatty acids
with any of the above listed fatty alcohols. Examples of these are butyl
myristrate, oleyl palmitate and cetyl stearate. The following esters are also
included.
Methyl laurate Methyl dodecanoate
Methyl palmitate Methyl hexadecanoate
Methyl stearate Methyl octadecanoate
Methyl oleate Methyl octadecenoate
Formic acid Methanoic acid, Hydrogen Carboxylic Acid
Glucose syrup Corn syrup
Glycerine Glycerol, Glycerin, Glycyl alcohol, 1,2,3-Propanetriol, 1,2,3,-Trihydroxy
Propane, Trihydric alcohol
Glycols -
Butylene glycol and Butanediol 1,3-butylene glycol, 1,3-butanediol
1,4-butylene glycol, 1,4-butanediol
2,3-butylene glycol, 2,3-butanediol
Polypropylene glycol PG
Propylene glycol 1,2 propylene glycol, 1, 2-propanediol
1,2-dihydroxypropane, Monopropylene glycol
(MPG) Methyl glycol
1,3-Propylene glycol Trimethylene glycol, 1,3-propanediol
n-Heptane Dipropylmethane
n-Hexane
Isobutanol Isobutyl alcohol, 2-methyl-1-propanol, isopropylcarbinol
Isobutyl acetate
Isodecanol Isodecyl alcohol
Isononanol Isononyl alcohol
Isooctanol Isooctyl alcohol
Isopropanol Isopropyl alcohol, IPA, 2-propanol, Dimetyl carbinol
Kaolin Slurry
Limonene Dipentene
Magnesium Chloride Solution Magnogene
Methanol Methyl alcohol
Methyl ethyl ketone MEK, 2-Butanone
Methyl isobutyl ketone MIBK, hexone, 4-methyl-2-pentanone, iso propylacetone
Methyl tertiary butyl ether MTBE
Molasses
Montan wax
Nonane (C-9) Nonyl hydride
Paraffin wax Edible grade
Pentane Amyl hydride
Phosphoric acid Ortho Phosphoric Acid
Propane-1-ol Propy alcohol; 1-propanal
 n-Propyl acetate
Propylene tetramer Tetrapropylene, Dodecene
Silicon dioxide Micro silica
Sodium silicate Water glass
Sorbitol D-Sorbitol, Hexahydric alcohol, D-Sorbite
Sulphuric acid
Urea ammonia nitrate solution UAN
White mineral oil liquid paraffin oil
Wine lees Vinasses, vinaccia, argol, vini, argil arcilla, weinstein, crude cream of
tartare, crude potassium biturate
NOTES
1) Ethylene dichloride is on the Banned List and cannot be carried as any one of the last two cargoes in
organically coated tanks and as the last cargo in stainless steel and inorganically coated tanks.
2) Styrene monomer is on the Banned List and cannot be carried as any one of the last two cargoes in
organically coated tanks and as the last cargo in stainless steel and inorganically coated tanks.

8.2.5 LIST OF BANNED IMMEDIATE PREVIOUS CARGOSE

EFFECTIVE FROM 1 February 1995
FOSFA INTERNATIONAL
LIST OF BANNED IMMEDIATE PREVIOUS CARGOES
(Revised 22 November 1994)
Acetone Cyanohydrin (Alpha-Hydroxyisobutyronitrile;
2-Methyllactonitrile)
Acrylic Acid (Acroleic Acid; Propenoic Acid)
Acrylonitrile 2-Propenenitrile; Vinyl Cyanide)
Adiponitrile (1-4 Dicyanobutane)
Aniline (Phenylamine; Aminobenzene
Butylacrylate (n. and tert -,)
Carbon Tetrachloride (Tetrachloromethane; Perchloromethane)
Cardura E (Tradename for a glycidyl esters of Versatic 911 Acid)
Cashew Nut Shell Oil (Cashew Nut Shell Liquid)
Dibutylamine
Diethanolamine (DEA; di(2-Hydroxyethyl)amine)
Diethylenetriamine
Di-Isopropylamine
Dipropylamine
m-Divinylbenzene (DVB; Vinyl Styrene)
Epichlorohydrin (Chloropropylene Oxide; EPI)
Epoxy resins (uncured)
Ethyl Acrylate
*Ethylene Dichloride
2-Ethylhexyl Acrylate
Ethanolamine (MEA; Monoethanolamine; Colamine; 2-Aminoethanol; 2-
Hydroxyethylamine)
Ethylenediamine (1, 2 Diaminoethane)
Furfuryl Alcohol (Furyl Carbinol)
Glutaraldehyde
Hexamethylenediamine (1.6-Diaminohexane; 1.6-Hexanediamine)
Isocyanates (These include;
Toluene di-isocyanate (TDI)
Polyphenyl polymethylene isocyanate (PAPI)
Di-phenyl methane di-isocyanate
Methyl isocyanate)
Lube Oil Additives
Methyl Acrylate
Methyl Methacrylate Monomer
Methyl Styrene Monomer (Vinyl Toluene)
a Methyl Styrene Monomer (AMS)
p Methyl Styrene Monomer (PMS)
Morpholine
Morpholine Ethanol
Nitric Acid (Aqua Fortis; Engravers Acid; Azotic Acid)
Phthalates
(These include
Di-octyl phthalate (DOP)
Di-iso octyl phthalate (DIOP)
Di-iso nonyl phthalate (DINP)
Di-iso decyl phthalate (DIDP)
Di-allyl phthalate (DAP))
n-Propylamine
Propylene Oxide (Methyl Oxirane; 1.2 Epoxypropane)
Pyridine
**Styrene Monomer (Vinyl Benzene; Phenyl Ethylene; Cinnamene)
Tall Oil
Tall oil fatty acid equivalent to ASTM TYPE III
Transformer Oils of PCB type
Vinyl Chloride Monomer
Vinylacetate Monomer
LEADED PRODUCTS SHALL NOT BE CARRIED AS THE THREE PREVIOUS CARGOES
* ETHYLENE DICHLORIDE IS BANNED AS ANY ONE OF THE LAST TWO CARGOES IN
ORGANICALLY COATED TANKS AND AS THE LAST CARGO IN STAINLESS STEEL AND
INORGANICALLY COATED TANKS.
** STYRENE MONOMER IS BANNED AS ANY ONE OF THE LAST TWO CARGOES IN ORGANICALLY
COATED TANKS AND AS THE LAST CARGO IN STAINLESS STEEL AND INORGANICALLY COATED
TANKS.

8.2.6 PRIOR CARGO LISTINGS

National Institute of Oilseed Products
Trading rules1997-1998
Rule 5.12 PRIOR CARGO LISTINGS
Note
All items on Acceptable list 1 and 2 also appears on the NIOP-FOSFA Joint list of Acceptable previous
Cargoes except those designated by (*).
5.12.1 ACCEPTABLE PRIOR CARGO - LIST NO 1
The following items are acceptable prior cargo for transported edible oils which may or may not be further
processed prior to use.
Cargo common name Remarks
Alcoholic beverages i.e. rum, wine
Almond oil
Anchovy oi1
Apple juice concentrate
Apricot kernel oil
Avocado oil
Babassu Oil
Beechnut oil
Beeswax
Candelilla wax
Canola oil LEAR "Double Zero"
Carnsuba wax
Castor oil
Coconut oil
Cocoa butter
Cod liver oil
Cod oil
Cohune oil
Corn oil (maize oil)
Corn syrup
Cottonseed oil
Dairy products limited, per USA 21 CFR, Part 131
Dextrose solution
Fish liver oil
Fish oil
Glucose syrup
Glycerine
Grape juice concentrate
Grapeseed oil
Hazelnut oil
Herring oil
Illipe butter
Juice concentrates i.e. apple, grape
Lactic acid limited
Lard, edible
Linseed oil
Lycopersicum esculentum oil tomato seed oil
Menhaden oil
Molasses
Montan wax
Murumuru fat
Mustard seed oil
Nutmeg butter
Olive oil
Orange juice slurry
Palm kernel oil
Palm kernel olein
Palm kernel stearin
Palm oil
Palm oil mid fractions
Palm olein
Peanut oil ground nut oil; GNO
Pilchard oil
Poppyseed oil
Palm stearin
Rapeseed oil HEAR
Rapeseed oil hydrogenated
Rapeseed oil LEAR double zero
Rapeseed oil LEAR single zero
Rice bran oil
Safflower oil
Sal fat
Sardine oil
Sesame oil
Shark oi1
Shea oil Shea butter
Sorbitol
Soybean oil
Sunflower oil
Tallow edible
Teaseed oil
Tucum oil
Vegetable ghee
Walnut oil
Water, potable acceptable only when immediately following a prior cargo on the list

8.2.7 ACCEPTABLE PRIOR CARGO

5.12.1 ACCEPTABLE PRIOR CARGO - LIST NO 2
Acceptable prior cargo for edible oils will undergo further processing.
Cargo common name
Remarks
Acetic acid
Acetic anhydride
Acetone
Ammonium hydroxide
Ammonium polyphosphate
Benzyl alcohol NF and Reagents grades only
Butanediol see glycols
Butylene glycol see glycols
Butyl acetate n-, sec-, tert-
* Calcium ammonium nitrate CAN-17
solution
Calcium chloride solution
Calcium lignosulfonate liquid lignin liquor; sulphide lye
* Calcium nitrate solution CN-9
Coconut acid oil CAO; acidulated coconut oil soapstock
Coconut oil fatty acid methyl ester
Coconut oil fatty acids
Coconut oil fatty alcohols
Cottonseed acid oil
Cottonseed oil, fatty acid
Cyclohexane
Cyclohexanol
Cyclohexanone
Ethanol
Ethyl acetate EA
2-Ethylhexyl alcohol 2-ethyl hexanol
Fatty acid:
Butyric acid C-4 Butanoic acid
Valeric acid C-5 Pentanoic acid
Caproic acid C-6 Hexanoic acid
Heptoic acid C-7 Heptanoic acid
Caprylic acid C-8 Octanoic acid
Pelargonic acid C-9 Nonanoicacid
Capric acid C-10 Decanoic acid
Lauric acid C-12 Dodecanoic acid
Lauroleic acid C-12’ Dodecanoic acid
Myristic acid C-14 Tetradecanoic acid
Myristoleic acid C-14’ Tetradecanoic acid
Palmitic acid C-16 Hexadecanoic acid
Palmitoleic acid C-16’ Hexadecanoic acid
Stearic acid C-18 Octadecanoic acid
Ricinoleic acid C-18’ 12- hydroxy 9-octadecanoic acid
Oleic acid C-18’ Octadecanoic acid

Cargo common name Remarks

Linoleic acid C-18’’ Octadecadienoic acid
Linolenic acid C-18’’’ Octadecatrienoic acid
Arachidic acid C-20 Eicosanoic acid
Behenic acid C-22 Docosanoic acid
Erucic acid C-22’ Docosanoic acid
Fatty acid esters: An ester produced by the combination of any of the
listed fatty acids with any of the listed fatty alcohols)
examples include:
Butyl myristate
Cetyl stearate
 Oleyl palmitate
Fatty acid methyl esters methyl esters of fatty acids
Methyl laurate C-12 Methyl dodecanoate
Methyl palmitate C-16 Methyl hexadecanoate
Methyl stearate C-18 Methyl octadecanoate
Methyl oleate C-18’ Methyl octadecanoate
Fatty alcohols Natural alcohol
Butyl alcohol C-4 1-Butanol Butyric alcohol
Caproyl alcohol C-6 1-Hexanol Hexyl alcohol
Enanthyl alcohol C-7 1-Heptanol Heptyl alcohol
Capryl alcohol C-8 1-n-octanol Octyl alcohol
Nonyl alcohol C-9 Nonanol Pelargonic alcohol
Decyl alcohol C-10 1-Decanol
Lauryl alcohol C-12 n-Docanol Dodecyl alcohol
Tridecyl alcohol C-13 1-Tridecanol
Myristyl alcohol C-14 1-Tetradecanol
Cetyl alcohol C-16 Cetylic alcohol
Palmityl alcohol
Stearyl alcohol C-18 1-Octadecanol
Oleyl alcohol C-18’ Octadecanol
Lauryl myristyl alcohol C12-C14 blend
Cetyl stearyl alcohol C16-C18 blend
Hexadecanol combination C16-C18 blend of natuaral fatty alcohols
Glycols:
Butylene glycol 1,3-butylene glycol; 1,3 butanediol
Butane diol 1,4-butylene glycol; 1,4 butanediol
2,3-butylene glycol; 2,3 butanediol
Polypropylene glycol PG
Propylene glycol 1,2 propylene glycol;
1,2 propanediol; 1,2-dihydroxypropane
mono propylene glycol-(MPG)
1,3 Propylene glycol
Formic acid
Heptane

Cargo common name Remarks

Hexane technical
Hydrogen peroxide
Isobutyl acetate
Isobutyl alcohol isobutanol
Isodecyl alcohol isodecanol
Isononyl alcohol isononanol
Isooctyl alcohol isooctanol
Isopropyl alcohol isopropanol
Kaolin slurry Acceptable - provided any future modifica
bactericides are appropriately reviewed.
Limonene
Magnesium chloride solution
Methanol Methyl alcohol
Methyl ethyl ketone MEK
Methyl isobutyl ketone MIBK
Methyl tertiary butyl ether MTBE
* Nitric acid *
Nonane (C-9)-(nonyl hydride)
Palm acid oil PAO
Palm fatty acid distillate PFAD
Palm kernel fatty acid distillate PKFAD
Palm kernel fatty acid methyl ester
Palm kernel fatty acids
Palm kernel fatty alcohols
Palm oil fatty acid methyl ester
Palm oil fatty acids
Palm oil fatty alcohols
Pentane
Petroleum wax, edible grade Petroleum paraffin; paraffin wax
Phosphoric acid
Propylene glycol PG, see glycols
Potassium hydroxide solution Caustic potash solution
Propyl acetate
* Propyl alcohol 1-propanol
Propylene glycol, MPG, see glycols
Propylene tetramer
Rice bran acid oil
Silicon dioxide
Sodium hydroxide solution
Sodium silicate
Soybean acid oil
Soybean oil epoxidized
Soybean oil fatty acid
Sulphuric acid
* Tall oil fatty acids, ASTM I and II

Cargo common name Remarks

** Tallow (inedible)
Tallow fatty acids
Tallow fatty alcohol
Tung oil
Urea ammonium nitrate solution
Water (potable)
* White mineral oil, USP

* The country of origin in which the product is rendered must have standards or certification
programs which are designed to preclude toxic or bacterial contamination and the
transmission of phaogens including bovine spongiform encephalities (BSE) by animal
products or byproducts

** Tallow (inedible) includes the Standards Grades for Tallow and Greases as set forth by
Rule 7 of the American Fats and Oils Association (AFOA)

8.2.8 UNACCEPTABLE PRIOR CARGO LIST

5.12.3 UNACCEPTABLE PRIOR CARGO LIST

These substances have been proven to be highly toxic and/or carcinogenic. They may not be carried as
the last cargo immediately prior to edible oils:

CARGO COMMON NAME Remarks

Acetone cyanohydrin ACH
Acrylonitrile ACN
Benzene
1,3-Butadiene Vinylethylene
Butyl acrylate n- and tert-
Carbon tetrachloride CTC
Cashew nutshell liquid CNSL
Chloroform TCM
Cresol (o, m p,) Cresylic acid
Diethanolamine DEA
Diglycidylether of bisphenol A
Dioctyl phthalate DOP
Diphenyl methane diisocyanate MDI
Epichlorohydrin
Ethyl acrylate
Ethylene dibromide EDB, 1,2-dibromoethane, ethylene bromide
Ethylene dichloride EDC, 1,2-dichloroethane, ethylene chloride
Ethylene glycol MEG, monoethylene glycol
Ethylene glycol monobutyl ether 2-butoxyethanol
Ethylene oxide EO
Formaldehyde
*** Leaded petroleum or other leaded products
Methyl acrylate
Methyl methacrylate
Methylene chloride MEC, dichloromethane, methylene dichloride
Methylene diisocyanate Diisocyanatomethane
Monoethylene glycol MEG, ethylene glycol
Nitropropane 1- and 2- isomers and mixtures
Perchloroethylene PEC
Polymethylene polyphenylisocyanate PAPI
Propylene oxide
Styrene monomer
Tall oil Crude
Tall oil fatty acid ASTM type III
Telone II 1-propene, 1,3-dichloro, 1,3 dichloropropene
Toluene
Toluene diisocyanate TDI 2,4- and 2,6- isomers
Toluidine Ortho
Transformer oil
Trichloroethane 1,1,1- and 1,1,2- isomers
Triethylene glycol TEG
Vinyl acetate monomer VAM
Xylene Ortho, meta, para

*** The provisions of NIOP TRADING RULES, including RULE 1.3.1.(b), RULE 1,4, RULE 1.5.2.(b), RULE
1.6.2.(b) and RULE 1.9 are not superseded by this RULE. The "last cargo" restriction at the top of this
page is not applicable to the products referenced thus: ***
Provisions con<tained in the above cited RULES include and provide for a signed statement that the
vessel’s tank receiving the vegetable oil has not contained any leaded petroleum or other leaded product
on at least the last three (3) prior cargoes carried.

8.2.9 FEDERATIONS NEWSLETTER

EUROPEAN COMMISISON FOOD HYGIENE DEROGATION DIRECTIVE 96/3/EC
The most recent issue of the Federation’s Newsletter (issue no. 10 January 1996) carried an article on the
derogation issue and highlighted our understanding of the situation. The European Commission has now
published its Derogation Directive through the Official Journal of the European Communities (issued dated
27 January 1996). A copy is attached.
The directive has declared, under article 5, an implementation date of 12 February 1996. By this date
member states are to bring into force the laws, regulations and administrative procedures necessary to
comply with the Directives. Although it is not for the Federation to judge when member states will achieve
implementation it is our understanding that it will, in some cases, take two to three months to put into effect
appropriate regulations and administrative procedures.
This extremely short notice poses problems to the trade, in particular due to there being variances in the
list of acceptable previous cargoes governed by the Derogation Directive and the Federation’s List of
Acceptable Previous Cargoes.
I draw attention to cyclohexanone and propylene tetramer, contained on the Federation’s list, but deleted
from the Derogation Annex, and differences in the description of tall oil and paraffin wax. There are other
typographical errors in the Derogation Annex and, as projected, it does not contain reference to foodstuffs
such as beverages, dairy products and dextrose solution/glucose syrup, all of which are contained in the
Federation’s List.
As an immediate measure the Council of the Federation has approved the introduction of two amendments
to address the pending legislation affecting imports of oils and fats into Europe. This will be done in the
form of two contract stickers as follows:

8.2.10 EU1 - GOODS WICH ARE TO BE PROCESSED

The following clause becomes effective on and from 12 February 1996 -
In addition to the provisions of FOSFA sticker AS9, Commission Directive 96/3/EC shall apply in respect of
previous cargoes.

8.2.11 EU2 - GOODS WICH ARE NOT TO BE FURTHER PROCESSED

The following clause becomes effective on and from 12 February 1996 -
In addition to the provisions of FOSFA sticker AS9, Commission Directive 96/3/EC shall apply in respect
of previous cargoes.

As a priority the Federation is reviewing its contract forms, Ships Qualifications and Operational
Procedures to take account of the legislation issue. It is anticipated that revised Ships Qualifications and
Operational Procedures will be issued in due course.

Yours sincerely
SR Logan
Chief Executive and Secretary
(sign)

8.2.12 COMMISSION DIRECTIVE 96/3/EC OF 26 JANUARY 1996

granting a derogation from certain provisions of Council Directive 93/43/EEC on the hygiene of foodstuffs
as regards the transport of bulk liquid oils and fats by sea
(Text with EEA relevance)

8.2.13 THE COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES.

Having regard to the Treaty establishing the European Community,
Having regard to Council Directive 93/43/EEC of 14 June 1993 on the hygiene of foodstuffs(‘), and in
particular Article 3 (3) thereof,
Whereas information shows that the application of the second subparagraph of paragraph 2 of Chapter IV
of the Annex to Directive 93/43/EEC relating to the transport of bulk foodstuffs in liquid, granulate or
powdered form in receptacles and/or containers/tankers reserved for the transport of foodstuffs, is not
practical and imposes an unduly onerous burden on food business when applied to the transport in sea-
going vessels of liquid oils and fats intended for, or likely to be used for, human consumption.
Whereas, however, it is necessary to ensure that the granting of a derogation provides equivalent
protection to public health, by attaching conditions to the terms of such derogation.
Whereas the availability of sea-going vessels reserved for the transport of foodstuffs is insufficient to serve
the continuing trade in oils and fats intended for or likely to be used for human consumption.
Whereas experience acquired, during the past years has shown that contamination of liquid oils and fats
can be avoided where tanks used for their transport are made of readily cleansible materials or where the
three previous cargoes are of such a nature that they do not leave unacceptable contamination, whereas
on the other hand it should be established that tanks that have been used previously for transportation
have been effectively cleaned.
Whereas it is incumbent on Member States by virtue of Article 8 of Directive 93/43/EEC to carry out
controls to ensure the application of this Directive.
Whereas this specific derogation should be without prejudice to the general provisions of Directive
93/43/EEC.
Whereas, pursuant to Article 1 (2) of Directive 93/43/EEC, this derogation should not concern foods to
which more specific Community hygiene rules apply.
Whereas the measures provided for in this Directive are in compliance with the opinion of the Standing
Committee for Foodstuffs.

8.2.14 HAS ADOPTED THIS DIRECTIVE:

Article 1
This Directive derogates from the second subparagraph of paragraph 2 of Chapter IV of the Annex to
Directive 93/43/EEC and lays down equivalent conditions to ensure the protection of public health and the
safety and wholesomeness of the foodstuffs concerned.
Article 2
1. The bulk transport in sea-going vessels of liquid oils or fats which are to be processed, and which are
intended for or likely to be used for human consumption, is permitted in tanks that are not exclusively
reserved for the transport of foodstuffs, subject to the following conditions:
that, where the oil or fat is transported in a stainless steel tank, or tank lined with epoxy resin or technical
equivalent, the immediately previous cargo transported in the tank shall have been a foodstuff, or a cargo
from the list of acceptable previous cargoes set out in the Annex.
that, where the oil of fat is transported in a tank of materials other than those in point (a), the three
previous cargoes transported in the tanks shall have been foodstuffs, or from the list of acceptable
previous cargoes set out in the Annex.
2. The bulk transport in sea-going vessels of liquid oils or fats which are not to be further processed, and
which are intended for or likely to used for human consumption, is permitted in tanks that are not
exclusively reserved for the transport of foodstuffs, subject to the following conditions:
that the tanks shall be of stainless steel or lined with epoxy resin or technical equivalent,
that the three previous cargoes transported in the tank shall have been foodstuffs.

Article 3
1. The captain of the sea-going vessel transporting, in tanks, bulk liquid oils and fats intended for or likely
to be used for human consumption shall keep accurate documentary evidence relating to the three
previous cargoes carried in the tanks concerned, and the effectiveness of the cleaning process applied
between these cargoes.,
2. Where the cargo has been transhipped, in addition to the documentary evidence required in paragraph
1, the captain of the receiving vessel shall keep accurate documentary evidence that the transport of the
bulk liquid oil or fat complied with the provisions in Article 2 during previous shipment and of the
effectiveness of the cleaning process used between these cargoes on the other vessel.
3. Upon request, the captain of the vessel shall provide the competent official control authorities with the
documentary evidence described in paragraphs 1 and 2.

Article 4
This Directive shall be reviewed where one or more Member States, or the Commission, consider that
amendments are necessary in order to take account of scientific or technical developments. In any case
the Annex shall be reviewed within one year of the entry into force of this Directive.

Article 5
Member States shall bring into force the laws, regulations and administrative provisions necessary to
comply with this Directive on 12 February 1996. They shall immediately inform the Commission thereof.
When Member States adopt these provisions, these shall contain a refence to this Directive or shall be
accompanied by such reference at the time or their official publication. The procedure for such reference
shall be adopted by Member States.

Article 6
This Directive shall enter into force on the day following its publication in the Official Journal of the
European Communities.

Article 7
This Directive is addressed to the Member States.
Done at Brussels, 26 January 1996

8.2.15 LIST OF ACCEPTABLE PREVIOUS CARGOES

Acetic acid (ethanoic acid,vinegar acid, methane carboxylic acid)
Acetone - dimethylketone, 2-propanone
Acid oils and fatty acid distillates - from vegetable oils and fats
and /or mixtures thereof and animal and marine fats and oils

Ammonium hydroxyde - (ammonium hydrate, ammonia solution,

aqua ammonia)

Animal marine and vegetable oils fats (other than cashew shell nut
and crude tall oil)
Beeswax
Benzyl alcohol (NF and reagent grades only)
Buthyl acetates (n-, sec-, tert-)
Calcium chloride solution
Calcium lignosulphonate
Candelilla wax
Carnauba wax (Brazil wax)
Cyclohexane (hexamethylene, hexanaphthene, hexalhydrobenzene
Cyclohexanol (hexahydrophenol)
Epoxidised soyabean oil (with a minimum 7% oxirane oxygen content)
Ethanol (ethyl alcohol)
Ethyl acetate (acetic ether, acetic ester, vinegar naphtha)
2-Ethylhexanol -(2-ethylhexyl alcohol)
Fatty acids:
Butyric acid (n-butyric acid, butanoic acid, ethyl acetic acid, propyl formic acid
Valeric acid (n-pentanoic acid, valerianic acid)
Caproic acid (n-hexanoic acid)
Heptoic acid (n-heptanoic acid)
Caprylic acid (n-octanoic acid)
Pelargonic acid (n-nonanoic acid)
Caproic acid (n-decanoic acid)
Lauric acid -(n-dodecanoic acid)
Lauroleic acid (dodecanoic acid)
Myristic acid (n-tetradecanoic acid)
Myristoleic acid (n-tetradecanoic acid)
Palmitic acid (n-hexadecanoic acic)
Palmitoleic acid (cis-9-hexadecenoic acid)
Stearic acid (n-octadecanoic acid)
Ricinoleic acid (cis 12-hydroxy octadec-9 enoic acid, Castor Oil acid)
Oleic acid - /n-octadecenoic acid)
Linoleic acid (9,12-octadecadienoic acid)
Linolenic acid (9,12,15-octadecatrienoic acid)
Arachidic acid (eicosanoic acid)
Behenic acid (docosanoic acid)
Eruele acid (cis 13-docosenoic acid)
Fatty alcohols - natural alcohols
Butyl alcohol (1-butanol, butyric alcohol)
Caproyl alcohol (1-hexanol, hexyl alcohol)
Enanthyl alcohol (1-heptanol, heptyl alcohol)
Capryl alcohol (1-n-octanol)
Nonyl alcohol (1-nonanol, Pelargonic alcohol, octyl carbinol)
Decyl alcohol (1-decanol)
Lauryl alcohol (n-dodecanol, dodecyl alcohol)
Tridecyl alcohol (1-tridecanol)
Myristyl alcohol (-tetradecanol, tetradecanol)
Cetyl alcohol (alcohol C-16, 1-hexadecanol, cetylic alcohol, palmityl alcohol, n-primary hexadecyl
alcohol)
Stearyl alcohol (1-octadecanol)
Oleyl alcohol (octadecenol)
Lauryl myristyl alcohol (C12-C14 blend)
Cetyl stearyl alcohol (C16-C18 blend)

Fatty acids esters - any ester produced by the combination of any of the above listed fatty acids with any of
the above listed fatty alcohol. Examples of these are butyl myristrate, oleyl palmitate and cetyl stearate

Fatty acid - methyl esters

Methyl laurate (methyl dodecanoate)
Methyl palmitate (methyl hexadecanoate)
Methyl stearate (methyl octadecanoate)
Metyl oleate (methyl octadecanoate)
Formic acid -(methanoic acid, hydrogen carboxylic acid)
Glycerine (glycerol, glycerin)
Glycols
Butanediol (1,3-butylene glycol, 1-3 butanediol, 1,4-butylene glycol, 1,4-butanediol, 2,3-butylene
glycol, 2,3-butanediol, Butylene glycol)

Polypropylene glycol (molecular weight greater than 400)

Propylene glycol (1,2 propylene glycol, 1,2-propanediol, 1,2-dihydroxkypropane, monopropylene
glycol (MPG), methyl glycol)
1,3-Propylene glycol (Trimethylene glycol, 1,3-propanediol)
n-Heptane
n-Hexane (technical grades)
iso-Butanol (2-methyl-1-propanol)
iso-Butyl acetate
iso-Decanol (isodecyl alcohol)
iso-Nonal (isononyl alcohol)
iso-Octanol (isooctyl alcohol)
iso-Propanol (isopropyl alcohol, IPA)
Limonene (dipentene)
Magnesium chloride solution
Methanol (methyl alcohol)
Methyl ethyl ketone (2-butanone)
Methyl isobutyl ketone (4-methyl-2-pentanone)
Methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE)
Micro silica
Molasses
Montan wax
Nonane
Parafin (edible grade)
Pentane
Phosphoric acid (ortho phosphoric acid)
Potable water is acceptable as a previous cargo only where the immediate previous cargo to it is on that
list
Potassium hydroxide (caustic potash)
n-Propyl acetate
Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda, lye)
Sorbitol (D-sorbitol, hexahydric alcohol, d-Sorte)
Sulphuric acid
Urea ammonia nitrate solution (UAN)
Wine lees - (vinasses, vinaccia, argol, vini, argil arcilla, weinstein, crude cream of tartare, crude potassium
biturate)

8.2.16 INHIBITOR REQUIREMENT.

If carrying inhibited cargoes there are some important precautions to be taken.
The inhibitor is a product which is added to a unstable cargo in order to avoid the cargo to react with itself.
We have two main types of inhibitor, one demands oxygen and one that not demands oxygen. The
inhibitor that demands oxygen needs, as the name states, oxygen to survive and therefor we must be
careful if the shipper demands to have a nitrogen blanket on top of the cargo after loading. Needless to
say, all information regarding type of inhibitor and nitrogen demands must be settled prior to any loading.
The inhibitor has a certain lifetime at a certain temperature. If the temperature should exceed this, the
lifetime on the inhibitor will be reduced considerably and the consequences of this may be fatal.
Information regarding the inhibitor is stated in the Inhibitor Certificate. This certificate must contain lifetime
at a certain temperature and max adjacent temperature. If the max adjacent temperature is higher than the
lifetime temperature, there should be a table which indicates the loss of lifetime pr. degree temperature
raise. We must of course make sure the lifetime of the inhibitor is longer then the vessel’s steaming time to
discharging port.

Bottom line :
The Vessel is not allowed to commence any loading of inhibited cargoes before a Inhibitor
Certificate is presented on board.

8.2.17 HEATING/COOLING REQUIREMENTS

As mentioned previously, many cargoes require heating during transport. The most common is one
temperature during transport and one temperature during discharging. Normally the discharging
temperature is the highest and it’s the highest temperature we must take into consideration when
assigning tanks to the cargo in question. When stowing heated cargoes or cargoes adjacent to heated
cargoes we must carefully take into consideration the following :
Max adjacent temperature recommended .

Almost all products have been given a max adjacent temperature by their manufacturer.
This means that their product can, without any problems, rise to that temperature without going off
specifications. If no max adjacent temperature has been given, it’s a good idea to use 30 – 35° C, or the
temperature that the cargo will reach caused by air and sea temperature.

Boiling/freezing point for adjacent stowage.

A few products with low boiling points, like Propylene Oxide and Isoprene require cooling or high-
pressurised tanks in order to be shipped. It’s then obvious that we can not stow adjacent products which
has a higher temperature than the boiling point next to these cargoes.

Inhibited cargoes.
As mentioned previously, max adjacent temperature is stated in the Inhibitor Certificate.

Heating medium.
Some cargoes, i.e. isocyanates react violently with water and water or steam is not allowed to use as
heating medium. These cargoes must then be heated by surrounding tanks with compatible cargoes.

8.2.18 IF LITER WEIGHT IS ACCEPTABLE ACCORDING CLASS. (PARTIAL FILLING)

Normally the cargo tanks on a chemical tanker are divided into several groups. The reason for this is that
some tanks are build or located in such way that they can carry heavier cargoes. A filling grade and a
maximum litre weight is normally given.
I.e. 1.85 kg/litre at 80 % volume. If the tank is 1000 m³, we are allowed to load
1000 m³ x 80% x 1.85 kg/litre = 1480 Metric Tonnes. This is the maximum weight we can load in this tank,
but this curve is linear so we can increase the filling grade if the liter weight is reduced. I.e. If LW is 1.70
kg/l, we will get a filling grade of 87%.
(1480 Mt / 170 kg/l = 870,59 m³ = 87,59 % filling) To go the other way, reduce filling more and load heavier
cargoes it’s opposite but, the Procedures and Arrangement (P&A) Manual must always be consulted. In
the manual we can find the maximum LW and filling restrictions for all cargo tanks on board. On deck
tanks there are normally not possible to load heavier cargoes than stated even if filling grade is reduced.

8.2.19 VAPOR RETURN.

Is vapor return a demand according to IBC/BCH or local authorities?
Are Vapor connections in line with tanks to be loaded?

8.2.20 SEGREGATED BALLAST.

Is trim/list acceptable to the vessel and is there any draft restrictions in loading or discharging port? When
planning a stowage it must be a goal to use as little ballast as possible when leaving loading port since
ballast is only extra weight and the rate for this is zero. When planning loading and discharging, and if
carrying heated cargoes, we must stow/ballast in such way that we avoid pumping ballast in ballast tanks
below or besides these tanks. This will of course only apply if the vessel is trading in areas with low
seawater temperature.

8.3 PROCEDURES AND PREPARATIONS FOR LOADING

Prior to any loading operations all necessary information concerning the product must be known to the
vessel. The shipping documents must indicate the correct technical name and all other applicable data in
order for the vessel to ship the product in a effective and safe manner.
In addition to the shipping documents, a Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) must be present and
available to all persons on board. The MSDS contain all information regarding the product in question and
should be posted in public areas so all crewmembers have access to the necessary information.
In order to lift a cargo, as a minimum, the following must be known/forfilled :
• Name of product, technical and trade name.
• Product listed in vessel’s Certificate of Fitness.
• Compatibility Group and exceptions.
• Coating Compatibility.
• Marpol Category.
• Reactive/Inhibited or not.
• Melting Point.
• Heating Requirements.
• Nitrogen Requirements.

If sufficient information regarding a product to be loaded are not available, the Master can refuse to load
the cargo. However this is very rare and normally the vessel receive all necessary information in sufficient
time prior loading.
The Bulk Chemical Codes (IBC & BCH) provides all necessary information for the cargoes covered by
them (Category A, B, C and D cargoes). These books are together with the ship’s P & A manual the
vessel’s bibles. In the codes all special operational requirements regulated by law, are listed. This must be
fully complied with in order to operate in a safe manner.

As mentioned, the Chief Officer is responsible for the planning and the accomplishment of all cargo
operations. The planning of cargo operations starts as soon as the vessels receives the loading order from
the ship’s operator. The first loading order is normally incomplete and many changes may occur before the
vessel arrives at loading port.
As mentioned, a Pre-Arrival conference under the leadership of the Chief Officer shall be held prior to
arrival load/discharge port. Participants in the conference shall be those involved in the cargo operations,
such as Deck Officers, and/or crewmembers assigned to special tasks.
The purpose of the conference is to highlight the planned operations/activities in the upcoming port, also
reflecting the different details listed in the vessel's Oil Transfer Procedure regarding Transfer Conference.
The time and date of such conference to be entered in the vessel's deck log and signed
by the Chief Officer.
Prior to loading of any cargo, the following shall be closely inspected/tested by Chief Officer:
(1) Close inspection of cargo tanks.
(a) Cleanliness/Wall wash if applicable.
(b) Coating if applicable.
(c) Tightness.
(d) Structure.
(e) Heating coils and ladders.
(f) Visual control of cargo pumps and supports.
(g) Purging of cargo pump.
(2) Cargo lines including valves.
(3) Vent-pipes including P/V valves.
(4) Drain valves.
(5) Tank hatches and packings.
(6) Ullage plugs/hatches.
(7) Closed gauging system.
(8) Level alarms.
(9) Temperature gauging.
(10) Pressure gauging.
(11) Vapor return system - pressure gauging and alarms.

If heated cargoes are to be loaded, heating coils to be pressure tested, preferable by steam pressure. Test
to be recorded.
If heating is not required, heating coils to be cleaned through with steam or freshwater, blown empty and
blanked off on both sides.

After the tank is inspected/wall washed and found ready for loading the chief officer issues a "Certificate of
Cleanliness". There are many different types of this certificate, but in order to save both time and paper it’s
smart to get all the information the surveyor needs on this paper.
8.3.1 RESPONSIBILITY OF THE DUTY OFFICER.

The Duty Officer is responsible for all operations taking place on his watch unless relieved by the Chief
Officer.
Before commencement of any cargo/bunkering operations, the following shall be controlled by the Duty
Officer.

8.3.2 POSTERS/CARGO INFORMATION

Prior to arrival in loading port, the following shall be posted in accommodation:.

(1) Up to date stowage plan.
(2) Product information data sheets.
The same to be available in cargo control room.
At the gangway/accommodation ladder:
(1) A safety plan.
(2) Notice board as below.

SAFE OPERATION
CARGO SURVEYORS/TERMINAL
REPRESENTATIVES shall be
WARNING guided by vessel’s staff before
DANGEROUS CARGO commencement of any operation,
NO VISITORS such as:
NO SMOKING Sampling
NO OPEN LIGHTS Gauging
Hose connection
Tank entry
Opening of any cargo
hatches, ullage-openings etc.

Any surveyor/terminal representative

failing to comply with this
instruction will be requested to
leave the vessel immediately

8.3.3 MOORING/GANGWAY
During stay at a terminal, the Duty Officer shall frequently check that the mooring lines are tight and the
vessel is safely moored.
The gangway/accommodation ladder shall be rigged with safety net and frequently checked.

8.3.4 TOWING-OFF WIRES

Towing-off wires shall be rigged fore and aft in such a way that they can be used without adjustment in
case of emergency.

8.3.5 BLANK FLANGES

During all cargo handling and cleaning operations, all pipeline connections, except those actually in use
must be blanked off and fully bolted.

8.3.6 BONDING CABLE

When a ship/shore bonding cable is used it shall be done in the following sequence.

When connecting the hose:

1) Connect bonding cable.
2) Connect hose

When disconnecting hoses:

1) Disconnect hose.
2) Remove bonding cable.

8.3.7 POLLUTION PREVENTION

Prior to any cargo transfer, the Duty Officer shall check that all scuppers are closed by mechanical means
and the pollution prevention equipment is ready for use according to Vessel's Oil/Chemical Spill Response
Plan.

8.3.8 FIRE MAIN AND DRY POWDER/FOAM

Fire main and Dry powder and/or Foam shall be ready for use during cargo operations. Fire hoses shall be
connected and ready for use.

8.3.9 CARGO PUMP EMERGENCY SHUTDOWN

All personnel on duty during cargo transfer operations must be familiar with the procedure to stop and
secure the cargo pumps in an emergency. This includes use of the remote control situated in the cargo
control room and also the local emergency stops.

8.3.10 PORTHOLES AND DOORS

During loading, discharging, ballasting, tank cleaning or gas-freeing all portholes and doors must be kept
closed. All doors leading to an open deck shall bear a notice to this effect.

8.3.11 BREATHING APPARATUS & FILTER MASKS

Throughout cargo, ballast, tank cleaning and gas-freeing operations, self contained breathing apparatus
outfits and filter masks with appropriate filters as necessary shall be available for immediate use.

8.3.12 EMERGENCY SHOWER AND EYE WASH.

The Emergency Shower and Eye Wash shall be tested and ready for use and all personnel on duty shall be
familiar with the location and use.

8.3.13 PRESSURE IN CARGO TANKS

Serious structural damage can be caused by the creation of pressure/vacuum in tanks during cargo/ballast
operations. The Duty Officer shall control that PV-valves are working properly before commencing
operations.
When opening a sighting port or ullage plug the possibility of over pressure in the tank must be
considered. The pressure might be high enough to cause personal injury. Any over pressure must be
released via P/V valves.

8.3.14 CARGO PUMPS, RELATED EQUIPMENT AND SPACES

During cargo operations, a close watch shall be kept on the cargo system to detect leakage’s or any
malfunction. Loading/Discharging shall be in accordance with vessel's "OIL TRANSFER PROCEDURE"

Special attention shall be paid to the following:

When loading, tanks already completed shall be monitored to ensure that the ullage is not changing.
Make sure that at least two valves are closed between tank and shore connection.

When discharging one grade from two or more tanks simultaneously through a common shore connection,
each tank level shall be closely monitored to ensure that discharging is actually taking place in order to
avoid overflow.

If a tank is filled to a level of 98% or more the ullage level to be continuously monitored until cargo level is
below 98% and tank overfill alarm is reset.
8.3.15 CLEARING AND BLOWING OF LINES
The use of compressed air for blowing lines containing low flash cargoes or those which react with oxygen
shall be avoided. In these instances the blowing of lines must be carried out by using Nitrogen.

In addition to the item listed, a Cargo Operation Check-List is to be completed

And verfied in the log book.

CARGO OPERATION
Before any cargo operations commence, the Duty Officer shall check the following.
(Ref. CFR 33§ 157.435)
1 The mooring lines are tight and rat screen rigged if applicable

2 Towing - Off wires rigged

3 All scuppers are plugged

4 Oil pollution prevention equipment is ready for use

5 Drains on cargo piping are closed

6 Safety-plan/warn.sign/life buoy w/line is placed at the gangway and net properly rigged.

7 Stowage plan and cargo information are posted/available

8 Day/Night signals are according to regulations

9 All drip containment’s are empty and drainvalves/plugs are closed

10 Safety Check-list - Ship/Shore - Ship/Barge is filled in

11 The Ship/Shore - Ship/Barge communication is working as intended

12 All connections not in use are blanked off and fully bolted

13 Shore/Ship connections are made in accordance with planned operation

14 Necessary safety equipment is ready for use

15 Local port regulation is posted when/where applicable

16 All exit doors are closed

17 Cargo valves function tested.

18 PV valves tested/properly set. PV lines and/or vent. piping inspected.

19 Vapour return lines is connected and valves properly set.

20 Flame screens are placed in all open tank lids if applicable

21 All tank opening not in use are closed

22 Portable/Fixed fire-fighting equipment ready for use

23 Emergency shower pressurised

24 95%-98% High Level alarms activated.

25 Inert gas system with lines tested. If applicable.

Port/Date Signature
To be entered in the log book and signed by the Duty Officer.

8.3.16 THE WAY OF LOADING

The most common way to load a product is via a cargo hose connected from the terminal/barge’s manifold
to the ship’s manifold. If the vessel are equipped with segregated lines and deepwell pumps for all tanks
and if a drop-line is present, the loading normally goes through both the drop-line and the cargo pump.
When loading Veg Oils it’s common in many ports to "load over the top". This means that one or several
hoses are put directly into the tank via the main hatch or tank cleaning hatches. Loading over the top can,
off course, only be done with non-flammable, none poisonous and non-corrosive products. However, this
way of loading happens very seldom and as mentioned it’s mostly Veg Oils this way of loading applies to.
On older vessels, sometimes the cargo lines/pumps are not segregated. This means that the same cargo
lines and pumps are used for several cargo tanks and products. Needles to say this means that the line
used must be cleaned after each different product before loading the next.
However, most chemical tankers today are equipped with segregated lines and pumps.

8.3.17 TANK ATMOSPHERE

In some cases when carrying moisture sensitive and or flammable cargoes the product require an inert
atmosphere in the tank prior loading. As we know when oxygen content is below 8% of volume, there is
not enough O2 to get an explosion, but the shipper’s often demands a much lower O2 content even on
only flammable cargoes.
Note : If a chemical tanker has a single tank of 3000 m³ or more this tank must be inerted if carrying
a flammable product (Flash Point < 60° C).
Some products are very sensitive to moisture, some even reacts with water and in this cases the O2
content must be much lower. In some cases we are talking ppm`s of oxygen content.
Isocyanates (TDI, MDI, PAPI) reacts violently with water and the tanks for these cargoes must be purged
down to a minimum huminity. When purging, it’s very important that all pipes, drains, tank cleaning
machines and other spaces which will be in contact with these cargoes also get blown with nitrogen.
Other cargoes may only require a "Nitrogen Blanket". This is normally done by connecting a nitrogen hose
to the manifold after the cargo hose is disconnected and nitrogen is then being injected through the cargo
lines and into the tank. On completion, the space between the cargo and the deck (ullage space) will have
a low oxygen content. In some cases the shipper only demands overpressure and other cases a given N2
content is to apply. It’s a good idea to do the cargo calculation prior to this operation as nitrogen bubbles
will occur in the cargo and the ullage may be incorrect.
Blanketing (Padding) or blowing shore line/hose, with nitrogen or compressed air is as critical operation
which demands full attention from the ship’s crew. There has been many accidents during padding.
There must be one man on the ship’s manifold, operating the manifold valve in order to avoid to
much pressure raise in the tank.
The shore installation normally opens up full on the terminal so the responsibility on controlling
the pressure lays on the vessel. Serious structural damage and overflow can be caused by the
creation of pressure tanks during this operations. The Duty Officer shall control that PV-valves are
working properly before commencing.
If the cargo is listed with "Open Gauging" in IBC/BCH and the terminal allows, a BW hatch should
be lying unsecured on top of it’s frame during blanketing. However, more and more terminals now
demands closed loading, so this must be verified before commencement.
Some products, i.e. Propylene Oxide requires special attention. The surrounding space/tanks shall in
addition to the cargo tank, be inerted. Such requirements are mentioned in IBC/BCH and for Propylene
Oxide there is also an own ship specific manual for handling procedures located on board.

8.3.18 CARGO SAMPLING

The volume and frequency of samples taken depend on the degree of purity of the product, sensitivity and
requirements from the cargo owner/terminals/charterer. Following samples should, if possible/permitted
and deemed necessary, always be drawn.

Sample of ships manifold before product allowed entering ships lines.

Sample of 1.st. foot of cargo in the tank
Sample of cargo in the tank after completion of loading
Sample of cargo in tank before discharging

The cargo samples are being taken in order to insure the owners interests in case of a claims occurs on a
cargo. I.E. when arriving discharging port, surveyors for cargo receivers will attend the vessel to draw
samples from their cargo. The samples are then being analysed in a laboratory and compared to
specifications given or samples from shore tank in loading port. If the samples drawn from the ship’s tanks
are out of specifications, the owners will receive a claim of financial compensation, some times on a huge
amount of money. If the vessel have their own samples they can be used as proof that the cargo was off
spec before the cargo entered the vessel’s tanks or if the cargo went off spec during the voyage. Needless
to say, it’s outmost important to get a manifold sample prior to fill any line or tank on board at loading port.
When sampling, a surveyor should be present and seal the vessel’s own samples.
Not many surveyors do this any more, but in order to secure samples to be used as evidence, the
surveyor’s seal is important.
Most of the sampling is done "open" via a BW hatch, but closed sampling devices should be present on
board and ready for use. Vessels not having this devices will not be approved for carrying cargoes for
some of the major companies, i.e. Exxon.
The stowage of the vessel’s own cargo samples should be done in a dedicated, marked Sample Locker.
This locker must be protected by a fixed fire fighting system, i.e. sprinkler system. When "stowing" the
samples in the sample locker, USCG compatibility rules is to apply. The storage time for the samples may
vary from one company to another, if no claim has been received on a cargo, normally 14 months is
sufficient. The disposal of cargo samples should be done in accordance with Marpol Annex II. Many of the
big surveyor companies accept samples for disposal, so the best thing to do is to arrange this through the
ship’s agent.
Proper Safety equipment is always to be used when sampling.

If a cargo prior to loading is deviating significantly from normal quality or procedural standards, the cargo
should never be accepted without notifying and obtaining accept from Vessel’s Company at Group
Management or higher.
The manager of Safety/Quality & Insurance should always be contacted if a cargo is outside normal
specifications and/or a claim is expected.

8.3.19 VAPOR CONTROL

All cargoes having hazardous/toxic vapors should be vented through the ship’s venting system(IBC/BCH),
but more and more terminals and local authorities require the vessel to operate in "closed condition" even
if though it’s not required by IBC/BCH. When operating in this condition, all openings to the tank are to be
closed and the cargo vapours will only pass through the vent lines and P/V valves. It is of outmost
importance that the pressure in the tank is monitored continuously and that the P/V valves are in good
condition. In some cases if vessel’s don’t complies with this, they have been rejected by oil companies
such as BP.

Local authorities and terminals may also require a Vapor Return operation. This means that the vapors will
be led back to shore/ship during loading/discharging.
In order to comply with this the vessel must be equipped with dedicated vapor return lines. IBC/BCH states
on some cargoes under special requirements that vessel should be equipped with such lines, but it’s up to
the local authorities/terminals if vapor return should be used. There shall be a ship specific, class approved
manual on board which describes the system with limitations, such as pressure drop, max loading rate,
line diagram, P/V valves specifications and so on, which applies both for normal closed operation and
vapor return operation.

8.3.20 WHEN COMPLETED LOADING & LINEBLOWING

After loading and prior to discharging all cargo tanks to be gauged, temperature and times noted and
recorded in presence of representatives for the cargo owner and/or terminal, recorded in the vessels log-
book and preferable attested with cargo surveyors signature on certificates/calculations.
Also, all hatches valves etc. should be secured and inspected for tightness by the duty officer. This
inspection should also be recorded in the deck logbook.

8.4 CARGO MEASUREMENT AND CALCULATION

The codes (IBC/BCH), together with Certificate of Fitness lines up restrictions for cargo stowage. For a
cargo which require a type 1 ship, the maximum quantity loaded in one tank must not exceed 1250 m³. For
a cargo which require type 2 ship, the maximum quantity loaded in one tank must not exceed 3000 m³.
The IBC/BCH code has special requirements regarding filling limits for cargoes with a vapor pressure
greater than 1,013 bar absolute at 37,8° C. (IBC Chapt 15 para 14)
As mentioned previously when planning the amount of cargo in a tank, we must take into consideration
expansion of the cargo during the voyage and calculate with the highest temperature the cargo will reach.
All chemical products have a correction factor, which describes how much the cargo expands pr. degree.
This can be given as a correction factor for the Liter weight or for the Volume. For most petroleum
products, the petroleum tables are being used.
When measuring the quantity in a cargo tank, the most common way to do this is to measure the "Ullage".
The ullage is the space between the cargo and under deck. This distance is measured in meters and it’s
this value we look up in the ullage tables to determine the volume in the tank. To get the correct volume
we must also correct for trim and list as applicable.
Other methods of determine the quantities are gauging the sounding. The sounding is the height of the
cargo applied in sounding tables in the same way as with the ullage.
When loading bigger parcels, a draft survey may also be used to determine the amount of cargo on board.
However, on chemical tankers it’s most common to use the ullage for cargo calculations.
Almost all countries now adhere to and use the SI System to determine the weight on board. In USA, there
are, however still surveyors who only uses American units with pounds & gallons.
As mentioned, a ullage or sounding has to be taken and entered in the vessel’s tables in order to
determine how much volume of cargo there is in a tank.
To calculate the volume into weight, there are some more data we need to know.
The weight of the cargo pr. unit volume at a reference temperature and the corrections for these.
There are three common weight units which are being used (SI System):

Specific Gravity : This is the weight of one liter of the product compared to one liter of water at a
given reference temperature in vacuum i.e. Sg 0.985 kg/liter at 20/20 means
that the product weighs 0.985 kilogram pr. liter at 20° C compared to the weight
of 1 liter water measured at 20° C in vacuum.

Density : This is the weight of one liter of the product in vacuum. Given at a reference
temperature. (Kg/Liter at xx°)

Literweight : This is the weight of one liter of the product in air. Given at a reference
temperature. (Kg/Liter at xx°)

The most common weight to use is Liter weight (LW) since this is the weight in air and it’s also in air the
cargoes are being carried. Not all cargo surveyors are aware of the differences of these weight units so it’s
very important to get it clearly stated if the weight is in vacuum or air in order to avoid wrong calculations.
Expressions as "Specific Gravity in Air" and "Density in Air" are common to hear, especially in USA.

To correct the weight from vacuum to air the following may be used :

Specific Gravity To Density

Water’s temperature ° C Factor

• 4° C Multiply by 1,00000
• 15° C Multiply by 0,99913
• 15,5 ° C Multiply by 0,99905
• 15,6° C (60 F) Multiply by 0,99903
• 20° C Multiply by 0,99823
• 25° C Multiply by 0,99707

Density to Litreweight

Density up to 1,2 : - (minus) 0,0011

Density above 1,2 : - 0,0010

Ekample :
Sp.Gr. v/ 25/25° C = 0,9830. What is LW ?

0,983 x 0,99707 = 0,9801

Minus 0,0011
LW v/ 25 C 0,9790
Sp.Gr. v/ 15/4° C = 0,9830. What is LW ?

0.9830 x 1,000 = 0,9830

Minus 0,0011
LW v/ 15° C 0,9819
From Pounds pr Gallon (Lbs/gal) til LW :
Divide with 8,34523.

Temperature Corrections on LW and Volume.

There are two main ways to correct for temperature in cargo calculations.
We can correct the LW for the difference between reference temperature and actual temperature or we
can correct the volume from actual volume to volume at reference temperature.
The most common is the LW correction. A given LW correction factor is then to apply. This factor tells us
how much the LW changes pr. ° temperature difference and is used directly on the LW.
Example : LW 0,985 at 15° C. Correction factor is 0,0007 kg pr. ° C difference.
What is the LW at 32° C ?
Temperature raise : New LW-Ref. LW = 32° - 15° = 17°
LW difference : LW diff. x Corr fact.=17° x 0,0007 kg/° = 0,0119 kg
LW at 32° : Ref. LW-LW diff.=0,985 kg/l – 0,0119 = 0,9731 kg/l

If a volume of 1250 m³ was found and the temperature was 32°, the weight would then be : 1250 m³ x
0,9731 kg/l = 1216,375 Metric Tonnes (Mt)

Higher temperature – Lower Literweight

Lower temperature – Higher Literweight

Volume correction factor :

This is also a common way to calculate cargo. By using this method the volume is corrected to the
reference temperature and multiplied with the LW. A sheet with the volume correction factors is normally
supplied by the surveyors in the loading port.
With petroleum products it’s also common to use the API-IP-ASTM tables for calculation.

8.5 CARGO CONDITIONING DURING TRANSPORT

The Chief Officer is responsible for the safe handling and monitoring of cargo during the voyage.
The following items have to be observed.

• Heated/cooled cargoes.
• Cargoes requiring nitrogen blanket.
• Inhibited cargoes.
• Corrosive cargoes.
• Purging of cargo pumps
• Heated/cooled Cargoes.

If any cargoes require heating/cooling during the voyage, a written heating/cooling instruction is normally
received from shippers at the load port.

Unless otherwise stated, temperature and pressure of cargo tanks shall be checked and recorded at least
daily.

8.5.1 CARGOES REQUIRING NITROGEN BLANKET

If nitrogen blanket is required during the voyage, pressure of the cargo tank should be checked and
recorded at least three times a day unless otherwise stated in the voyage instructions for the cargo.

Special attention must be paid in the following circumstances:

1. Decrease in air/sea temperature.
2. If an adjacent tank containing heated cargo has been discharged.
3. If an adjacent tank has been washed with hot water.
4. In heavy weather with the risk that the P/V valve may work.

8.5.2 INHIBITED CARGOES

When carrying inhibited cargoes, temperature and pressure should be checked and recorded daily.

8.5.3 CORROSIVE CARGOES

When carrying corrosive cargoes, adjacent spaces shall be controlled daily if weather permits.

In heavy weather, speed reduction and alteration of course shall be considered if necessary to carry out
such inspections.

On leaving load port, a plan shall be made for such inspections to ascertain that all relevant part of the
vessel is covered.
8.5.4 PURGING OF CARGO PUMPS
Purging of cargo pumps to be performed according to maker’s instructions.

8.5.5 HATCHES
Re-check and re-tight all cargo tank hatches 1-2 days after commencement of the sea voyage and prior to
bad weather condition.
Re-check all lines, including vapour/inert gas lines, leading into the cargo tanks to ensure that all drain
chocks are in correct position, and that all blind flanges are fitted on manifold.
All re-checks to be recorded in deck log book.

8.5.6 ADJACENT SPACES, DOUBLE BOTTOM AND COFFERDAMS

During sea voyage all adjacent spaces such as double bottom cofferdams and empty cargo tanks to be
regularly checked for cargo leakage. All checks to be entered in the deck log book.

8.6 DISCHARGING PLAN AND PROCEDURES

Discharging is a critical operation and must be well planned. The required "pre-arrival" meeting should be
held and necessary check-lists should be filled out in the same way as for loading. The preparations for
the discharging are similar to the ones for loading, but there are some extra precautions, which needs to
be taken.
A ballast plan must be prepared and followed in order to keep the trim and list within acceptable limits. The
vessel’s stress must also be taken into consideration when planning the discharge.
During discharging, the most common error that’s done is over-pumping. In order to avoid this note the
following :
When discharging one grade from two or more tanks simultaneously through a common shore
connection, each tank level shall be closely monitored to ensure that discharging is actually
taking place in order to avoid overflow.
If a tank is filled to a level of 98% or more the ullage level to be continuously monitored until cargo
level is below 98% and tank overfill alarm is reset.

The use of compressed air for blowing lines containing low flash cargoes or those, which react
with oxygen, shall be avoided. In these instances the blowing of lines must be carried out by using
Nitrogen.

8.7 UNLOADING, STRIPPING AND PREWASH OPERATION WITH NLS

A principle of Annex II is that cargoes should be unloaded (removed from the tanks/piping systems) to the
maximum possible extent before being mixed with water which subsequently will be discharged into the
sea. For the most harmful substances, for substances difficult to unload and for certain areas, this is
obtained by requiring a prewash with delivery of the prewashing water to a shore reception facility. For
less harmful substances satisfactory stripping is obtained by complying with specific stripping capability
requirements.
The purpose of the required prewash is thus to reduce the amount of cargo remaining in the tank and
piping system by flushing mainly the tank bottom, the sump, the pump and the pipelines with the
prewashing water. The prewash does not aim at cleaning the tank for ballasting or loading purposes.
To reduce the volume of "problem waste" delivered to the reception facility, care should be taken not to
use excessive amounts of water for the prewash.

When prewashing after carriage of a category A substance, the prewash should continue until the
concentration of cargo in the washing water pumped out is below 0.1 % by weight outside special areas,
and 0.05% by weight inside special areas as given in Regulation 5(1) and (7), and until the tank is empty.
The measurement of the concentration should be accepted by a Government (Port) Surveyor who should
also endorse the Cargo Record Book as required by Regulation 8 (3).
The below given prewash procedures should be applied after unloading of category A substances only in
situations when the Government Surveyor in accordance with Regulation 8 (4) has found it impracticable
to carry out concentration measurements.

8.7.1 SOLIDIFYING OR HIGH VISCOSITY SUBSTANCE

The properties of the substance should be obtained from the shipping document.
The definitions of solidifying/non-solidifying and high/low viscosity substances are given below.
"Solidifying substance" means a noxious liquid substance which:
1) in the case of substances with melting points less than 15°C, is at a temperature, at the time of
unloading, of less than 5°C above its melting point, or
2) in the case of substances with melting points equal to or greater than 15°C, is at a temperature, at
the time of unloading, of less than 10°C above its melting point.

"Non-solidifying substance" means a noxious liquid substance which is not a solidifying substance.

"High viscosity substance" means:

1) in the case of category A and B substances and in the case of category C substances within
Special Area, a substance with a viscosity equal to or greater than 25 mPa.s at the unloading
temperature, and
2) in the case of category C substances outside Special Area, a substance with a viscosity equal to
or greater than 60 mPa.s at the unloading temperature.

"Low viscosity substance" means a noxious liquid substance which is not a high viscosity substance.

Reception facilities are required to be available for all potentially high viscosity or potentially solidifying
category B and C substances in all ports where these substances are unloaded.

Potentially Solidifying are those substances with a melting point equal to or greater than 0°C.

Potentially High Viscosity are those substances with a viscosity at 20°C equal to or greater than:

25 mPa.s in case of category B substances unloaded outside a Special Area

60 mPa.s in case of category C substances unloaded outside a Special Area

25 mPa.s in case of category C substances unloaded within a Special Area

No requirements can based on Annex II be put on a ship to heat a cargo sufficiently to make it a non-
solidifying or low viscosity substance for the purpose of relieving the port from its obligation to provide
adequate reception facilities for potentially high viscosity or potentially solidifying category B and C
substances.
Nevertheless such substances should, as far as reasonable and practicable, preferably be unloaded in low
viscosity/non-solidifying condition.

Category A. Within and Outside Special Area

In all cases the cargo tanks should be prewashed as specified in the P & A manual, and all prewashing
water should be discharged to reception facilities prior to departure from the unloading port.
The cargo Record Book should be endorsed by a Government Surveyor on completion.

Any water subsequently added to the tank may be discharged through the underwater outlet without
pumping rate limitations when the vessel is proceeding at 7 knots or more, is more than 12 miles off land
and is in a water depth of 25 meters or more.

Any cargo tank which has been washed to commercial requirements to accept loading of a different cargo,
will normally be considered as clean.
Ballast water carried in such tanks will normally also be considered as clean, and may be discharged to
sea without any restrictions imposed by Annex II.

Category B. Outside a Special Area

Discharge of solidifying or high viscosity category B residues is not permitted.
With such substances a prewash, as specified in the P & A manual, is necessary.
All prewashing water should be discharged to reception facilities prior to departure from the unloading port.
Any water subsequently added to the tank may be discharged as specified below.

Other category B tank washings may be discharged to the sea through the underwater outlet at a
maximum rate of 200 m3/h when the vessel is proceeding at 7 knots or more, is more than 12 miles off
land and is in a water depth of 25 meters or more.

The following additional may be discharged into the sea without regard to the discharge rate, ship's speed
and discharge outlet position provided the ship is not less than 12 miles off land, and in water that is not
less than 25 metres deep.
Cargo residues and any washing/ballast water from a tank unloaded and stripped in accordance with the P
& A manual after carriage of low viscosity or non-solidifying substances. This also includes cargo residues
and prewashing water retained on board after unloading such tanks within a Special Area.

Any washing/ballast water from a tank prewashed in accordance with P & A manual after carriage of a
high viscosity or solidifying substance.

Category B. Within a Special Area

Discharge of category B residues to the sea is not permitted.
With such substances a prewash, as specified in the P & A manual, is necessary.

Notwithstanding the above, non solidifying or low viscosity category B substance residues/prewashing
water may be retained on board for discharge outside a special area.

Other category B tank washings may be discharged to the sea through the underwater outlet at a
maximum rate of 200 m3/h when the vessel is proceeding at 7 knots or more, is more than 12 miles off
land and is in a water depth of 25 meters or more.

When a required prewash has been carried out, any water subsequently added to the tank may be
discharged into the sea through the underwater outlet at a maximum rate of 200 m3/h when the vessel is
proceeding at 7 knots or more, is more than 12 miles off land and is in a water depth of 25 metres or more.

If a tank which has been satisfactorily prewashed and afterwards washed with a water quantity as
indicated in P & A manual, any water subsequently added to the tank may be discharged into the sea
without regard to the discharge rate, ship's speed and discharge outlet position provided the ship is not
less than 12 miles off land, and in water that is not less than 25 metres deep.

Discharges from clean cargo tanks may be carried out without any restrictions imposed by Annex II.

Category C. Outside a Special Area

Discharge of solidifying or high viscosity category C residues is not permitted.

With such substances a prewash, as specified in the P & A manual, is necessary.

Other category C tank washings may be discharged to the sea through the underwater outlet at a
maximum rate of 200 m3/h when the vessel is proceeding at 7 knots or more, is more than 12 miles off
land and is in a water depth of 25 meters or more.

The following additional may be discharged into the sea without regard to the discharge rate, ship's speed
and discharge outlet position provided the ship is not less than 12 miles off land, and in water that is not
less than 25 metres deep.

Cargo residues and any washing-/ballast water from a tank unloaded and stripped in accordance with P &
A manual after carriage of low viscosity non-solidifying substances.

Cargo residues and prewashing water retained onboard from a tank unloaded and stripped within a special
area and in accordance with P & A manual after carriage of a substance which was considered a high
viscosity substance due to being unloaded within the special area (i.e. viscosity between 25mPa·s.and 60
mPa·s.at the unloading temperature).

Any subsequent washing-/ballast water from a tank prewashed in accordance with P & A manual after
carriage of a high viscosity or solidifying substance.

Category C. Within a Special Area

Discharge of solidifying or high viscosity category C residues is not permitted.
With such substances a prewash, as specified in the P & A manual, is necessary.

Notwithstanding the above, non-solidifying category C substances residues/prewashing water originating

from a cargo having been unloaded within the special Area with viscosity between 25 and 60 mPa·s may
be retained on board for discharge to the sea outside the special Area as a low viscosity substance.

Other category C tank washings may be discharged to the sea through the underwater outlet at a
3
maximum rate of 200 m /h when the vessel is proceeding at 7 knots or more, is more than 12 miles off
land and is in a water depth of 25 meters or more.
The following additional may be discharged into the sea without regard to the discharge rate, ship's speed
and discharge outlet position provided the ship is not less than 12 miles off land, and in water that is not
less than 25 metres deep.

Cargo residues and any washing-/ballast water from a tank unloaded and stripped in accordance with P &
A manual after carriage of low viscosity non-solidifying substances.

Category D. Within and Outside a Special Area

Discharge of category D substances to the sea is permissible if the residues are diluted by ten times their
volume of water.
The vessel should be more than 12 miles off land and proceeding at a speed of 7 knots or more. The
discharge need not take place below the waterline.

Alternatively category D tank washings may be discharge to sea as specified for the other categories.

8.7.2 PREWASH PROCEDURE FOR NON-SOLIDIFYING SUBSTANCES WITHOUT RECYCLING

1) Tanks should be prewashed using the vessel’s washing machines and ensure that all tank
surfaces are being washed.
2) During washing the amount of water accumulating in the tank should be minimized by pumping
out slops continuously and promoting flow to the suction point (positive list and trim).
If this condition cannot be met, the washing procedure should be repeated three times, with
thorough stripping of the tank between washings.
If delivery of the washing water to the reception facility cannot take place directly during the
prewashing, another empty and suitable cargo tank may be used as a temporary slop tank.
3) Those substances which have a viscosity equal to or greater than 25 mPa.s at 20°C should be
washed with hot water (temperature at least 60°C), unless the properties of such substances
make the washing less effective.
(The viscosity for these substances are required to be stated in the shipping document).
4) During the prewash the drop-lines should be flushed.
5) The quantities of wash water, and the duration of the washing program used should not be less
than those specified in the P & A manual.

6) After prewashing the tanks and lines should be thoroughly stripped.

3. Prewash Procedure for Solidifying Substances without recycling
1) Tanks should be washed as soon as possible after unloading. If possible, tanks should be heated
prior to washing.
2) Residues in hatches and manholes should preferably be removed prior to the prewash.
3) Tanks should be prewashed using the vessel’s washing machines and ensure that all tank
surfaces are being washed.
4) During washing the amount of liquid in the tank should be minimized by pumping out slops
continuously and promoting flow to the suction point. If this condition cannot be met, the washing
procedure should be repeated 3 times with thorough stripping of the tank between washings.
5) Tanks should be washed with hot water (temperature at least 60°C), unless the properties of such
substances make the washing less effective.
6) During the prewash, drop-lines should be flushed.
7) The quantities of wash water, and the duration of the washing program used should not be less
than those specified in the P & A manual.
8) After prewashing the tanks and lines should be thoroughly stripped.
4. Prewash Procedure with recycling of washing medium
1) Washing with a recycled washing medium may be adopted for the purpose of washing more than
one cargo tank. In determining the quantity, due regard must be given to the expected amount of
residues in the tanks and the properties of the washing medium and whether any initial rinse or
flushing is employed. Unless sufficient data are provided, the calculated end concentration of
cargo residues in the washing medium should not exceed 5% based on the stripping test results
given in the P & A manual.
2) The recycled washing medium should only be used for washing tanks having contained the same
or similar substance.
3) A quantity of washing medium sufficient to allow continuous washing should be added to the tank
or tanks to be washed.
4) Tanks should be prewashed using the vessel’s washing machines and ensure that all tank
surfaces are being washed.
5) The quantities of wash water, and the duration of the washing programme used should not be
less than those specified in P & A manual.
6) Solidifying substances and substances with viscosity equal to or greater than 25 mPa.s at 20°C
should be washed with hot water (temperature at least 60°C) when water is used as the washing
medium, unless the properties of such substances make the washing less effective.
7) During the prewash the drop-lines should be flushed.
8) After completing the tank washing with recycling to the extent specified above, the washing
medium should be discharged and the tank thoroughly stripped. Thereafter, the tank should be
subjected to a rinse, using clean washing medium, with continuous drainage and discharge. The
rinse should as a minimum cover the tank bottom and be sufficient to flush the pipelines and
3
pump. For category B and C substances minimum 1,0 m of clean washing medium should be
3
used for each tank. For category A minimum 3,0 m should be used for each tank.
5. Minimum quantity of water to be used in a prewash

The minimum quantity of water to be used in a prewash is determined by the residual quantity of noxious
liquid substance in the tank, the tank size, the cargo properties, the permitted concentration in any
subsequent wash water effluent, and the area of operation. The minimum quantity is given in table on
page 5. The indicated water quantity in column "Prewash quantity" refers to a K-factor=1,0 .For
substances and areas calling for other K-factors, multiply water quantity and prewash duration time with K-
factor as indicated below.

These factors are ship specific, but they are available in the vessel’s P & A manual.

Example :

Category A, non-solidifying, low-viscosity substance, outside special areas, K-factor=1,0

Category A, non-solidifying, low-viscosity substance, inside special areas, K-factor=1,2

Category A, solidifying or high-viscosity substance, outside special areas, K-factor=2,0

Category A, solidifying or high-viscosity substance, inside special areas, K-factor=2,4

Category B and C, non-solidifying, low-viscosity substance, K-factor=0,5

Category B and C, solidifying or high-viscosity substance, K-factor=1,0

Note :Multiply minimum prewash duration with the relevant K-factor

8.8 BALLASTING AND DEBALLASTING

8.8.1 STABILITY CONSIDERATIONS

Single hull chemical tankers usually have such a high metacentric height in all conditions of loading and
ballasting that they can be considered as being inherently stable. Whilst tanker personnel have always
had to take account of longitudinal bending moments and vertical shear forces, the actual stability of the
ship has seldom been a prime concern. However the introduction of double hulls into tanker design is likely
to change that situation.

The main problem likely to be encountered is the effect on the transverse metacentric height of liquid free
surface in the cargo and double bottom tanks.

Depending upon the design, type and number of these tanks, the free surface effect could result in the
transverse metacentric height being significantly reduced. The situation will be most severe in the case of
wide cargo tanks with no centerline bulkhead and the so called "U" ballast tanks which have no centerline
bulkhead.

The most critical stages of any operation will be whilst filling the double bottom ballast tanks during
discharge of cargo, and emptying the tanks during loading of cargo. If sufficient cargo tanks and double
bottom tanks are slack simultaneously, the overall free surface effect could well be sufficient to reduce the
transverse metacentric height to a point at which the transverse stability of the ship may be threatened.
This could result in the ship suddenly developing a severe list. Large free surface area is especially likely
to threaten stability at greater soundings (innages) with associated high vertical centre of gravity.
It is imperative that tanker and terminal personnel involved in cargo and ballast operations are aware of
this potential problem, and that all cargo and ballast operations are conducted strictly in accordance with
the ship's loading manual.

Where they are fitted, interlock devices to prevent too many cargo and ballast tanks from being operated
simultaneously, thereby causing an excessive free surface effect, should always be maintained in full
operational order, and should never be over-ridden.

Ships which operate with limited metacentric height should be equipped with a loading computer which
calculates metacentric height.

It is imperative that masters and officers be aware that partially loading a cargo tank with heavy weather
ballast may present a potential problem. The combination of free surface and the flat tank bottom can
result in the generation of wave energy of sufficient power to severely damage internal structure and
pipelines.

8.8.2 ROUTINE MONITORING OF DOUBLE HULL SPACES

Double hull spaces should be regularly monitored in order to check the integrity of the inner shell plating.
This can be accomplished by monitoring the ballast tank atmosphere for hydrocarbon gas, and by regular
sounding/ullaging of ballast tanks. The sampling referred to in this section is for leak detection purposes
only, and should not be used as the criteria for tank entry.

The atmosphere in each double hull tank and double bottom tank should be monitored for hydrocarbon
content:

ƒ Regularly during the loaded passage.

ƒ Prior to ballasting the tank following a period of heavy weather.

ƒ After any unusual event or occurrence e.g. unexpected lists, unforeseen operational problems.

The atmosphere monitoring program should ensure that each tank is monitored at least once per week
during the loaded passage. However, where ships are engaged on short haul voyages, which make this
impractical, visual inspection of the tanks, or the ballast water is considered to be a suitable alternative
measure.

The hydrocarbon measurements should be taken with a portable gas detector at designated sampling
points using installed fixed lines or a portable sampling hose, or with a fixed gas detection system where
one is installed.

Where fixed gas detection systems are installed, operators should develop procedures to ensure that tank
atmospheres are monitored on a regular basis. They should ensure that full operating, maintenance and
fault detection instructions are readily available to ship's personnel, and that they are familiar with the use
of the equipment.

Information as to the point of origin of each fixed sampling line should be readily available to ship's
personnel.

Procedures should be developed for the regular clearing of all fixed sampling lines.

The ship should be provided with information relating to any restrictions on lowering a sampling hose into
the tank which might be imposed as a result of normal operating trim or list.

During the loaded passage, ballast tanks should be sounded on a frequent and regular basis as a back up
method of detecting any oil leakage into them.

After ballasting, tanks should be checked visually to ascertain if any oil is present. A similar procedure
should be carried out prior to discharge of ballast.

During the ballast voyage, the ullage of each ballast tank should be checked at frequent and regular
intervals. Consideration should also be given to the feasibility of routine monitoring to detect water ingress
to the cargo tanks.
8.8.3 TANK ENTRY PROCEDURES FOR DOUBLE HULL SPACES
All tank entry must be strictly controlled, and it is strongly recommended that this control is exercised in
accordance with the Company’s Tank Entry Permit procedures. It must however be appreciated that the
compartmentalized structure in double hull and double bottom tanks makes them more difficult to gas free
than conventional tanks and particular care should be taken to monitor the tank atmosphere.

Although entry into double hull or double bottom tanks should be kept to a minimum, tank entry will on
occasion be required for such purposes as tank inspections and maintenance of ballast tank systems,
gauging systems etc. In such cases, the recommendations in this section should be strictly enforced.

Measurements of hydrocarbon, oxygen and toxic gas (as appropriate) must be taken at every sampling
point.

The tank must be kept continuously ventilated throughout the period that people are inside it and during
any breaks in the entry. If the ventilation is suspended for any significant period, the atmosphere must be
re-verified as above and a new entry permit issued.

Once the tank atmosphere meets the entry criteria at each sampling point, actual entry by personnel
should be undertaken in two stages. The first stage should be for the purpose of atmosphere verification
and a general safety review.

In addition to the problems associated with gas freeing, the design and structure may add additional
hazards to the entry process and therefore the following additional precautions should be considered
during the initial entry. A strict radio reporting procedure should be established between those entering the
tank and a monitor on deck.

One person should be assigned responsibility for atmosphere monitoring and communications. Personnel
making the entry should be equipped with an emergency escape breathing set, a personal gas detector
capable of monitoring at least hydrocarbon and oxygen, a portable radio, an emergency light source, a
retrieval harness and an alternative means of attracting attention, e.g. a whistle.

Only after this initial stage has verified that the atmosphere throughout the tanks is safe for the intended
task should entry for other purposes be permitted.
In order for people entering the tank to ascertain their position within the tank, and to facilitate position
reporting, each tank bay should be identified by a simple number and/or letter system. This should be
clearly marked in each bay and maintained in a visible condition throughout the life of the ship.

The tank entry route and the extent of penetration should be planned in advance. Any deviation from this
plan should be agreed in advance with the person monitoring those inside the tank.

Consideration should be given to the laying out of hand lines to provide both an easy identification of the
exit route and an aid to any rescue team.
 9. TANK-CLEANING OPERATIONS

9.1 GENERAL
The Chief Officer is responsible for the tank cleaning operation. He shall both before and during
the operation check that all necessary equipment is in good working condition. All stages of the
operation must be done in a safe manner, according to each individual chemical’s physical and
chemical character such as flammability, corrosiveness, poisonousness and reactivity.

9.1.1 PRE CLEANING CONFERENCE.

A pre-cleaning conference under the leadership of the Chief Officer shall be held prior to any
cleaning operation. Number of other crewmembers involved in the conference will be those
appointed by the Chief Officer.
The conference shall clarify that all persons involved fully understand their duties during the
tank cleaning operation.

The conference shall state:

1) Which tank to be cleaned
2) What type of cargo to be cleaned from
3) Major risks involved during the cleaning, such as poisonousness flammability,
corrosiveness, reactivity, and use of safety equipment during connection/disconnection
on cargo manifold.
4) Cleaning instructions to be followed
5) Where to dispose the cleaning water
6) Intervals for measurement of explosive/poisonous gas in cargo deck area during tank
washing/gasfreeing.

9.2 TANK-CLEANING PROCEDURES AND DISPOSAL OF SLOPS

Cleaning Procedure

Prior to any tank washing operation the following shall be closely inspected by chief officer or
other person appointed.
a) Tank to be washed is empty
b) Tank cleaning hoses are correctly rigged and connected
c) Discharge hoses are correctly rigged and connected
d) Assigned slop tank is available

A tank cleaning check list is to be filled in and signed by the Chief Officer or

responsible person appointed by Chief Officer.

9.2.1 TANK CLEANING CHECK LIST

Tank Cleaning Schedule/Check-list

Tank Last Slop Over Cold Hot Intervals of Gas Result

No. Cargo Tank board W W measurement
No. in deck area (if
applicable)
 Date Chief Officer

Prior to any tank washing operation, the following shall be closely inspected/checked by
the chief officer or a responsible person appointed by the chief officer:

1 Check that the tank(s) are empty

2 Check that the tank cleaning hoses are correctly rigged and connected

3 Check that the discharge hoses are correctly rigged and connected

4 Check that the assigned slop tank is available.

Rank/Name:

Date Responsible person Signature

To be kept in file for 6 mnts.

In addition, the following is applicable during tank cleaning:

a) Necessary permits obtained from the authorities/installation when applicable when

applicable.

b) The ship’s main fire fighting systems is ready for immediate use.

c) Self-contained breathing equipment ready for use ready for use.

d) Eyewash and emergency shower under water pressure.

e) Safety equipment/protective clothing to be used when necessary.

f) Measurement of explosive/poisonous gas in cargo deck area including deck lockers,

forecastle space and pump rooms. Records to be kept.
Ref. Deck Cargo operation check list

Tank cleaning operations by means of spraying products with low flash products (below
60° C) should be avoided, unless the tank atmosphere is inerted.
If spraying with solvent is found necessary, it may be performend from hatch openings by use of
Non flammable products such as Perchloroethylene, Methylene Cloride or Trichloroethylene.

9.2.2 CLEANING PHASES :

Prewash : For the most harmful substances, for substances difficult to unload and
for certain areas, a prewash with delivery of the prewashing water to a
shore reception facility is required. This is simply done by cleaning the
tank and pumping simultaneously to a shore reception station.
Procedures, water consumption and all other necessary information to
perform a prewash is specified in the P & A manual. Some products,
which react violently with water, are round washed with a compatible
solvent and then pumped to reception facility. This solvent is normally
delivered from a shore-based company and it’s very important to get a
sealed sample of this solvent for retainment on board. The reason for
this is that in some cases the solvent has contained water and this has
caused damage to the cargo tank.

Main Wash : This wash is done after the prewash and by normally cold and hot
seawater. After difficult cargoes such as vegoils, it may be necessary to
use cleaning agents in addition to seawater. If you are not sure of the
cleaning procedure after carriage of a product, it’s a good idea to start
with cold water around the melting point of the cargo in question.
However all chemical tankers should be equipped with a tank cleaning
guidebook or software.
When cleaning with very hot water we must take into consideration the
surrounding cargoes and their max adjacent temperature as well as the
resistance of the coating. It’s important to be careful with the hot water
as the products may be burned on the bulkheads and almost impossible
to remove. On most chemicals a max temperature of 50 ° C is sufficient
to remove all residues.

Fresh Water : After the main wash, a fresh water rinse is necessary prior to loading.
The length of this depends on the tank size, coating and the product to
load.
A good idea is to measure the fresh water on the pump-stack for
chlorides while rinsing. If you measure the quality on the fresh water in
the freshwater tanks and the water that’s coming out after rinsing, you
will have a good idea of how much chloride there are in the tank. This
demands that the quality on the freshwater on board is good.
On some of the newest chemical tankers all cleaning is done by
freshwater only. These ships are equipped with huge evaporators and
some of the ballast tanks are used for fresh water only. This is ideal and
will probably be on all new buildings in the future.

Gas Freeing : Even if the tank has been cleaned, it’s not gas-free. The atmosphere
inside the tank has to be exchanged several times with air in order to
make the tank gas-free. This done by air fans, either fixed drying system
or portable fans. Before the tank is classified gas-free it must be
measured for Ox, Ex and traces of the previous cargo.

Drying : The drying is done in the same operation as the gas-freeing. However,
the pump’s sump must be ejected manually and in most cases the
bottom of the tank has to be mopped in order to achieve a complete dry
and. Prior to tank entry, the tank must be measured and found gas-free.
A Tank Entry Check-List should be on board and used for this purpose.
Inspection/testing : After the tank is clean, dry and found gas-free it’s ready for inspection
and testing. More and more cargoes require that a wall wash with
certain specifications should be analysed and passed prior loading.

9.2.3 DISPOSAL OF SLOPS

When discharging overboard.
Annex I cargoes. Ref. MARPOL 73/78.
Retention.
(a) Transfer the oily waste to slop tank (One of the ship's cargo tanks may be used)
(b) Allow the tank to settle
(c) Determine amount of oil by using the Oil/Water Interface Detector
(d) To determine sufficient settling, compare the quantity as determined under (c) with
residues according to the ship's P&A manual

Discharge.
(a) Calculate stop ullage of the slop tank in order to retain the separated oil on board
(b) Discharge the wash-water trough the Oil Discharge Monitor (ODM)
(c) When approaching the oil/water interface level, stop discharge.
(d) Remaining slop shall be delivered to adequate reception facility.

Annex II cargoes.
Annex II of MARPOL 73/78 to apply.
Ref. Vessel's Procedure and Arrangement Manual (P&A).

When using vessel's cargo tanks as slop tanks.

(a) Avoid mixture of annex I and annex II slops.
(b) Avoid mixture of none compatible slops.
(c) Avoid mixture of vegetable oil slops with chemical slops.

9.2.4 PREWASH OPERATIONS.

A principle of Annex II is that cargoes should be unloaded (removed from the tanks/piping
systems) to the maximum possible extent before being mixed with water which subsequently
will be discharged into the sea. For the most harmful substances, for substances difficult to
unload and for certain areas, this is obtained by requiring a prewash with delivery of the
prewashing water to a shore reception facility. For less harmful substances satisfactory
stripping is obtained by complying with specific stripping capability requirements.
The purpose of the required prewash is thus to reduce the amount of cargo remaining in the
tank and piping system by flushing mainly the tank bottom, the sump, the pump and the
pipelines with the prewashing water. The prewash does not aim at cleaning the tank for
ballasting or loading purposes.
To reduce the volume of "problem waste" delivered to the reception facility, care should be
taken not to use excessive amounts of water for the prewash.

When prewashing after carriage of a category A substance, the prewash should continue until
the concentration of cargo in the washing water pumped out is below 0.1 % by weight outside
special areas, and 0.05% by weight inside special areas as given in Regulation 5(1) and (7),
and until the tank is empty.
The measurement of the concentration should be accepted by a Government (Port) Surveyor
who should also endorse the Cargo Record Book as required by Regulation 8 (3).
The below given prewash procedures should be applied after unloading of category A
substances only in situations when the Government Surveyor in accordance with Regulation 8
(4) has found it impracticable to carry out concentration measurements.

9.2.5 SOLIDIFYING OR HIGH VISCOSITY SUBSTANCE

The properties of the substance should be obtained from the shipping document.
The definitions of solidifying/non-solidifying and high/low viscosity substances are given below.
"Solidifying substance" means a noxious liquid substance which:
1) in the case of substances with melting points less than 15°C, is at a temperature, at the
time of unloading, of less than 5°C above its melting point, or
2) in the case of substances with melting points equal to or greater than 15°C, is at a
temperature, at the time of unloading, of less than 10°C above its melting point.

"Non-solidifying substance" means a noxious liquid substance which is not a solidifying

substance.

“High viscosity substance" means:

1) in the case of category A and B substances and in the case of category C substances
within Special Area, a substance with a viscosity equal to or greater than 25 mPa.s at
the unloading temperature, and
2) in the case of category C substances outside Special Area, a substance with a viscosity
equal to or greater than 60 mPa.s at the unloading temperature.

"Low viscosity substance" means a noxious liquid substance which is not a high viscosity
substance.

Reception facilities are required to be available for all potentially high viscosity or potentially
solidifying category B and C substances in all ports where these substances are unloaded.

Potentially Solidifying are those substances with a melting point equal to or greater than 0°C.

Potentially High Viscosity are those substances with a viscosity at 20°C equal to or greater than:

25 mPa.s in case of category B substances unloaded outside a Special Area

60 mPa.s in case of category C substances unloaded outside a Special Area

25 mPa.s in case of category C substances unloaded within a Special Area

No requirements can based on Annex II be put on a ship to heat a cargo sufficiently to make it a
non-solidifying or low viscosity substance for the purpose of relieving the port from its obligation
to provide adequate reception facilities for potentially high viscosity or potentially solidifying
category B and C substances.
Nevertheless such substances should, as far as reasonable and practicable, preferably be
unloaded in low viscosity/non-solidifying condition.

Category A. Within and Outside Special Area

In all cases the cargo tanks should be prewashed as specified in the P & A manual, and all
prewashing water should be discharged to reception facilities prior to departure from the
unloading port.
The cargo Record Book should be endorsed by a Government Surveyor on completion.
Any water subsequently added to the tank may be discharged through the underwater outlet
without pumping rate limitations when the vessel is proceeding at 7 knots or more, is more than
12 miles off land and is in a water depth of 25 metres or more.
Any cargo tank which has been washed to commercial requirements to accept loading of a
different cargo, will normally be considered as clean.
Ballast water carried in such tanks will normally also be considered as clean, and may be
discharged to sea without any restrictions imposed by Annex II.
Category B. Outside a Special Area
Discharge of solidifying or high viscosity category B residues is not permitted.
With such substances a prewash, as specified in the P & A manual, is necessary.
All prewashing water should be discharged to reception facilities prior to departure from the
unloading port.
Any water subsequently added to the tank may be discharged as specified below.
Other category B tank washings may be discharged to the sea through the underwater outlet at
a maximum rate of 200 m3/h when the vessel is proceeding at 7 knots or more, is more than 12
miles off land and is in a water depth of 25 meters or more.
The following additional may be discharged into the sea without regard to the discharge rate,
ship's speed and discharge outlet position provided the ship is not less than 12 miles off land,
and in water that is not less than 25 metres deep.
Cargo residues and any washing/ballast water from a tank unloaded and stripped in accordance
with the P & A manual after carriage of low viscosity or non-solidifying substances. This also
includes cargo residues and prewashing water retained on board after unloading such tanks
within a Special Area.
Any washing/ballast water from a tank prewashed in accordance with P & A manual after
carriage of a high viscosity or solidifying substance.
Category B. Within a Special Area
Discharge of category B residues to the sea is not permitted.
With such substances a prewash, as specified in the P & A manual, is necessary.
Notwithstanding the above, non solidifying or low viscosity category B substance
residues/prewashing water may be retained on board for discharge outside a special area.
Other category B tank washings may be discharged to the sea through the underwater outlet at
a maximum rate of 200 m3/h when the vessel is proceeding at 7 knots or more, is more than 12
miles off land and is in a water depth of 25 meters or more.
When a required prewash has been carried out, any water subsequently added to the tank may
be discharged into the sea through the underwater outlet at a maximum rate of 200 m3/h when
the vessel is proceeding at 7 knots or more, is more than 12 miles off land and is in a water
depth of 25 metres or more.
If a tank which has been satisfactorily prewashed and afterwards washed with a water quantity
as indicated in P & A manual, any water subsequently added to the tank may be discharged into
the sea without regard to the discharge rate, ship's speed and discharge outlet position provided
the ship is not less than 12 miles off land, and in water that is not less than 25 metres deep.
Discharges from clean cargo tanks may be carried out without any restrictions imposed by
Annex II.
Category C. Outside a Special Area
Discharge of solidifying or high viscosity category C residues is not permitted.
With such substances a prewash, as specified in the P & A manual, is necessary.
Other category C tank washings may be discharged to the sea through the underwater outlet at
a maximum rate of 200 m3/h when the vessel is proceeding at 7 knots or more, is more than 12
miles off land and is in a water depth of 25 meters or more.
The following additional may be discharged into the sea without regard to the discharge rate,
ship's speed and discharge outlet position provided the ship is not less than 12 miles off land,
and in water that is not less than 25 metres deep.
Cargo residues and any washing-/ballast water from a tank unloaded and stripped in
accordance with P & A manual after carriage of low viscosity non-solidifying substances.

Cargo residues and prewashing water retained onboard from a tank unloaded and Stripped within
a special area and in accordance with P & A manual after carriage of a substance which was
considered a high viscosity substance due to being unloaded within the special area (i.e. viscosity
between 25mPa·s.and 60 mPa·s.at the unloading temperature).

Any subsequent washing-/ballast water from a tank prewashed in accordance with P &
A manual after carriage of a high viscosity or solidifying substance.

Category C. Within a Special Area

Discharge of solidifying or high viscosity category C residues is not permitted.
With such substances a prewash, as specified in the P & A manual, is necessary.

Notwithstanding the above, non-solidifying category C substances residues/prewashing water

originating from a cargo having been unloaded within the special Area with viscosity between 25
and 60 mPa·s may be retained on board for discharge to the sea outside the special Area as a
low viscosity substance.
Other category C tank washings may be discharged to the sea through the underwater outlet at
a maximum rate of 200 m3/h when the vessel is proceeding at 7 knots or more, is more than 12
miles off land and is in a water depth of 25 meters or more.
The following additional may be discharged into the sea without regard to the discharge rate,
ship's speed and discharge outlet position provided the ship is not less than 12 miles off land,
and in water that is not less than 25 metres deep.
Cargo residues and any washing-/ballast water from a tank unloaded and stripped in
accordance with P & A manual after carriage of low viscosity non-solidifying substances.

Category D. Within and Outside a Special Area

Discharge of category D substances to the sea is permissible if the residues are diluted by ten
times their volume of water.
The vessel should be more than 12 miles off land and proceeding at a speed of 7 knots or
more. The discharge need not take place below the waterline.
Alternatively category D tank washings may be discharge to sea as specified for the other
categories.

9.2.6 PREWASH PROCEDURE FOR NON-SOLIDIFYING SUBSTANCES WITHOUT RECYCLING

1) Tanks should be prewashed using the vessel`s washing machines and ensure that all
tank surfaces are being washed.
2) During washing the amount of water accumulating in the tank should be minimized by
pumping out slops continuously and promoting flow to the suction point (positive list and
trim).
If this condition cannot be met, the washing procedure should be repeated three times,
with thorough stripping of the tank between washings.
If delivery of the washing water to the reception facility cannot take place directly during
the prewashing, another empty and suitable cargo tank may be used as a temporary
slop tank.
3) Those substances, which have a viscosity equal to or greater than 25 mPa.s at 20°C,
should be washed with hot water (temperature at least 60°C), unless the properties of
such substances make the washing less effective.
(The viscosity for these substances are required to be stated in the shipping document).
4) During the prewash the drop-lines should be flushed.
5) The quantities of wash water and the duration of the washing programme used should
not be less than those specified in the P & A manual.
6) After prewashing the tanks and lines should be thoroughly stripped.
3. Prewash Procedure for Solidifying Substances without recycling
1) Tanks should be washed as soon as possible after unloading. If possible, tanks should
be heated prior to washing.
2) Residues in hatches and manholes should preferably be removed prior to the prewash.
3) Tanks should be prewashed using the vessel’s washing machines and ensure that all
tank surfaces are being washed.
4) During washing the amount of liquid in the tank should be minimised by pumping out
slops continuously and promoting flow to the suction point. If this condition cannot be
met, the washing procedure should be repeated 3 times with thorough stripping of the
tank between washings.
5) Tanks should be washed with hot water (temperature at least 60°C), unless the
properties of such substances make the washing less effective.
6) During the prewash, drop-lines should be flushed.
7) The quantities of wash water, and the duration of the washing programme used should
not be less than those specified in the P & A manual.
8) After prewashing the tanks and lines should be thoroughly stripped.
4. Prewash Procedure with recycling of washing medium

1) Washing with a recycled washing medium may be adopted for the purpose of washing
more than one cargo tank. In determining the quantity, due regard must be given to the
 expected amount of residues in the tanks and the properties of the washing medium
and whether any initial rinse or flushing is employed. Unless sufficient data are
provided, the calculated end concentration of cargo residues in the washing medium
should not exceed 5% based on the stripping test results given in the P & A manual.
2) The recycled washing medium should only be used for washing tanks having contained
the same or similar substance.
3) A quantity of washing medium sufficient to allow continuous washing should be added
to the tank or tanks to be washed.
4) Tanks should be prewashed using the vessel’s washing machines and ensure that all
tank surfaces are being washed.
5) The quantities of wash water, and the duration of the washing programme used should
not be less than those specified in P & A manual.
6) Solidifying substances and substances with viscosity equal to or greater than 25 mPa.s
at 20°C should be washed with hot water (temperature at least 60°C) when water is
used as the washing medium, unless the properties of such substances make the
washing less effective.
7) During the prewash the drop-lines should be flushed.
8) After completing the tank washing with recycling to the extent specified above, the
washing medium should be discharged and the tank thoroughly stripped. Thereafter, the
tank should be subjected to a rinse, using clean washing medium, with continuous
drainage and discharge. The rinse should as a minimum cover the tank bottom and be
sufficient to flush the pipelines and pump. For category B and C substances minimum
1,0 m3 of clean washing medium should be used for each tank. For category A minimum
3,0 m3 should be used for each tank.
5. Minimum quantity of water to be used in a prewash

The minimum quantity of water to be used in a prewash is determined by the residual quantity
of noxious liquid substance in the tank, the tank size, the cargo properties, the permitted
concentration in any subsequent wash water effluent, and the area of operation. The minimum
quantity is given in a table in the P&A Manual.

These factors are ship specific, but they are available in the vessel’s P & A manual.

The same procedure to apply in case of onboard transfer of cargoes

9.3 GAS FREEING OF CARGO TANKS

Cargo residues of substances with a vapour pressure greater than 5k Pa at 20°C may be
removed from a cargo tank by tank ventilation.
When such procedure is used, it will replace any requirements for a prewash procedure
maintained in the P&A Manual. Once a tank has been ventilated by this method, any water
added to the tank is regarded as clean and is not subject to the discharge requirement of Annex
II.
Before residues of noxious substances are ventilated from a tank, the safety hazards relating to
flammability and toxicity should be considered. With regard to safety aspects, the operational
requirements for openings in cargo tanks in the Bulk Chemical Code, and the ventilation
procedures in the I.C.S. Tanker Safety Guide (Chemicals) should be consulted.
Port authorities may also have regulations on cargo tank ventilation.
The procedures for ventilation of cargo residues from a tank are as follows:
The tank and pipelines should be stripped as specified in Section 3.
The trim and list should be adjusted to the minimum possible extent in order to enhance
evaporation of residues.
When venting with portable air driven fans, and in case extension hoses are not used or
lowered to the tank bottom, air flow rate inlet diameter and penetration depth should be
regarded. When cleaning tanks by ventilation, suction and cargo lines including stripping system
must be available for the air flow. It must be made sure that each tank with its entire system is
ventilated to complete dryness.
Check fans and accessories for proper condition before use. Follow the maker’s
recommendation of maintenance.
Intakes of central air conditioning or mechanical ventilating systems shall be adjusted to prevent
the entry of flammable or poisonous gas, if possible by recalculation of air within the enclosed
spaces.
If at any time it is suspected that gas is being drawn into the accommodation, central air
conditioning and mechanical ventilating systems shall be stopped and the intakes shall be
closed.
A tank is only to be considered as gas free when no traces of flammable and/or poisonous gas
are measured.
On completion of all gas freeing make sure that all equipment and constructions, which can
hold cargo residues, get the necessary attention.

1) Cargo lines
2) Cargo valves
3) Cargo pump
4) Stripping line and valves
5) Venting line and P/V valve
6) Ullage/sounding arrangements
7) Heating coils
8) Vapour line

9.4 TESTS FOR CLEANLINESS

As mentioned, the demands to tank cleanliness are getting stricter and stricter which demands
more of the officer and crew on board. Some products require a standard which is very hard to
achieve, but with better testing equipment and cleaning agents on board it’s easier for the
vessel to meet the demands of the customer.
As a general rule the tank should be physically clean after every tank cleaning without regard of
the next cargo to load.
For sensitive cargoes a wall wash will be required. This is done by a independent Surveyor who
will attend the vessel prior loading . The surveyor will wash spots on the bulkheads with a
solvent (mostly methanol) which are collected and sampled in a sample bottle. The sample is
then taken ashore for analysis in a laboratory. The results of the analysis must be within the
specifications made by the cargo owner or the tank will not be accepted for loading and need to
be re-cleaned.
More and more vessels are now equipped with equipment which makes the chief officer able to
do the most common tests and analysis on board. This will off course give the vessel a good
opportunity to be well prepared prior to port entry and analysis by shore lab. Needless to say,
this will save both the vessel and owner a lot of extra time and money.
When the tank is inspected and wall wash, if applicable, has been approved, the surveyor will
issue a "Clean Tank Certificate" and the vessel can commence loading.
10.0 SHIP/SHORE INTERFACE

10.1 LIAISON WITH TERMINALS

10.1.1 COMPLIANCE WITH TERMINAL AND LOCAL REGULATIONS

Terminals should have safety and pollution regulations which must be complied with by both
tanker and terminal personnel. All tankers at the terminal should be aware of such regulations,
together with any other regulations relating to the safety of shipping which may be issued by the
appropriate port authority. Regulations regarding work in shore hazardous zones should be
carefully noted.

10.1.2 MANNING REQUIREMENTS

A sufficient number of personnel to deal with an emergency should be present on board the
ship and in the shore installation at all times during the ship's stay at a terminal.
Those personnel involved with the operations should be familiar with the risks associated with
handling petroleum.

10.1.3 TANKER AND TERMINAL LIAISON ON SAFETY PROCEDURES

After the tanker has berthed the terminal representative should contact the responsible officer
to:

Agree designated smoking places.

Agree galley equipment and cooking appliance limitations.

Advise on 'Work Permit' and 'Hot Work Permit' procedures.

Advise on other relevant activities in the vicinity.

Provide information about other terminal or local safety and pollution regulations.

Advise means of summoning assistance from terminal, fire, medical, police and other
emergency services.

Exchange information on the availability and use of fire-fighting and emergency

equipment on the terminal and the tanker.

Discuss the action to be taken (both on board and ashore) in case of fire or other
emergency.

Discuss arrangements for the orderly evacuation of the berth in an emergency, e.g.
muster points and ship to shore access routes.

10.1.4 MANAGEMENT OF MOORINGS WHILE ALONGSIDE

Ship personnel are responsible for the frequent monitoring and careful tending of the tanker's
moorings, but suitably qualified shore personnel should check the moorings periodically to
satisfy themselves that they are being properly tended.
When tending moorings which have become slack or too taut, an overall view of the mooring
system should be taken so that the tightening or slackening of individual lines does not allow the
tanker to move or place undue loading on other lines. The tanker should maintain contact with
the fenders and moorings should not be slackened if the tanker is lying off the fenders.

The possibility of using tugs to maintain position should be considered whenever the following
conditions exist or are expected:
- Significant increase in wind speed or change in wind direction, particularly if the tanker
has substantial freeboard.
- Swell.
- Periods of maximum tidal flow.
- Limited underkeel clearance.
- The close passing of other ships.

10.1.5 MANAGEMENT OF MOORINGS AT BUOY BERTHS

While the tanker is at a conventional, multi-buoy mooring, frequent and regular inspection is
essential to ensure that mooring lines are kept taut and that movement of the tanker is kept to a
minimum. Excessive movement may cause rupture of the cargo connections.
At single point moorings a watchman should be stationed on the forecastle head to report any
failure or imminent failure of moorings or leakage of oil. He should also report immediately if the
tanker 'rides up' to the buoy. He should be equipped with appropriate means to communicate
with the officer of the watch.

10.1.6 FIRE-FIGHTING EQUIPMENT

Immediately before, or on, arrival at a terminal at which it is intended to load or discharge cargo,
fire hoses should be connected to the ship's fire main, one forward and one aft of the ship's
manifold. When monitors are provided they should be pointed towards the manifold and be
ready for immediate use. Portable fire extinguishers, preferably of the dry chemical type, should
be conveniently placed near the ship's manifold. If a stern loading/discharge manifold is used,
sufficient fire-fighting equipment must be available in the vicinity to provide an adequate level of
protection at that location.
If practicable, a pump should maintain pressure on the ship's fire main while cargo or ballast is
being handled. If this is not possible the fire pump should be in a standby condition and ready
for immediate operation.
In cold weather, the freezing of fire mains and hydrants should be prevented by continuously
bleeding water overboard from hydrants at the extreme end of each fire main. Alternatively, all
low points of the fire main may be kept drained.
A check should be made to confirm that both the ship and shore have an international shore fire
connection for the transfer of water for fire-fighting.
The terminal fire-fighting appliances should be operational and ready for immediate use and fire
mains should be pressurized or be capable of being pressurized at short notice.

10.1.7 READINESS TO MOVE UNDER OWN POWER

While a tanker is berthed at a terminal its boilers, main engines, steering machinery and other
equipment essential for maneuvering should normally be maintained in a condition that will
permit the ship to move away from the berth at short notice.
Repairs and other work which may immobilize the tanker should not be undertaken at a berth
without prior, written agreement with the terminal. Before carrying out repairs it may also be
necessary to obtain permission from the local port authority. Certain conditions may have to be
met before permission can be granted.

10.1.8 COMMUNICATION
Telephone, portable VHF/UHF and radio telephone systems should comply with the appropriate
safety requirements.
The provision of adequate means of communication, including a back-up system between ship
and shore, is the responsibility of the terminal.
Communication between the responsible officer on duty and the responsible person ashore
should be maintained in the most efficient way.
When telephones are used, the telephone both on board and ashore should be continuously
manned by persons who can immediately contact their superior. Additionally, it should be
possible for that superior to override all calls. When VHF/UHF or radiotelephone systems are
used, units should preferably be portable and carried by the responsible officer on duty and the
responsible person ashore, or by persons who can contact their respective superior
immediately. Where fixed systems are used, the above guidance for telephones should be
followed.
The selected system of communication together with the necessary information on telephone
numbers and/or channels to be used should be recorded on an appropriate form. This form
should be signed by both ship and shore representatives.
Where there are difficulties in verbal communication, these can be overcome by appointing a
person with adequate technical and operational knowledge and a sufficient command of a
language understood by both ship and shore personnel.

10.1.9 ACCESS BETWEEN SHIP AND SHORE

Personnel should use only the designated means of access between ship and shore.
Gangways or other means of access should be provided with an effective safety net where
appropriate. Lifebuoys with lifelines should be available in the vicinity of the gangway or other
means of access. In addition, suitable life saving equipment should be available near the
access point ashore.
Means of access should be placed as close as possible to crew accommodation and as far
away as possible from the manifold.

10.1.10 GANGWAY LANDING

When terminal access facilities are not available and a tanker's gangway is used, the berth must
have sufficient landing area to provide the gangway with an adequate clear run in order to
maintain safe, convenient access to the tanker at all states of tide and changes in freeboard.
Particular attention to safe access should be given where the difference in level between the
decks of the tanker and jetty becomes large. There should be special facilities at berths where
the level of a tanker's deck can fall well below that of the jetty.

10.1.11 LIGHTING
During darkness, the means of access to the tanker should be well lit.

10.1.12 UNAUTHORIZED PERSONS

Persons who have no legitimate business on board, or who do not have the master's
permission, should be refused access to a tanker. The terminal, in agreement with the master,
should restrict access to the jetty or berth. A crew list should be given to the terminal security
personnel.

10.1.13 PERSONS SMOKING OR INTOXICATED

Personnel on duty on a jetty or on watch on a tanker must ensure that no one who is smoking
approaches the jetty or boards a tanker. Persons apparently intoxicated should not be allowed
to board a tanker unless they can be properly supervised.

10.1.14 NOTICES ON THE TANKER

On arrival at a terminal, a tanker should display notices at the gangway in appropriate
languages stating:
WARNING
NO NAKED LIGHTS
NO SMOKING
NO UNAUTHORISED PERSONS
Alternative wording containing the same warnings may also be used.
Photoluminescent notices stating "EMERGENCY ESCAPE ROUTES" (with directional signs)
should also be displayed at appropriate locations.
In addition, notices are displayed on board tankers which are primarily for the information of the
crew. Shore personnel should also observe these requirements when on board the tanker.

10.1.15 NOTICES ON THE TERMINAL

Permanent notices and signs indicating that smoking and naked lights are prohibited should be
conspicuously displayed on a jetty in appropriate languages. Similar permanent notices and
signs should be displayed at the entrance to the terminal area or the shore approaches to a
jetty.
In buildings and other shore locations where smoking is allowed, appropriate notices should be
conspicuously displayed.
Emergency escape routes from the tanker berth to the shore should be clearly indicated.

10.1.16 SMOKING
Smoking should only be permitted under controlled conditions. A total prohibition on smoking at
terminals and on a tanker at a berth is in general unrealistic and unenforceable and may give
rise to surreptitious smoking. There may, however, be occasions when, owing to the nature of
the cargo being transferred or other factors, a total prohibition on smoking will be necessary. In
such cases a regular inspection should be made by a responsible officer to ensure that this
prohibition is enforced.
Smoking should be strictly prohibited within the restricted area enclosing all tanker berths and
on board any tanker while at a berth, except in designated smoking places.

10.1.17 LOCATION OF DESIGNATED SMOKING PLACES

The designated smoking places on a tanker or on shore should be agreed in writing between
the master and the terminal representative before operations start. The master is responsible
for ensuring that all persons on board the tanker are informed of the selected places for
smoking and for posting suitable notices in addition to the tanker's permanent notices.
Certain criteria should be followed in the selection of smoking places whenever petroleum
cargoes are being handled or when ballasting, purging with inert gas, gas freeing and tank
cleaning operations are taking place.

The criteria are:

- The agreed smoking places should be confined to locations abaft the cargo tanks, except when the
entry of petroleum gas into amidships accommodation is highly improbable.
- The agreed smoking places should not have doors or ports which open directly on to open decks.
- Account should be taken of conditions that may suggest danger, such as an indication of unusually
high petroleum gas concentrations, particularly in the absence of wind, and when there are
operations on adjacent tankers or on the jetty berth.
- In the designated smoking places all ports should be kept closed and doors into passageways
should be kept closed except when in use.
- While the tanker is moored at the terminal, even when no operations are in progress, smoking can
only be permitted in designated smoking places or, after there has been prior agreement in writing
between master and terminal representative, in any other closed accommodation.
- When stern loading/discharge connections are being used particular care must be taken to ensure
that no smoking is allowed in any accommodation or space the door or ports of which open on to
the deck where the stern loading/discharge manifold is located.

10.1.18 COMMUNICATIONS EQUIPMENT

Unless certified as intrinsically safe or of other approved design, all communications equipment
on board ships such as telephones, talk-back systems, signal lamps, search lights, loud hailers,
and electrical controls for ship's whistles should neither be used nor connected or disconnected
when the areas in which they are positioned come within the boundary of a shore hazardous
zone.

10.1.19 RADIO EQUIPMENT

The use of a tanker's radio equipment during cargo or ballast handling operations is potentially
dangerous. This does not apply to the use of permanently and correctly installed VHF and UHF
equipment, provided the power output is reduced to one watt or less.
The use of VHF/UHF radio equipment as a means of communication should be encouraged
whenever possible.
When a tanker is at a berth, its main transmitting antennae should be grounded.
If it is necessary to operate the ship's radio in port for servicing purposes, there should be
agreement between tanker and terminal on the procedures necessary to ensure safety. These
procedures may require the issue of a work permit. Among the precautions that might be
agreed are operating at low power, use of a dummy antenna load and confining the
transmission to times when the transmitting antennae do not come within the shore hazardous
zone.

10.1.20 SHIP'S RADAR EQUIPMENT

The radiation of radar waves from a properly sited radar scanner presents no ignition hazard on
board a vessel, but the operation of high powered 10cm radar may induce an electrical potential
into nearby conductors at the berth. The operation of a tanker's radar will also involve running
non-approved electrical equipment.. Consultation between the tanker and the terminal is
therefore essential before using or repairing this equipment if the area near the scanner
mechanism falls within a shore hazardous zone.

10.1.21 SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS EQUIPMENT

This equipment normally operates at 1.6 GHz and the power levels generated are not
considered to present an ignition hazard. As the positioning of the antennae may, however,
involve the running of non-approved electrical equipment, consultation between the tanker and
the terminal is advisable before the satellite terminal is operated.

10.1.22 PERMIT TO WORK SYSTEMS - GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

Permit to work systems are widely used throughout the petroleum industry. The permit is
essentially a document which describes the work to be done and the precautions to be taken in
doing it, and which sets out all the necessary safety procedures and equipment.
Permits should normally be used for hot work, electrical work and cold work undertaken in
hazardous and dangerous areas.
The permit should specify clearly the particular item of equipment or area involved, the extent of
work permitted, what conditions are to be observed, and the time and duration of validity. This
should not normally exceed a working day. At least two copies of the permit should be made;
one for the issuer and one for the person at the work site.
The layout of the permit should include a check list giving both the issuer and the user a
methodical procedure to ensure that it is safe for work to begin and to stipulate all the necessary
conditions. If any of the conditions cannot be met the permit should not be issued until remedial
measures have been taken.
It is advisable to have distinctive 'permits to work' for different hazards. The number of permits
will vary with complexity of the operation. Care must be taken not to issue a permit for
subsequent work which negates the safety conditions of an earlier permit; for example, a permit
should not be issued to break a flange adjacent to an area where a hot work permit is in force.
Before issuing a permit the responsible person must be satisfied that the conditions at the site,
or of the equipment to be worked on, are safe for the work to be undertaken.

10.1.23 HOT WORK PERMITS

This form of permit is intended to ensure a high degree of control and supervision when it is
required to carry out hot work on board.
10.1.24 PERMIT TO WORK ON A TANKER BERTH
No construction, repair, maintenance, dismantling or modification of facilities should be carried
out on a tanker berth without the permission of the terminal manager. If a tanker is moored at
the berth, the agreement of the master should also be obtained by the terminal representative.
In all cases, except for routine work of a non-hazardous nature, this permission must be given in
the written form of a permit to work.

Permit to Work on Board a Tanker

When any repair or maintenance is to be done on board a tanker moored at a berth, the
responsible officer must inform the terminal representative. Agreement should be reached on
the safety precautions to be taken, with due regard to the nature of the work.

10.1.25 APPROVAL FOR HOT WORK ON BOARD SHIP

Hot work on board ship must be prohibited until all applicable regulations and safety
requirements have been met and a permit to work has been issued. This may involve the
master, operator, chemist, shore contractor, terminal representative and port authority as
appropriate.
When alongside a terminal, no hot work should be allowed until the terminal representative and,
where appropriate, the port authority have been consulted and approval obtained.
A hot work permit should only be issued after obtaining a gas free certificate from an authorized
chemist.

10.1.26 ACCESS TO BERTH

The use of vehicles and equipment should be controlled, particularly in hazardous zones, and
the routes to and from work places and parking areas should be clearly indicated. Temporary
barriers or movable fencing should be provided, where necessary, to prevent unauthorized
access.

10.1.27 TLIASON BETWEEN TANKER AND TERMINAL BEFORE CARGO HANDLINGL

Emphasis is placed on the fact that the completion of a safe and successful cargo handling
operation is dependent upon effective cooperation and co-ordination between all the parties
involved. Exchange of information between the tanker and the terminal concerning mooring
arrangements is dealt with in Chapter 3. Certain additional information relating to cargo, ballast
and bunker handling should be exchanged before these operations begin. This Chapter covers
the subjects about which additional information should be available, and the aspects upon
which agreement should be reached.

10.1.28 TERMINALS ADVICE TO THE TANKER

The following information should be made available to the responsible officer:

10.1.29 INFORMATION IN PREPARATION FOR LOADING AND BUNKERING

Cargo specifications and preferred order of loading.
ƒ Whether or not the cargo includes toxic components.
ƒ Tank venting requirements.
ƒ Any other characteristics of the cargo requiring attention, for example high true vapor
pressure.
ƒ Flashpoints (where applicable) of products and their estimated loading temperatures,
particularly when the cargo is non-volatile.
ƒ Bunker specifications including H2S content.
ƒ Nominated quantities of cargo to be loaded.
ƒ Maximum shore loading rates.
ƒ Standby time for normal pump stopping.
ƒ Maximum pressure available at the ship/shore cargo connection.
ƒ Number and sizes of hoses or arms available and manifold connections required for each
product or grade of the cargo.
ƒ Proposed bunker loading rate.
ƒ Communication system for loading control, including the signal for emergency stop.
ƒ Limitations on the movement of hoses or arms.

10.1.30 INFORMATION IN PREPARATION FOR DISCHARGE:

ƒ Order of discharge of cargo acceptable to terminal.
ƒ Nominated quantities of cargo to be discharged.
ƒ Maximum acceptable discharge rates.
ƒ Maximum pressure acceptable at ship/shore cargo connection.
ƒ Any booster pumps that may be on stream.
ƒ Number and sizes of hoses or arms available and manifold connections required for each
product or grade of the cargo and whether or not these arms are common with each other.

10.1.31 TANKER'S ADVICE TO THE TERMINAL

Before cargo handling commences the responsible officer should inform the terminal of the
general arrangement of the cargo, ballast and bunker tanks, and should have available the
information listed below:

10.1.32 INFORMATION IN PREPARATION FOR LOADING AND BUNKERING

ƒ Details of last cargo carried, method of tank cleaning (if any) and state of the cargo tanks
and lines.
ƒ Where the vessel has part cargoes on board, grade, volume and tank distribution.
ƒ Maximum acceptable loading rates and topping off rates.
ƒ Maximum acceptable pressure at the ship/shore cargo connection during loading.
ƒ Cargo quantities acceptable from terminal nominations.
ƒ Proposed disposition of nominated cargo and preferred order of loading.
ƒ Maximum acceptable cargo temperature (where applicable).
ƒ Maximum acceptable true vapor pressure (where applicable).
ƒ Proposed method of venting.
ƒ Quantities and specifications of bunkers required.
ƒ Disposition, composition and quantities of ballast together with time required for discharge
and maximum light freeboard.
ƒ Quantity, quality and disposition of slops.
ƒ Quality of inert gas (if applicable).

10.1.33 INFORMATION IN PREPARATION FOR DISCHARGE

ƒ Cargo specifications.
ƒ Whether or not the cargo includes toxic components.
ƒ Any other characteristics of the cargo requiring special attention, for example, high true
vapor pressure (TVP).
ƒ Flashpoint (where applicable) of products and their temperatures upon arrival, particularly
when the cargo is non-volatile.
ƒ Cargo quantities loaded and disposition in ship's tanks.
ƒ Quantity and disposition of slops.
ƒ Any unaccountable change of ullage in ship's tanks since loading.
ƒ Preferred order of discharge.
ƒ Maximum attainable discharge rates and pressures.
ƒ Whether tank cleaning (prewash) is required.
ƒ Approximate time of commencement and duration of ballasting into segregated ballast
tanks.
10.1.34 AGREED LOADING PLAN
On the basis of the information exchanged, an operational agreement should be made in writing
between the responsible officer and the terminal representative covering the following:
- Ship's name, berth, date and time.
- Name and signature of ship and shore representative.
- Cargo distribution on arrival and departure.
- The following information on each product:
ƒ Quantity.
ƒ Ship's tank(s) to be loaded.
ƒ Shore tank(s) to be discharged.
ƒ Lines to be used ship/shore.
ƒ Cargo transfer rate.
ƒ Operating pressure.
ƒ Maximum allowable pressure.
ƒ Temperature limits.
ƒ Venting system.
ƒ Restrictions necessary because of:
ƒ Electrostatic properties.
ƒ Use of automatic shut-down valves.

This agreement should include a loading plan indicating the expected timing and
covering the following:
ƒ The sequence in which ship's tanks are to be loaded, taking into account:
ƒ Deballasting operations.
ƒ Ship and shore tank change over.
ƒ Avoidance of contamination of cargo.
ƒ Pipeline clearing for loading.
ƒ Other movements or operations which may affect flow rates.
ƒ Trim and draught of the tanker.
ƒ The need to ensure that permitted stresses will not be exceeded.
ƒ The initial and maximum loading rates, topping off rates and normal stopping times, having
regard to:
ƒ The nature of the cargo to be loaded.
ƒ The arrangement and capacity of the ship's cargo lines and gas venting system.
ƒ The maximum allowable pressure and flow rate in the ship/shore hoses or arms.
ƒ Precautions to avoid accumulation of static electricity.
ƒ Any other flow control limitations.

10.1.35 AGREED DISCHARGE PLAN

On the basis of the information exchanged, an operational agreement should be made in writing
between the responsible officer and the terminal representative covering the following:
ƒ Ship's name, berth, date and time.
ƒ Names and signatures of ship and shore representatives.
ƒ Cargo distribution on arrival and departure.
ƒ The following information on each product:
ƒ Quantity.
ƒ Shore tank(s) to be filled.
ƒ Ship's tank(s) to be discharged.
ƒ Lines to be used ship/shore.
ƒ Cargo transfer rate.
ƒ Operating pressure.
ƒ Maximum allowable pressure.
ƒ Temperature limits.
ƒ Venting systems.
ƒ Restrictions necessary because of:
ƒ Electrostatic properties.
ƒ Use of automatic shut-down valves.
ƒ This agreement should include a discharge plan indicating the expected timing and covering
the following:
ƒ The sequence in which the ship's tanks are to be discharged, taking account of:
ƒ Ship and shore tank change over.
ƒ Avoidance of contamination of cargo.
ƒ Pipeline clearing for discharge.
ƒ Other movements or operations which may affect flow rates.
ƒ Trim and freeboard of the tanker.
ƒ The need to ensure that permitted stresses will not be exceeded.
ƒ Ballasting operations.
ƒ The initial and maximum discharge rates, having regard to:
ƒ The specification of the cargo to be discharged.
ƒ The arrangements and capacity of the ship's cargo lines, shore pipelines and tanks.
ƒ The maximum allowable pressure and flow rate in the ship/shore hoses or arms.
ƒ Precautions to avoid accumulation of static electricity.
ƒ Any other limitations.
ƒ Bunkering or storing operations.
ƒ Emergency stop procedure.

10.1.36 COMMUNICATIONS
To ensure the safe control of operations at all times, it should be the responsibility of
both parties to establish, agree in writing and maintain a reliable communications
system.
Before loading or discharging commences, the system should be adequately tested. A
secondary stand-by system should also be established and agreed. Allowance should be
made for the time required for action in response to signals.

These systems should include signals for:

ƒ Identification of vessel, berth and cargo.
ƒ Stand by.
ƒ Start loading or start discharging.
ƒ Slow down.
ƒ Stop loading or stop discharging.
ƒ Emergency stop.
Any other necessary signals should be agreed and understood.
When different products or grades are to be handled their names and descriptions should be
clearly understood by the ship and shore personnel on duty during cargo handling operations.
The use of one VHF/UHF channel by more than one ship/shore combination should be avoided.

10.1.37 SHIP/SHORE SAFETY CHECK LIST

The purpose of the Ship/Shore Safety Check List is to ensure the safety of both ship and
terminal and of all personnel and it should be completed jointly by a responsible officer and the
terminal representative. Each item should be verified before it is ticked. This will entail a
physical check by the two persons concerned and will be conducted jointly where appropriate.
It is of no value if it is merely regarded as a paper exercise.

It is emphasized that some of the items on the Ship/Shore Safety Check List will require several
physical checks or even continuous supervision during the operation.
The Ship/Shore Safety Check List may be accompanied by an explanatory letter, for which a
recommended text is given in Appendix A, inviting the co-operation and understanding of the
tanker's personnel. The letter should be given to the master or responsible officer by the
terminal representative. The recipient should acknowledge receipt of the letter on a copy which
should then be retained by the terminal representative.
10.2 SHORE RECEPTION FACILITIES
In order for a port to receive residues of noxious liquid substances, regulation 7 (MARPOL
73/78) requires that the Government of each Party undertakes to provide reception facilities in
cargo loading and unloading ports and terminals as well as ship repair ports.

Through the new regulation 8 and the P & A Standards, the main need for such facilities is at
cargo unloading ports which receive cargoes of:
- category A substances; and
- potentially solidifying substances (i.e. those with melting points equal to or above 0o C) of
categories B and C and highly viscous substances of category B (viscosity equal to or
higher than 25 mpa-s at 20o C) or category C (60 mpa-s at 20o C outside special areas
and 25 mpa-s at 20o C within special areas).
The requirements for substances in categories B and C to be carried in ships fitted with efficient
stripping systems should reduce the reception facilities that need to be provided under the
Convention. The ports concerned will be able to estimate the need for such facilities for the
limited numbers of noxious liquid substances referred to above. The MEPC developed a
revised Part 11 of the Guidelines for the Provision of Adequate Reception Facilities. There are,
of course, needs for ships' washing tanks for backloading; however, such a commercial need for
reception facilities is beyond the requirements of the Convention and does not form part of the
scope of this paper.

10.2.1 CONCLUSION
Chemical tankers engaged in the carriage of noxious liquid substances must comply with the
requirements of Annex 11, and in the unloading of the cargo and discharging of cargo residues
they must follow the procedures and arrangements detailed in the ship's P & A Manual, which is
approved by the Administration and based on the P & A Standards. Those chemical tankers
engaged in the carriage of noxious liquid substances of categories A, B and C also have to
comply with the requirements of the BCH Code or the IBC Code. These Codes prescribe, from
the point of view of both safety and pollution prevention, carriage requirements (ship type, tank
type, overflow control and other equipment).

In May 1985, the MEPC, in approving the proposed amendments to Annex II, the P & A
Standards and the amendments to the IBC and BCH Codes, acknowledged that the proposed
amendments to Annex II will not only effect a remarkable reduction of marine pollution by
noxious liquid substances from ships, by bringing about a significant reduction in the generation
of wastes resulting from shipboard operations, but will also drastically reduce the environmental
problems ashore involved with the treatment and ultimate disposal of wastes received from
ships. In addition, the amendments provide for improved possibilities for executing effective
Port State control, thus ensuring full compliance with the provisions of Annex II.
11. EMERGENCY OPERATIONS

11.1 ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE AND PLANNING

Planning and preparation are essential if personnel are to deal successfully with emergencies on board
tankers. The master and other officers should consider what they would do in the event of various types of
emergency, such as fire in cargo tanks, fire in the engine room, fire in the accommodation, the collapse of
a person in a tank, the ship breaking adrift from her berth, the emergency release of a tanker from her
berth etc.
They will not be able to foresee in detail what might occur in all such emergencies but good advance
planning will result in quicker and better decisions and a well organized reaction to the situation.

The following information should be readily available:

ƒ Type of cargo, amount and disposition.
ƒ Whereabouts of other hazardous substances.
ƒ General arrangement plan.
ƒ Stability information.
ƒ Fire-fighting equipment plans.

11.1.1 EMERGENCY ORGANIZATION

An emergency Organization should be set up which will come into operation in the event of an emergency.
The purpose of this Organization will be in each situation to:
ƒ Raise the alarm.
Ö Locate and assess the incident and possible dangers.
Ö Organize manpower and equipment.
The following suggestions are for guidance in planning an emergency Organization, which should
cover the following four elements:

Command Center
There should be one group in control of the response to the emergency with the master or the senior
officer on board in charge. The command center should have means of internal and external
communication.

Emergency Party
This group should be under the command of a senior officer and should assess the emergency and report
to the command center on the situation, advising what action should be taken and what assistance should
be provided, either from on board or, if the ship is in port, from ashore.

Back up Emergency Party

The back up emergency party under the command of an officer should stand by to assist the emergency
party as instructed by the command center and to provide back up services, e.g. equipment, stores,
medical services including cardiopulmonary resuscitation etc.

Engineering Group
This group should be under the command of the chief engineer or the senior engineering officer on board
and should provide emergency assistance as instructed by the command center. The prime responsibility
for dealing with any emergency in the main machinery spaces will probably rest with this group. It may be
called on to provide additional manpower elsewhere.
The plan should ensure that all arrangements apply equally well in port and at sea.

11.1.2 PRELIMINARY ACTION

The person who discovers the emergency must raise the alarm and pass on information about the
situation to the officer on duty who, in turn, must alert the emergency Organization. While this is being
done, those on the scene should attempt immediate measures to control the emergency until the
emergency Organization takes effect.
Each group in the emergency Organization should have a designated assembly point, as should those
persons not directly involved as members of any group. Personnel not directly involved should stand by to
act as required.

11.1.3 INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE

Fire-fighting equipment should always be ready for immediate use and should be checked frequently. The
dates and details of such checks should be recorded and indicated on the appliance as appropriate. The
inspection of all fire-fighting and other emergency equipment should be carried out by a responsible
officer, and any necessary maintenance work completed without delay. As soon as possible after an
incident there should be a thorough check of all the equipment used. All breathing apparatus used should
be checked and the bottles recharged. Foam systems should be flushed through etc.

11.1.4 TRAINING AND DRILLS

Ship's personnel should be familiar with the theory of fire-fighting and should receive instruction in the use
of fire-fighting and emergency equipment. Practices and drills should be arranged at intervals to ensure
that personnel retain their familiarity with the equipment.
If an opportunity arises for a combined fire practice or conference with shore personnel at a terminal the
master should make an officer available to show the shore personnel the location of portable and fixed fire-
fighting equipment on board and also to instruct them on any design features of the ship which may
require special attention in case of fire.

11.2 ALARMS

11.2.1 SHIP'S ALARM SIGNAL

Fire alarm signals or general alarm signals are to be given in case of:
fire
collision
grounding
man overboard
major spillage of cargo liquid or release of vapor
other emergency situations which call for emergency actions

Other important alarms:

cargo gas alarm
cargo system alarm
CO2 or halon alarm
radio alarm
engine-room alarm
inert-gas alarm

11.2.2 FIRE-FIGHTING EQUIPMENT PLANS

Fire-fighting equipment plans must be permanently displayed in prominent positions showing
clearly, for each deck, the location and particulars of all fire-fighting equipment, dampers,
controls, etc.
In all ships a duplicate set of fire control plans or a booklet containing such plans shall be
permanently stored in a prominently marked weathertight enclosure outside the deckhouse for
the assistance of shoreside firefighting personnel.
11.3 EMERGENCY PROCEDURES
All tankers should have procedures ready for immediate implementation in the event of an emergency.
The procedures must anticipate and cover all types of emergency which might be encountered in the
particular activities of the tanker. Although the main aim of the procedures will be to respond to a fire, all
other possible emergencies such as hose or pipeline bursts, cargo overflow, pumproom flooding, men
overcome by gas within tanks, breakouts of vessels, weather or blackouts, must be covered. Similarly,
while the deployment of fire-fighting equipment will be prominent in any emergency procedures, equipment
such as breathing apparatus, resuscitation apparatus and stretchers must also be covered, together with
details of means of escape or exit.

The procedures should be familiar to the personnel involved, who should be adequately trained and clearly
understand the action they would be required to take when responding to the emergency. This can best
be achieved by regularly exercising the plan. Exercises will also serve to highlight the need for any
revisions to be made to the plan, associated emergency procedures and further training requirements.

Care should be taken when formulating an emergency plan to ensure that procedures to alert people or to
arrange equipment do not depend too heavily on one man doing a number of tasks simultaneously.

11.3.1 FIRE ON A TANKER AT SEA OR AT ANCHOR

Ship's personnel who discover an outbreak of fire must immediately raise the alarm, indicating the location
of the fire. The ship's fire alarm must be operated as soon as possible.
Personnel in the vicinity of the fire should apply the nearest suitable extinguishing agent to attempt to limit
the spread of the fire, to extinguish it, and thereafter to prevent re-ignition. If they are unsuccessful, their
actions should very quickly be superseded by the operation of the tanker's emergency plan.
Any cargo, ballast, tank cleaning or bunkering operations should be stopped immediately and all valves
closed. Any craft alongside should be removed.
After all personnel have been evacuated from the vicinity, all doors, openings and tank apertures should
be closed as quickly as possible and mechanical ventilation should be stopped. Decks, bulkheads and
other structures in the vicinity of the fire, and adjacent tanks which contain petroleum liquids or are not gas
free, should be cooled with water.

The tanker should be maneuvered so as to resist the spread of the fire and allow it to be attacked from
windward.

11.3.2 FIRE ON A TANKER AT A TERMINAL

If a fire breaks out on a tanker while at a terminal, the tanker must raise the alarm by sounding the
recognized alarm signal consisting of a series of long blasts on the ship's whistle, each blast being not less
than 10 seconds in duration, unless the terminal has notified the ship of some other locally recognized
alarm signal. All cargo, bunkering, or ballasting operations must be stopped and the main engines and
steering gear brought to a stand by condition.
Once the alarm has been raised, responsibility for fighting the fire on board the ship will rest with the
master or other responsible officer assisted by the ship's crew. The same emergency Organization should
be used as when the ship is at sea with an additional group under the command of an officer or senior
rating to make preparations, where possible, for disconnecting metal arms or hoses from the manifold.
On mobilization of the terminal and, where applicable, the civil fire-fighting forces and equipment, the
master or other responsible officer, in conjunction with the professional fire fighters, must make a united
effort to bring the fire under control.

11.3.3 FIRE OR EXPLOSION ON A BERTH

Should a fire or explosion occur on a berth, the ship or ships at the berth must immediately report the
incident to the terminal control room by the quickest possible method (VHF/UHF/ telephone contact,
sounding ship's siren etc.); shut down all cargo, bunkering, deballasting and tank cleaning operations; and
drain all arms or hoses ready for disconnecting. The ships' fire mains should be pressurized and water fog
applied in strategic places. The ships' engines, steering gear and unmooring equipment must be brought
to a state of immediate readiness. A pilot ladder should be put over on the offshore side.

11.3.4 JETTISON OF CARGO

The jettison of cargo is an extreme measure justified only as a means of saving life at sea or for the safety
of the vessel. A decision to jettison cargo should therefore not be taken until all the alternative options
have been considered in the light of available information on stability and reserve buoyancy.
If it is necessary to jettison cargo the following precautions should be taken:
ƒ Engine room personnel should be alerted. Depending on the circumstances prevailing at the time,
consideration should be given to changing over engine room intakes from high to low level.
ƒ Discharge should take place through the sea valve and where possible on the side opposite to the
engine room intakes.
ƒ All non-essential inlets should be closed.
ƒ If discharge must be from the deck level, flexible hoses should be rigged to extend below the water
surface.
ƒ All safety precautions relating to normal operations which involve the presence of flammable gas in
the vicinity of the deck must be observed.
ƒ A radio warning should be broadcast.

11.4 FIRST AID

11.4.1 MEDICAL ADVICE RELATING TO THE DANGERS OF THE CARRIAGE OF CHEMICALS BY SHIPS
The officers and crew of a ship regularly carrying chemicals ought to have been trained in the general
hazards involved and should be aware, therefore, of the necessary precautions to be observed. Equally
they should have been instructed about the safety rules and the first aid procedures to be used in case of
an accident.

In the case of other ships it is essential that, before a chemical is handled, the officers and crew involved
should be advised by the master of the hazards of the particular chemical and the action to be taken in the
event of an accident. The dangers of smoking, drinking, taking food or being under the influence of
alcohol or drugs whilst handling chemicals should be emphasised.

If, during the handling of chemicals, any person shows signs or symptoms suggestive of poisoning, he
should be taken off the work, given treatment in accordance with the advice given in this Guide and seen
as soon as possible by a doctor. In the case of poisoning whilst at sea, medical advice by radio should be
sought if so advised in this Guide, but in any event the patient should be seen by a doctor at the next port
of call. It should also be remembered that help might also be available from another ship if there is one
within the vicinity with a physician or other trained person on board.

11.4.2 DIAGNOSIS OF POISONING - GENERAL PRINCIPLES

The diagnosis of poisoning may be simplified if one or more of the following factors points to the probable
cause:
The circumstances of the incident, e.g. a leakage of chemicals.
The nature of the illness, and its relationship in time to recent exposure to a chemical.
More than one person is involved and all develop a similar illness.
It must be realised, however, that:
The effects of some poisons resemble those of natural illness, e.g. vomiting and diarrhoea, or
collapse.
Because a ship is carrying a cargo of chemicals it does not follow that the cause of the illness is that
cargo, and, unless there is evidence of a leakage, it is improbable.
Different individuals may be exposed to the poison at different times, or to a different extent during a
single episode, and they may as a result become ill at different times or to differing degrees.
Individuals react differently to poisons according to their health, constitution, and to how much of the
poison they were exposed.
In a typical case of poisoning, three stages of the illness may be distinguished:
1. The latent stage - This is the interval of time from the moment of entry of a poison into the body until
the first symptoms (feelings) or signs are apparent. These usually occur rapidly after exposure, but in
some cases there may be a delay of several hours before they develop. In very rare instances with
specific chemicals, the symptoms and signs may be delayed for some days.
2. The active stage - The signs and symptoms of the poisoning are apparent. In many cases these are
common to a great number of different chemicals which therefore have to be treated in a general way.
Chemicals can either act locally at the point of contact with the body or be absorbed from the point of
contact, causing more general symptoms. This is particularly true of chemicals, which can cause local skin
irritation, but are also absorbed through the skin to produce general, or specific, toxic symptoms and signs.
The same principle is true for other routes of entry into the body, although general symptoms are less
likely to occur with eye contact.

The main routes of exposure are:

Skin contact.
Eye contact.
Inhalation - into the mouth, nose, throat and lungs
Ingestion - swallowed chemicals.

The general symptoms of poisoning include:

Headache.
Nausea and vomiting
Drowsiness.
Changes in mental behaviour.
Unconsciousness.
Convulsions.
Pain.

Signs of severe poisoning are:

A rapid and weak pulse.

Grey or blue colour of skin.
Severe difficulty in breathing.
A prolonged period of unconsciousness.
The late stage
The signs and symptoms usually resolve after a few hours in the majority of incidents, particularly if the
degree of exposure is small. If a greater amount is absorbed or the period of exposure is prolonged, or the
chemical is very toxic, symptoms may persist for some hours or even days. The patient's condition may
deteriorate due to complications, the most common of which are:
Asphyxia.
Pulmonary oedema.
Bronchitis.
Pneumonia.
Circulatory collapse.
Heart failure.
Liver failure.
Kidney failure.

Death may occur despite treatment.

11.4.3 SPECIFIC DIAGNOSIS

It is important, if possible, to identify the chemical involved. If the chemical is not known, the first
thing to do is to look carefully at the patient, having determined the main route of exposure and
decide whether it was:

.1 Corrosive (irritant)
There will be severe pain and redness, blistering or burns where the chemical made contact.
bExamine the mouth, lips, chin and underneath contaminated clothing. If a corrosive chemical is
suspected, this should be treated as appropriate the type of exposure.

The patient may develop:

Pulmonary oedema.
Circulatory collapse.
Bleeding from the intestine.
Severe chemical burns.

.2 Non-corrosive
The signs above are missing. The chemical may nevertheless be dangerous, and symptoms and signs
should be looked for.
Remember that many gases, e.g. carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and refrigerants, seldom have a smell
to warn you of their presence.
General first aid measures should be used in treatment as appropriate to the area of the body affected.

11.4.4 N.O.S. AND GENERIC ENTRIES

MFAG Table numbers have been allocated to N.O.S. and generic entries where it is possible to determine
the main chemical hazards of the substances to be carried under these entries. For certain N.O.S. and
generic entries this is not possible because the specific chemical hazards may vary widely. In addition,
N.O.S. and generic entries may be used for unlisted specific chemicals, or mixtures, or solutions of
chemicals, or other substances, materials or articles, falling under the classification criteria of the MMG
Code
For the purposes of documentation and marking of packages containing dangerous goods shipped under
one of the N.O.S. or generic entries listed in 7.1.13 of the General Introduction, the IMG Code requires that
the selected N.O.S. or generic entry be supplemented by a recognised chemical name of the substance
causing the hazard.
If the chemical name is not familiar to the user, or if the identity of the chemical has not been declared by
the shipper, treat the casualty according to 4,2 above. Meanwhile try to identify and obtain information on
the nature of the chemical by obtaining radio advice from the shipper or other sources. Until information is
obtained, assume that the substance is of high toxicity and provide appropriate protection for emergency
and treatment personnel.

11.4.5 INTRODUCTION TO FIRST AID

First aid aboard ship is the treatment necessary for minor casualties or to enable a casualty to be
transported to the s hip's hospital or to a cabin for further treatment as appropriate to the conditions.
Anyone aboard ship may find a casualty. The action priorities, the positioning of an unconscious casualty
and the giving of artificial respiration are basic knowledge that any seaman should possess in order to
save fife until more qualified help arrives. Emergency treatment for the different routes of exposure to a
chemical should be studied in order to be familiar with the principles in the event of an accident.

It is important that every seafarer should know what to do at once in the event of an accident.

It is the responsibility of the master to ensure that NO ONE ENTERS an enclosed space unless he is a
trained member of a rescue team acting upon instruction.
Casualties who have been poisoned by a chemical should rest quietly in a cabin and be observed for at
least 24 hours, in case any complications develop.

11.4.5.1 Priorities
On finding a casualty:

Look after yourself, do not become the next casualty.

If necessary, remove the casualty from danger or remove danger from the casualty (but see note
below on a casualty in an enclosed space).
Use a breathing apparatus if there is any suspicion of toxic gases or fumes in the area.

IF ONLY ONE UNCONSCIOUS CASUALTY (irrespective of the total number of casualties):

Give immediate treatment to the unconscious casualty only; and

then send for help.

IF MORE THAN ONE UNCONSCIOUS CASUALTY

Send for help; and

then start giving appropriate treatment to the worst casualty in the order of.

a) stopped breathing/heart; and

b) unconscious.

IF THE CASUALTY IS IN AN ENCLOSED SPA CE:

 DO NOT ENTER the enclosed space unless you are trained member of a rescue team acting upon
instruction.
Send for help and inform the Master.
It MUST be assumed that the atmosphere in the space is hostile. The rescue team MUST NOT enter
unless wearing breathing apparatus, which must also be fitted on the casualty as soon as possible. The
casualty must be removed quickly to the nearest safe adjacent area outside the enclosed space unless his
injuries and the likely time of evacuation makes some treatment essential before movement.

11.4.6 UNCONSCIOUS CASUALTY

Assessment of breathing

Tilt the head firmly backwards as far as it will go to relieve obstructed breathing. Remove dentures if worn.
Clear out any vomit in the mouth if present. Listen and feel for any movement of air, because the chest
and abdomen may move, in the presence of an obstructed airway, without moving air. The rescuer’s face
should be placed close to the casualties nose and mouth so that any exhaled air may be felt against the
cheek. Also the rise and fall of the chest can be observed and the exhaled breath heard.

If breathing, place the casualty in the unconscious position

Turn casualty face down, head to one side or other as pictured, no pillows should be used under the head.
Now pull up the leg and the arm on the side to which the head is facing. Then pull up the chin. Stretch the
other arm out as pictured.

Assessment of heart function

Feel pulse at wrist and neck.

Quickly cheek the carotid (neck) pulse by placing the tips of the two fingers of one hand into the
groove between the windpipe and the large muscle at the side of the neck. The carotid pulse
normally is a strong one; if it cannot be felt or is feeble, there is insufficient circulation
11.4.7 NOT BREATHING BUT HEART HAS NOT STOPPED
Airway
Establishing an OPEN AIRWAY IS TIHE MOST IMPORTANT STEP IN ARTIIFICIAL RESPIRATION.
Spontaneous breathing may occur as a result of this simple measure. Place the patient in a face-up
position on a hard surface. Put one hand beneath the patient's neck and the other hand on the forehead.
Lift the neck with the one hand, and apply pressure to the forehead with the other to tilt the head
backward. This extends the neck and moves the base of the tongue away from the back of the throat.
The head should be maintained in this position during the entire artificial respiration and heart compression
procedure. If only one rescuer is available the head should be fixed in the shown position by means of a
rolled blanket or similar object pushed under the patient's shoulders. If the airway is still obstructed any
foreign material in the mouth or throat should be removed immediately with the fingers.

Breathing
If the patient does not resume adequate, spontaneous breathing promptly after his head has been tilted
backward; artificial respiration should be given by the mouth-to-mouth or mouth-to-nose method or other
techniques. Regardless of the method used, preservation of an open airway is essential.

Mouth-to-mouth respiration

Keep the patient's head at a maximum backward tilt with one hand under the neck.

Place the heel of the other hand on the forehead, with the thumb and index finger towards the
nose. Pinch together the patient's nostrils with the thumb and index finger to prevent air from
escaping. Continue to exert pressure on the forehead with the palm of the hand to maintain the
backward tilt of the head.

Take a deep breath, then form a tight seal with your mouth over and around the patient's mouth
 Blow four quick, full breaths in first without allowing the lungs to deflate fully. Then continue the
procedure.

Watch the patient's chest while inflating the lungs. If adequate respiration is taking place, the chest
should rise and fall

Remove your mouth and allow the patient to exhale passively. If in the right position, the patient's
exhalation will be felt on your cheek.

Take another deep breath, form a tight seal around the patient's mouth and blow into the mouth
again. Repeat this procedure 1 0 to 12 times a minute, once every 5 seconds, for adults and
children over 4 years.

If there is no air exchange, and an airway obstruction exists, reach into the patient's mouth and
throat to remove any foreign matter with your fingers and resume artificial respiration. A foreign
body should be suspected if you are unable to inflate the lungs, despite proper positioning and a
tight air-seal around the mouth or nose.

Mouth-to-nose respiration
The mouth-to-nose technique should be used when it is impossible to open the patient's mouth, when the
mouth is severely injured, or a tight seal around the lips cannot be obtained.

Keep the patient's head tilted back with one hand. Use the other hand to lift up the patient's lower
jaw to seal the hp s.

Take a deep breath, seal your lips around the patient's nose, and blow in forcefully and smoothly
until the patient's chest rises. Repeat quickly 4 times.
 Remove your mouth and allow the patient to exhale passively.

Repeat the cycle 10 to 12 times per minute.

Alternative method of artificial respiration (Silvester method)

In some instances, mouth-to-mouth respiration cannot be used. For instance, certain toxic and caustic
materials present a hazard to the rescuer. The mouth-to-mouth method should be avoided if the casualty
has corrosive burns around his mouth or if he has ingested or inhaled any toxic substance, but especially
one of the following:
- Cyanide.
- Hydrogen sulphide.
- Hydrocarbons.
- Petroleum and petroleum products.
- Chlorinated hydrocarbons.

This section describes an elective alternative method of artificial respiration, the Silvester technique.
However, this method is much less elective than those previously described, and it should only be used
when "mouth-to-mouth" technique cannot be used.

Lay the patient on his back on a firm surface. Raise his shoulders on cushion, folded jacket or in
some other way.

Head fully back. Shoulders raised on clothing etc.

Kneel astride the patient's head. If necessary, turn his head to one side to clear out the mouth.
Grasp his wrists, cross them over the lower part of his chest.
 Rock your body forward and press down on the patient's chest. Release the pressure and, with a
sweeping movement, draw the patient's arms backwards and outwards as far as possible.
Repeat this procedure rhythmically (12 times per minute). Keep the mouth clear.

Artificial respiration should be continued for 2 hours if necessary; longer if there are signs of fife.

11.4.8 NOT BREATHING AND HEART STOPPED

Heart compression (external cardiac compression) should be applied together with artificial respiration
throughout any attempt to resuscitate a patient whose breathing and heart have stopped. Unless
circulation is restored the brain will be without oxygen and the person will suffer cerebral damage within 4
to 6 minutes, and may die.
Artificial respiration will bring oxygen-containing air to the lungs of the victim From there, oxygen is
transported with circulating blood to the brain and to other organs, and the e117ective heart compression
will - for some time - artificially restore the blood circulation, until the heart starts beating.

Technique for heart compression

Compression of the sternum produces some artificial ventilation, but not enough for adequate oxygenation
of the blood. For this reason, artificial respiration is always required whenever heart compression is used.
Effective heart compression requires sufficient pressure to depress the patient's lower sternum about 4 to
5 cm (in an adult).
For heart compression to be effective, the patient must be on a firm surface. If he is in bed, a board or
improvised support should be placed under his back. However, chest compression must not be delayed to
look for a firmer support.
Kneel close to the side of the patient and place only the heel of one hand over the lower half of the
sternum. Avoid placing the hand over the tip of the breastbone (xiphoid process) which extends down over
the upper abdomen. Pressure on the xiphoid process may tear the liver and lead to severe internal
bleeding.

Feel the tip of the sternum and place the heel of the hand about 4 cm towards the head of the patient.
Your fingers must never rest on the patient's ribs during compression. This increases the possibility of rib
fractures.
 Place the heel of the other hand on top of the first one.
Rock forward so that your shoulders are almost directly above the patient's chest.
Keep your arms straight and exert adequate pressure almost directly downward to depress an
adult's lower sternum 4 to 5 cm.

Depress the sternum 60 times per minute for an adult (when two rescuers are used). This is usually rapid
enough to maintain blood flow, and slow enough to allow the heart to fill with blood. The compression
should be regular, smooth, and uninterrupted, with compression and relaxation being of equal duration.
Under no circumstances should compression be interrupted for more than 5 seconds.

Two-rescuer heart compressions and artificial respiration

Five heart compressions:

- At a rate of 60 per minute
- No pause for ventilation.

One respiration:
- After each 5 compression
- Interposed between compressions.

Two rescuers preferred

It is preferable to have two rescuers because artificial circulation must be combined with artificial
respiration. The most effective artificial respiration and heart compression are achieved by giving one lung
inflation quickly after each five heart compressions (5:1 ratio). The compression rate should be 60 per
minute for two rescuers. One rescuer performs heart compression while the other remains at the patient's
head, keeps it tilted back, and continues rescue breathing (artificial respiration). Supplying the breaths
without any pauses in heart compression is important, because every interruption in this compression
results in a drop of blood flow and blood pressure to zero.

Single rescuer
A single rescuer must perform both artificial respiration and artificial circulation using a 15:2 ratio. The
head should be kept in the shown position by means of a rolled blanket or similar object pushed under the
patient's shoulders. Two very quick lung inflations should be delivered after each 15 chest compressions,
without waiting for full exhalation of the patient's breath. A rate equivalent to 80 chest compressions per
minute must be maintained by a single rescuer in order to achieve 50 to 60 actual compressions per
minute because of the interruptions for the lung inflations.
One-rescuer cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR):

Fifteen heart compressions at a rate of 80 per minute.

Two very quick lung inflations.

Checking effectiveness of heart compression:

Pupils and pulse

Check the reaction of the pupils: a pupil that narrows when exposed to light indicates that the
brain is receiving adequate oxygen and blood. If the pupils remain widely dilated and do not
react to light, serious brain damage is likely to occur soon or has occurred already. Dilated but
reactive pupils are a less serious sign.
The carotid (neck) pulse should be felt after the first minute of the heart compression and
artificial respiration, and every 5 minutes thereafter. The pulse will indicate the effectiveness of
the heart compression or the return of a spontaneous effective heartbeat.
Other indicators of this effectiveness are the following:
Expansion of the chest each time the operator blows air into the lungs.
A pulse which can be felt each time the chest is compressed.
Return of colour to the skin.
A spontaneous gasp for breath.
Return of a spontaneous heartbeat.

Terminating heart compression

Deep unconsciousness, the absence of spontaneous respiration, and fixed, dilated pupils for 15
to 30 minutes indicate cerebral death of the patient, and further efforts to restore circulation and
breathing are usually futile.
In the absence of a physician, artificial respiration and head compression should be
continued until:

The heart of the patient starts ideating again and breathing is restored.
The patient is transferred to the care of the doctor, or other health personnel responsible for
emergency care.
The rescuer is unable to continue because of fatigue.

11.4.9 SUMMARY OF POINTS TO BE REMEMBERED WHEN APPLYING ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION AND

HEART COMPRESSION

Don't delay. Place patient on his back on a hard surface

Step 1: If patient is unconscious open the airway; thereafter make sure it stays open.

Airway
Lift up neck.
Push forehead back.
Clear out mouth with fingers

Step 2: If patient is not breathing, begin artificial respiration; mouth-to-mouth or mouth- to-nose
respiration.

Breathing
Before beginning artificial respiration, check carotid pulse in neck. It should be felt again after
the first minute of artificial respiration and checked every 5 minutes thereafter.
Give four quick breaths and continue at a rate of 12 inflations per minute.
Chest should rise and fall. If it does not, check to make sure the patient's head is tilted as far
back as possible. If necessary, use fingers to clear airway.

Step 3: If pulse is absent, begin heart compression. If possible, use two rescuers.
Circulation
Don't delay. One rescuer can do the job.
Locate the pressure point (lower half of sternum).
Depress sternum 4 to 5 cm (60 to 80 times per minute).
If one rescuer - 1 5 heart compressions and 2 very quick lung inflations.
If two rescuers - 5 heart compressions and 1 lung inflation.
Pupils of eyes should be checked during heart compression. A pupil that constricts on
exposure to light shows that the brain is getting adequate blood and oxygen.

11.4.10 INSERTION OF GUEDEL AIRWAY

This airway is for use in an unconscious patient who is breathing on his own, but with great difficulty. The
function of the airway is to ensure a clear passage between the lips and the back of the throat.
First remove any dentures and suck or swab out any blood or whom it which is in the mouth in order to
clear the air passage. Then, with the head fully back, slide the airway gently into the mouth with the outer
curve of the airway towards the tongue. This operation will be easier if the airway is wetted.

If there is any attempt by the patient to gag, retch or vomit, it is better not to or proceed with the insertion
of the airway. If necessary, try again later to insert it.
Continue to slide the air way in until the flange of the airway reaches the lips. Then rotate the airway
o
through 180 so that the outer curve is towards the roof of the mouth.
P P

Bring the jaw upwards and push the airway in until the flange at the end of the airway is outside the teeth
(or gums) and inside the lips. If necessary tape one or both lips so that the end of the airway is not
covered by them.

Cheek now that the patient's breath is coming through the airway. Continue to keep the jaws upward and
the head fully back so that the airway will be held in place by the teeth or gums and by its shape.

As the patient regains consciousness, he will spit out the airway.

He should remain in the unconscious position under constant observation until he is fully conscious. If he
relapses into unconsciousness it may be necessary to reinsert the airway if breathing is still difficult.

11.4.11 THE HIGH SITTING-UP POSITION

The following position should be used for the casualty who is conscious but having difficulty in breathing,
whatever the cause. It is very important that a casualty who shows signs of pulmonary oedema should be
placed in this position.

11.4.12 MORPHINE ADMINISTRATION

Morphine is a very strong pain-relieving drug which should be used with care. It should be given only
where specifically advised in this Guide or on the instruction of a doctor giving advice by radio.

Give 7.5 mg (half an ampoule) intramuscularly as the first dose.

If there is no pain relief within 30 minutes, give a further 7.5 mg (half an ampoule) intramuscularly.
A dose of 7.5 mg (half an ampoule) may be repeated every 4 hours if there is persistent pain.

This drug should be given with caution if there is shortness of breath. It depresses breathing activity if too
much is given, or the casualty is sensitive to it.
The following signs indicate overtreatment with morphine:
Shallow and slow breathing.
Irregular breathing pattern.
Development of unconsciousness if the casualty was conscious at first
Small pin-point pupils of the eyes.

If these signs are present, RADIO FOR MEDICAL ADVICE.

You may be advised by the doctor to give naloxone hydrochloride, which counter acts these
side effects of morphine.
The usual procedure is:
Give 0. 8 mg naloxone hydrochloride intramuscularly.
There should be an improvement within 15 minutes if the patient's condition is due to morphine.

If there is a response, give 0.8 mg naloxone hydrochloride intramuscularly every hour until the casualty
recovers from the above signs.

11.4.13 GENERAL TOXIC HAZARDS

11.4.13.1 Chemical hazards from fire
Combustion of many chemicals may produce a wide range of substances, which are toxic. These may be
present at a distance from the main site of the fire, and may have no odour. Self-contained breathing
apparatus should be used in approaching chemical fires.

Ale symptoms may include:

Dizziness.
Headache.
Nausea and vomiting.
A persistent cough and difficulty in breathing.
Unconsciousness.

Inhalation of fumes may result in rapid collapse and unconsciousness. Pulmonary oedema may develop
after a few hours.

The main toxic chemicals which may be produced are listed below:
Carbon dioxide.
Carbon monoxide.
Hydrochloric acid fumes.
Hydrogen cyanide.
Nitrogen oxides. (Particularly produced in smouldering fires.)

Treatment
The main danger from fume exposure is asphyxia.

The patient should be:

- Removed rapidly to a fresh atmosphere.

- Given oxygen.

- Treated appropriately for asphyxia.

If burns are present as a result of the fire, they should be treated as for chemical burns.

11.4.13.2 Hazards from welding

Symptoms of poisoning may arise during welding in confined spaces, if adequate precautions are not
taken. The main danger is from nitrogen oxides. Certain metal alloys, in particular those containing zinc
or cadmium, give off fumes causing characteristic symptoms known as "metal fume fever". These usually
do not develop for a period of 6 to 1 2 hours after exposure, and comprise:
Shivering.
Fever, headache and muscle pains.
Nausea.
A dry cough.
These symptoms usually resolve spontaneously without any treatment over the following 12 hours.
Pulmonary oedema, however, may occur as a very rare complication.
If the patient is removed from any further exposure there are no lasting effects or recurrence.
11.4.13.3 Hazards from explosive chemicals
The main hazard is injury from explosion. Contact with explosives does not normally cause a medical
problem from the chemicals themselves, unless they are in a decomposed state, when they may produce
fumes, particularly of nitrogen oxides, which may be inhaled.
If the chemicals are in contact with the skin, they should be washed off with water.
If fumes are inhaled, the patient should be treated as directed.
If signs and symptoms occur following exposure to explosive chemicals RADIO FOR MEDICAL
ADVICE.
11.4.14 EMERGENCY TREATMENT
11.4.14.1 Skin contact
If the chemical has affected the eyes, they should have PRIOR attention.
Remove contaminated clothing and shoes immediately. Wash off the chemical immediately with copious
quantities of water for at least 10 minutes. Continue for a further 10 minutes if there is any evidence of
chemicals still on the skin.

If there is evidence of a chemical burn, as demonstrated by redness and pain, remove the casualty to the
sick-bay without delay and give the treatment prescribed under.

If there is no evidence of a chemical burn, check in the relevant chemical table to see whether absorption
of the chemical through the intact skin is possible, causing general symptoms of poisoning. If such a
possibility does exist, the patient should be kept under close observation for a period of not less than 24
hours, or longer if specified in the relevant technical table.

Give half a cup of water every 10 minutes to help replace fluid loss if the bum is other than small in area.

If burns are severe and extensive, RADIO FOR MEDICAL ADVICE.

11.4.14.2 Eye contact
Wash the chemical out of the eye with copious amounts of water as quickly as possible. Keep the eyelids
widely apart, as illustrated. This must be done thoroughly for 10 minutes, timed by the clock.

If there is any doubt whether the chemical has been completely removed, repeat the eyewash for a further
10 minutes.
RADIO FOR MEDICAL ADVICE.
If severe pain is experienced, physical restraint of the patient may be necessary in order to be certain of
elective treatment. For treatment of pain, give 2 paracetamol tablets by mouth every 4 hours until the pain
has been relieved. If there is very severe pain, give morphine sulphate 7.5 mg (half an ampoule)
intramuscularly and seek medical advice by radio.

Stain the eye with fluorescein

If there is a particular area of the eye which stains green with fluorescein, then tetracycline-hydrochloride
1% eye ointment should be used. This will prevent the eyelid sticking to the eyeball.

Put the ointment into the eye every 2 hours and cover the eye with a dry gauze pad. Hold in place
securely by using sticking plaster.

Treatment should be continued for 24 hours after the eye is no longer inflamed, and is white.
11.4.14.3 Inhalation
Remove the casualty at once from the polluted atmosphere - ensure that rescuers are equipped with self-
breathing apparatus so that they do not become the next casualty.

Check that the casualty is breathing.

Tilt the head firmly backwards as far as it will go to relieve obstructed breathing. Listen for breathing with
ear over nose and mouth.

Not breathing
 GIVE ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION AT ONCE.

GIVE CARDIAC COMPRESSION IT THE PULSE IS ABSENT.

Breathing and unconscious

Place the patient in the unconscious position.

Check to see if there is any obstruction in the mouth which will stop breathing.
Pull the tongue forward.
Suck or swab out excess secretions
Clean any vomit from the back of the throat
Remove any dentures.
Insert a Guedel airway to prevent the tongue slipping back and obstructing the upper air passage; it
should be left in place until the patient becomes conscious again.

Give oxygen.
Keep the patient warm.
DO NOT GIVE ANYTHING BY MOUTH TO AN UNCONSCIOUS PATIENT.
DO NOT GIVE ALCOHOL, MORPHINE OR ANY STIMULANT.
For further treatment of an unconscious patient see 5.3 and the IMGS.

Breathing and conscious

The patient may be conscious, but having difficulty in breathing.

Place the patient in the high sitting-up position and keep him warm.
Give oxygen.
If the breathing does not improve despite these measures, then asphyxia or pulmonary oedema may have
occurred.

If the patient's condition deteriorates rapidly, RADIO FOR MEDICAL ADVICE.

11.4.14.4 Oxygen therapy
Warning:
Smoking, naked light or fires must not be allowed in the same room during the
administration of oxygen because of the risk of fire.

Oxygen is essential to life. It is given for treatment when the body is unable to get enough oxygen from
the air because of damage to the lungs or because of other causes such as asphyxia.

Oxygen must be given with care since it can be dangerous to patients who have had breathing difficulties
for a number of years due to lung disease, particularly chronic bronchitis.

The accidents where a patient may require oxygen can be divided into two stages:

Stage 1 - During rescue from the place of an accident

During this time the patient should be connected to the portable oxygen apparatus through a mask placed
over his face. The oxygen valve should be turned on and oxygen administered until the patient is
transferred to the ship's sick-bay.
If a portable oxygen apparatus is not available, air may be given by use of a self-contained breathing
apparatus fitted with a separate airline.

Stage 2 - The patient is in the ship’s sick-bay

The procedure should be followed as set out below:

The unconscious patient

1 Ensure that a clear airway has been established and a Guedel airway has been inserted.

2 Place over the nose and mouth a disposable mask which is designed to give 35% oxygen to the
patient. Ensure that it remains securely in place. Cheek that the equipment is correctly
assembled according to manufacturer's instructions and that sufficient oxygen is contained in the
cylinder.
3 Connect the mask to the flowmeter, using the tubing provided, and set the flowmeter to 4 litres
per minute. This should be continued until the patient no longer has difficulty in breathing and
has a healthy colour.

The conscious patient

1 Ask the patient whether he usually suffers from severe difficulty in breathing with a chronic cough,
i.e. chronic bronchitis.
If the patient has severe chronic bronchitis, then he should be given only 24% oxygen, using a
mask designed fort his purpose, with the flowmeter set at 4 litres per minute.
2 All other patients should be given 35% oxygen, using a mask designed for this purpose, with the
flowmeter set at 4 litres per minute.
3 The appropriate mask, as above, should be placed over the patient's mouth and nose and
secured to remain correctly in place.
4 The patient should be placed in the high sitting-up position.
5 Check that the equipment is correctly assembled according to the manufacturers instructions and
that sufficient oxygen is contained in the cylinder.
6 Turn on the oxygen flowmeter to 4 litres per minute.

Oxygen therapy should be continued until the patient no longer has difficulty in breathing and has a
healthy colour.
If the patient has difficulty in breathing, or the face, hands and lips remain blue for longer than 15 to 20
minutes, he probably has one of the following complications:

Asphyxia.

Pulmonary oedema.

Bronchitis and pneumonia.

Circulatory collapse.

RADIO FOR MEDICAL ADVICE.

11.4.15 INGESTION

DO NOT UNDER ANY CIRCUMSTANCE MAKE THE PATIENT VOMIT.

If unconscious

- Place in the unconscious position.

- Check that the patient is breathing spontaneously.

- Give artificial respiration if he is not breathing.

- DO NOT GIVE ANYTING BY MOUTH WHILST THE PATIENT IS UNCONSCIOUS.

- DO NOT GIVE ALCOHOL, MORPHINE OR ANY STIMULANT.

- RADIO FOR MEDICAL ADVICE.

If conscious

If the chemical is corrosive:

- Give 500 ml (1 pint) of water to drink as soon as possible if the poisoning is by:

- PHOSPHORUS.

- CHLORINATED HYDROCARBONS.

- DEGREASING SOLVENTS.
DO NOT GIVE MILK with these chemicals.

For poisoning by all other corrosive chemicals give 500 @ (1 pint) of milk to drink (or water, if milk
is not available) as soon as possible.

If the chemical is non-corrosive:

- Give two sachets (10 g) of activated charcoal dispersed in 500 ml (1 pint) of water, followed by three
doses of one sachet (5 g) in 100 ml of water at intervals of 20 minutes.

If the chemical is not known:

- Decide whether the chemical is corrosive or non-corrosive and treat appropriately as above.

- If it is not possible to decide whether the chemical is corrosive or not, then give 500 Ml (1 pint) of
water to drink.

- RADIO FOR MEDICAL ADVICE.

The patient should be kept warm in bed in all circumstances until he has recovered. If severe pain and
vomiting occur, RADIO FOR MEDICAL ADVICE. Remember that vomit may be inhaled into the lungs,
causing difficulty in breathing; if this occurs, treat as for inhalation.