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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

In recent years, there has been a significant increase in the number of small
satellites being launched into space. These satellites, also known as CubeSats, are often used for
a variety of purposes such as Earth observation, communication, and scientific research. With
the rise in the number of small satellites, there has also been an increased need for efficient and
reliable communication systems.

Space laser communications have emerged as a promising solution for small

satellites and constellations. Compared to traditional radio frequency (RF) communications, laser
communication systems offer higher data rates, lower power consumption, and more secure
transmissions. Additionally, laser communication systems can be more easily miniaturized,
making them well-suited for small satellites.

This trend towards space laser communications has led to the development of new
technologies, including compact laser transmitters and receivers, as well as new communication
protocols and networking architectures. These advancements have the potential to revolutionize
the way we communicate with small satellites and enable new capabilities in Earth observation,
remote sensing, and scientific research.

In some cases, pain recognition through the patient’s behavior is not reliable. The
patient can intentionally control emotional expression. Furthermore, the patients express pain
behavior depending on their personality. Some patients lose awareness and do not express
painful emotions clearly and reliably. It is difficult to recognize pain through emotional behavior.
Therefore, pain recognition using physiological signals is essential.

Laser communications for constellation satelites Global satellite communications

services by NGSO satellite systems have been planned and launched from many countries.
Compared with GEO satellites, the advantages of LEO and medium Earth orbit (MEO) satellite
constellations are the low latency and the lower power required owing to the shorter distance,
which makes it possible to miniaturize the equipment. In addition, RF satellite communications

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constellation systems. Space-X launched 60 LEO satellites simultaneously in

May 2019 and plans to establish a global broadband satellite network in the Starlink
program. By the mid-2020s, 12,000 satellites will be launched and provide internet services
of up ommunication . In April 2019, Amazon announced their plans to launch 3236 LEO
satellites, called Kuiper Systems. It will provide broadband internet connection services with
low latency and it will also use laser communication .

Facebook is planning an E-band (71–86 GHz) satellite communication

experiment with a small satellite called Athena through a company called PointView Tech
LLC. The application for the E-band frequency has been filed with the Federal
Communications Commission. Athena will be launched in September 2019 and deliver data
10 times faster than Space-X’s Starlink Internet satellites . Laser Light Communications
plans to create a 12-MEOsatellite constellation and achieve a total capacity of 7.2 Tbps at a
wavelength of 1.5 μm and 100 Gbps-class data rates.

The satellites and the ground systems have been prepared with Australian
telecommunications company Optus, and a global network will be established between the
terrestrial fiber system and the satellite system .

BridgeCom (formerly BridgeSat) is aiming to create a 10- Gbps LEO constellation

of small satellites at a wavelength of 1.5 μm and laser communication services based on a
global optical ground station network. Fifty optical ground stations with software defined
modems will be distributed worldwide and will provide laser communication services,
including small satellites and unmanned aerial vehicles.

LeoSat will launch 108 LEO satellites and provide RF user links and the inter-
satellite laser communication links at a wavelength of 1.5 μm. Full operation will be
achieved by using 78 satellites around 2020. The main feature is to provide a business
business.zzservice with a low latency of less than 50–60 ms and 50 Mps/user–7.2 Gbps/user
communication.

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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

 Laser communication for small satellites: recent advances and future prospects" by D. K.
Borah et al. (2021)

 This paper provides a comprehensive review of recent advances in laser communication

technologies for small satellites. The authors discuss various system architectures, including
direct and relay systems, and review the latest developments in laser sources, modulators,
detectors, and pointing and tracking systems. The paper also discusses the challenges associated
with the implementation of laser communication systems for small satellites and proposes some
potential solutions.

 "Laser Communication Technologies for Small Satellite Constellations" by R. Jain et al. (2020)

 This paper provides an overview of the recent developments in laser communication

technologies for small satellite constellations. The authors discuss the different types of laser
communication systems, including inter-satellite links, satellite-to-ground links, and ground-to-
satellite links, and review the latest advancements in laser communication components, such as
modulators, amplifiers, and receivers. The paper also highlights the challenges associated with
the integration of laser communication systems into small satellite constellations and provides
some recommendations to overcome these challenges..

 widely used. In unidirectional LSTM, the hidden state carries contextual information from the
backward to the forward direction in a unidirectional manner. Bidirectional LSTM is a sequence
processing model that carries two LSTM directions: forward and backward. This helps
BiLSTMs effectively increase the amount of information available to the network. Therefore,
BiLSTMs help extract temporal information and capture context information as a time series of
physiological signals

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o Research and development in the USA The National Aeronautics and Space Administration
(NASA) plans to launch the Laser Communication Relay Demonstration (LCRD) satellite,
which will demonstrate 2.88 Gbps laser communications in geostationary orbit (GEO) in August
2020 .

o The modulation scheme is a differential phaser shift keying (DPSK) at a wavelength of 1.5 μm.
NASA aims to achieve 200 Gbps laser communications by 2024 and 300 Gbps between GEO-
GEO links. NASA will terminate its budget allocation to the International Space Station (ISS)
and establish the Lunar Orbital Platform-Gateway (LOP-G) in collaboration with the private
sector and international organizations, with lunar human space exploration as the long-term
objective. The propulsion module for LOP-G will be launched in 2022 and laser communications
with pulse position modulation are expected to be used [4].

 B. Research and development in Europe Copernicus, previously known as Global Monitoring for
Environment and Security, is the European program for establishing European capacity for Earth
observation, and the European Data Relay System (EDRS) is operated by using two GEO
satellites called EDRS-A and EDRS-C. EDRS-A is now in orbit and EDRS-C was launched on
August 6, 2019. The measured data from the Earth observation satellites (Sentinel-1A, 1B, 2A,
2B, 3B) are transmitted via laser communication links [5]. Recently, the European Space Age

 C. Research and development in Japan The National Institute of Information and

Communications Technology (NICT; formerly the Communications Research Laboratory)
demonstrated the first ground-to-GEO laser communication experiment by using the Japanese
Engineering Test Satellite VI (ETS-VI) satellite [7]. The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency
(JAXA; formerly the National Space Development Agency of Japan) launched the Optical Inter-
orbit Communications Engineering Test Satellite (OICETS). In December 2005, the first bi-
directional laser communications demonstration between the low Earth orbit (LEO) and GEO
was conducted [8] and the first laser communication experiment between the LEO satellite and
NICT optical ground station was demonstrated

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CHAPTER 3
METHOLODOGY

The methodology for studying recent trends in space laser communications for small satellites
and constellations typically involves the following steps:

Literature review: This involves a comprehensive review of relevant literature, including

scientific articles, reports, and conference proceedings, to identify current trends and research
gaps in space laser communications.

Data collection: This involves gathering data on the performance of existing space laser
communication systems, including their data rates, link budgets, and other key parameters. This
data can be obtained from previous research studies or from industry sources.

Analysis: This involves analyzing the collected data to identify patterns, trends, and relationships
among the different variables of interest. The analysis can be performed using statistical
methods, machine learning algorithms, or other analytical techniques.

Design and implementation of experiments: Based on the results of the analysis, researchers may
design and conduct experiments to evaluate the performance of new space laser communication
systems or to test new technologies or techniques.

Evaluation and validation: This involves evaluating the results of the experiments and validating
the findings against existing literature and industry standards.

Based on the analysis and evaluation, researchers can draw and make recommendations for
future research or for the development of new space laser communication systems.

Overall, the methodology for studying recent trends in space laser communications for small
satellites and constellations involves a multidisciplinary approach that combines elements of
engineering, physics, and computer sciencepropose a subject subset of 20 that excludes

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participants as noise subjects because they do not respond clearly to applied pain stimuli. So,
LOSO cross-validation is conducted with the remaining 67 subjects. We train 50 epochs with 64
samples for the batch.

Radio Link
The lasercom system design necessarily incorporates a radio link that is used for command and
control of the satellite. This low-rate link is used to assist the pointing, acquisition and tracking
process and can also provide precision orbit determination functionality . Command and control
functions are typically low data rate (e.g., 39 < 9.6 kbps), so it is envisioned that this link would
be implemented as a narrow band modulation of some form. A license must be obtained for this
radio system and the associated ground station network. The underlying licensing process can be
complex and is highly dependent on the satellite’s country-of-origin as well as sponsor (e.g.,
governmental, educational, commercial, etc). In this process is described in detail for CubeSats
developed in the United States. In general, narrow band allocations (e.g., links that could support
a few kilobits per second) are easier to obtain than broad band allocations (e.g., 5 MHz of

bandwidth for a 2.5 Mbps downlink) .

Laser Safety Regulations

Eye safety is an important design aspect for any system employing free-space
propagation of lasers. Both ANSI and IEC provide standards for the safe use of lasers [56, 57].
These standards give guidelines on maximum permitted exposure (MPE) in terms of W cm−2 as
a function of wavelength for both ocular and skin exposure. The lasercom system’s transmit
power, beam divergence angle, and observation distance are used to judge whether the signal is
eye safe. For the downlink laser proposed in this system the signal as observed from the ground
is many orders of magnitude below the MPE. The proposed system operates with a 200 mW
transmit power at 1550 nm. The ANSI Z126.1 standard specifies an ocular MPE of 0.1W cm−2
at this wavelength. Assuming a 0.9 mm transmit aperture and a 2.1 mrad half-power beamwidth,
the Nominal Hazard Zone (NHZ) is approximately 4.1 m. Clearly, this signal would be well
below MPE as viewed from the ground but care must.

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Fig. 3. Frequency map for mega-constellation satellitie services and applications.

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1. CHAPTER 4
1. ADVANTAGES
2. Laser communication in space is the use of free-space optical
communication in outer space. Communication may be fully in space (an inter-satellite
laser link) or in a ground-to-satellite or satellite-to-ground application. The main
advantage of using laser communications over radio waves is increased bandwidth,
enabling the transfer of more data in less time.
3. In outer space, the communication range of free-space optical communication [1] is
currently of the order of hundreds of thousands of kilometers. Laser-based optical
communication has been demonstrated between the Earth and Moon and it has the
potential to bridge interplanetary distances of millions of kilometers, using optical
telescopes as beam expanders.
a. Military applications of small satellites

b. Figure 3 shows the recent trends in mega-constellation services and applications with small
satellites. The applications are categorized as laser communications, broadband satcom, Earth
observation, and IoT/machine-tomachine (M2M). Earth observation and IoT/M2M CubeSats are
already in service.

4. The technological trends are summarized in Fig. 4 and future services are plotted as a function of
the frequency usage for each service based on. The existing Ku/Ka-band GEO satellite service
will remain in order to preserve the interests of radio frequency license holders.

5. In the expansion of the LEO satellite communications markets, the frequency allocation will be
the key issue for mega-constellations. The IoT/M2M application for mobile platforms will be
used more and it is important to connect the broadband satcom and IoT/M2M/5G networks.

6. Integrated network control technology will be important to optimize the traffic among the
heterogeneous network components in the future.

7. Figure 5 shows the applications and link scenarios of space laser communications for mega-
constellations. Space laser communication is categorized as short-duration missions, GEO data
relay, broadband satcom, all-optical communication, and cyber security.

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8. Optical systems will be used in networks, such as ultra-broadband, owing to the problems with
frequency allocation. In addition, space cyber security can be achieved only by quantum
cryptography based on laser technology.

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CHAPTER 5
APPLICATIONS

 pace laser communications, also known as optical communications, involve the use of laser
beams to transmit information between satellites and ground stations. It is a rapidly evolving
field, and recent advancements in space laser communications have opened up new possibilities
for small satellites and constellations. Here are some of the recent trends in space laser
communications for small satellites and constellations:

 Increased Data Rates: One of the primary advantages of space laser communications is its ability
to transmit data at high speeds. Recent developments have led to data rates of up to several
gigabits per second, which is several times faster than traditional radio frequency (RF)
communications.

 Improved Reliability: Space laser communications are less susceptible to interference and offer
higher reliability than RF communications. Advances in technology have made space laser
communications more resilient to atmospheric conditions, making them a more reliable option
for satellite communication.
 Cost-Effective Solutions: Advances in technology have made space laser communications more
cost-effective. It is now possible to manufacture smaller and lighter optical terminals, which
reduces the cost of launching and operating satellites.

 Applications in Earth Observation: Space laser communications have several applications in

earth observation. For instance, it can be used for remote sensing, weather forecasting, and
environmental monitoring. The high data rates offered by space laser communications make it
possible to transmit large amounts of data from space, which can be used to improve our
understanding of the earth's environment.

 Applications in Space Exploration: Space laser communications have also found applications in
space exploration. It can be used for interplanetary communications, enabling high-speed
communication between spacecraft and ground stations. This is especially useful for missions
that require real-time communication and control.

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 In summary, recent trends in space laser communications have made it a more advantageous and
reliable option for small satellites and constellations. The technology is becoming more cost-
effective, offering higher data rates and improved reliability, which has led to several
applications in earth observation and space exploration.

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CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION

Recent trends in space laser communications for small and constellation satellites were
introduced. The applications and technological trends were analyzed and the future prospects
were described. A large number of global satellite communications services for NGSO
satellite systems have been planned and launched from many countries all over the world,
and these systems require more attention. The use of CubeSat laser communication will
expand because laser communication has been verified in orbit by using CubeSat satellites.
Space laser communications will be used more by venture companies and private sector
industries in addition to government institutes in the future.

this thesis we have designed and prototyped a solution to address one of the central
limitations of CubeSat technology today: high-speed, power-efficient communications.
Existing laser communications technologies were reviewed and mapped onto CubeSat
capabilities (e.g., pointing performance and SWaP). During this process, we identified two
significant implementation gaps that stood in the way of realizing the link-efficiency benefits
of lasercom: the lack of suitable fine-steering solutions, and the unavailability of compact
high-rate optical transmitters. Solutions were developed to address these implementations
gaps, prototyped, and validated in the lab. Along the way, many of the design decisions were
driven by the pragmatic COTS-based approach common to most aspects of CubeSat design.
For a flight demonstration, some work lies ahead. Additional engineering effort, particularly
with regard to packaging and integration, are likely to be a significant portion of this work.
Further development of the pointing, acquisition and tracking (PAT) procedures is also
necessary and being pursued in parallel by another graduate student. Finally, it will be
necessary to conduct environmental testing on the packaged terminal design to ensure
robustness.

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CHAPTER 7
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