CHAPTER – 1

COMPANY PROFILE

1.1 Introduction

Instruments Research and Development Establishment (IRDE), is a major equipment oriented

establishment within Defense Research and Development Organization, It came into existence
in its present form as an institute devoted exclusively to research and development in the field
of instrumentation. It, however, has an earlier history as a composite establishment performing
dual role of R&D and inspection. Its origin can be traced back to the year 1939, when
inspectorate of scientific stores was formed at Rawalpindi (Pakistan) for the inspection of
telecommunication equipment’s, used by Indian Army. It underwent changes taking the shape
of Technical Development Establishment (Instruments and Electronics). With the increase in
tempo of R&D work the responsibility to meet over increasing and exacting requirements of
services in the respect of more and more advanced and sophisticated equipment, the
establishment was upgraded to I.R.D.E. in February 1960.

Figure 1.1: I.R.D.E

1
1.1.1 Nature of Work at IRDE

R&D, Design and Technology in the fields of Optical and Electro-Optical Instrumentation, Fire
Control Systems, Infrared search & Track, and Stand Alone Surveillance Systems. R&D in
applied optics including Optics Design, Optics Technology, Night Vision, Integrated & Non
Linear Optics, Holography and Optical Signal processing etc.

1.1.2 Major Areas of Activities

1. Design and development in the fields of optical, electro-optical and optronic

instrumentation for surveillance, reconnaissance, piloting, navigation, guidance, target
identification and acquisition, designation, ranging and counter measures under all
weather conditions during day and night.
2. Design and development of complete Fire Control Systems and devices.
3. Design and development of Infra-Red Search & Track (IRST) Systems.
4. Design and development of Stand Alone Surveillance Systems.
5. Applied and background research and development in applied optics.
6. Creation and maintenance of facilities for parametric measurements, performance and
environmental evaluation of optical and electro-optical components/systems.
7. Transfer of technology to public and private sectors
8. Consultancy on optical and electro-optical instruments, components and materials.

1.1.3 Research Areas

1. Optical Design
2. Holography
3. Optical Image Processing & Photonic Target Recognition Techniques
4. Adaptive Optics
5. Integrated Optics
6. Micro-optics & Nano-photonics
7. Terahertz Sources & Imaging

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1.1.4 Products from IRDE Include

1. Target Acquisition Systems

2. Stand Alone Thermal Imagers
3. Night Vision Devices (II Sight, LLTV)
4. Complete Fire Control Systems
5. Day Vision Devices (Episcopes, Binoculars, CPS, Sighting Systems etc.)
6. Stabilization Systems
7. Laser Range Finders
8. Laser Range Sensors
9. Laser Altitude Switches
10. Laser Warning Systems
11. Electro-Optical Fire Control System for armored vehicles and naval ships.
12. Thermal Imaging based Surveillance Systems (Standalone and Platform mounted).
13. Laser Range Finders, Designators, Seekers & Proximity Sensors.
14. Holographic Sight
15. Gap Measuring Device Mk III
16. Electro-optical Fire Control System for Naval Ship
17. Integrated Multi-function Sight (IMFS) (HHTI with LRF)
18. Holographic Sight
19. Helmet Mounted Thermal Imaging Camera (HMTIC)
20. Light Weight Portable Laser Target Designator for Airforce

1.1.5 Infrastructure

The establishment has well equipped laboratories looking after the development of optical
instruments, night vision equipment, holographic systems, thermal imaging systems etc. All
these laboratories are equipped with sophisticated and modern test equipment and devices.

3
 Facilities Available

1. Software for optical design

2. Optics Grinding and Polishing Machines
3. Laser interferometer.
4. Coating facility on optics for visible and IR region
5. Signal-to-noise ratio test facility.
6. CAD/CAM facility (3D printing).
7. Rapid prototyping facility.
8. Thermal imaging systems evaluation facility.
9. Night vision device test facility.
10. 3-axes stabilization test facility.
11. Environmental test laboratory.
12. Mask-aligner facility for photolithography.
13. Optics Grinding Machine
14. High Vacuum Coating Plant
15. Centering & Edging Machine
16. Optics Polishing Machine
17. Aspheric Interferometer
18. Shock Test Machine

1.1.6 Library & Documentation Service

The establishment has well equipped reprographic section to look after printing and
reproduction work of technical documents and drawing. It also has a well- stocked technical
laboratory.

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 CHAPTER – 2
ORIENTATION

2.1 Introduction

Orientation in an introductory program to the working environment, Labs,

Infrastructure and facilities at IRDE for the new to the IRDE environment. Conduction
of orientation started with the introduction of Labs and facilities of OME (OPTO-
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING) section of IRDE. The program allowed us to visit
workshops, design center, labs and gave us opportunity to learn more from experienced
scientists, engineers and technicians. OME is responsible for designing and
development of mechanical components for optical instruments. A number of
workshops were visited during the orientation program that are as follows:-

 Machine Shop
 NC Centre
 HOT and COLD Ancillary
 Mechanical Inspection Lab (MIL)
 SPDT
 TDC
 Chemical Lab
 CAD Centre

2.2 Machine Shop

Machine shop is a workshop with a primary objective of machining of work piece using
appropriate tools and machines to obtain desired job as per the design requirement.
Some of the basic operations that includes cutting, drilling, facing, etc. A machine shop
contains raw materials and an inventory for finished parts. These items are often stored
in a warehouse.

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2.2.1 Lathe Machine

A lathe Machine (Figure 2.1) is used for cutting, drilling, knurling and other (Figure
2.2) related machine operations. Lathe is one of the old machines that are used for
cutting and knurling operations. This machine has the property of producing a three-
dimensional surface.
.

Figure. 2.1 Lathe Machine

Figure 2.2 Various operation on Lathe

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Lathe machine is used in almost every part of the world and every industry. It is one of
the oldest known machines that we can use for the operations like cutting, knurling,
facing, drilling etc.

2.2.2 Milling Machine

Milling is a process performed with a machine in which the cutters rotate to remove the
material from the work piece present in the direction of the angle with the tool axis.
With the help of the milling machines one can perform many operations and functions
starting from small objects to large ones.
The milling machines (Figure 2.3) are also known as the multi-tasking machines
(MTMs) which are multi-purpose machines capable of milling and turning the materials
as well. The milling machine has got the cutter installed up on it which helps in
removing the material from the surface of the work piece. When the material gets
cooled down then it is removed from the milling machine.

Figure. 2.3 Milling Machine

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2.2.3 SAW Machine

Saw machine is used for cutting the hard materials, cutting is done by drawing a
blade, circular cutting disks or abrasive tool by reciprocating or circular motion of
stool for material removal. Types of saw machines (Figure 2.4).

(a) (b)

(c)

Figure 2.4 (a) Circular saw, (b) Hacksaw and (c) Jigsaw

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2.2.4 Shaper Machine

It is a low cost machine tool used for initial rough machining of the blanks. It is a
relatively slow machine tool with very low metal removal capability. It uses a single
point tool similar to lathe (Figure 2.5), clamped to the tool post mounted to a clapper
box which is in turn mounted on the reciprocating ram.

Figure. 2.5 Shaper Machine

2.2.5 Gear Hobbing Machine

Hobbing is a machining process for gear cutting, cutting splines, and

cutting sprockets on a hobbing machine (Figure 2.6), which is a special type of milling
machine. The teeth or splines of the gear are progressively cut into the material (a flat,
cylindrical piece of metal) by a series of cuts made by a cutting tool called a hob.
Compared to other gear forming processes it is relatively inexpensive but still quite
accurate, thus it is used for a broad range of parts and quantities. It is most widely used
for cutting spur and helical gears and hobbing process is extensively used for gear
cutting, more than any other process owing to its quick speed and inexpensive feature.

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 Figure 2.6 Gear Hobbing Machine

2.3 NC Centre

Numerical Control lab or NC lab is mainly concerned with the machining of the
workpiece by mean of machines that are computerized and work as per the feed
program codes called control commands. When a NC system is operated the desired
motion and tool movement is programed in the NC software which later feeds the tool
and control its motion. In NC programming, the code generator within the numerical
system will often assume mechanisms are flawless, despite the possibility of errors,
which is greater whenever a machine is directed to cut in more than one direction
simultaneously. The placement of a tool in a numerical control system is outlined by a
series of inputs known as the part program. Series of steps needed to produce any part
is highly automated and produces a part that closely matches the original CAD.

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2.3.1 Universal Milling Machine

Milling machines (Figure 2.7) are very versatile. They are usually used to machine flat
surfaces, but can also produce irregular surfaces. They can also be used to drill, bore,
cut gears, and produce slots. The type of milling machine most commonly found in
student shops is a vertical spindle machine with a swiveling head.

Table 2.1 Specification of Universal Milling Machine

MH-600 C German Milling Machine

Range of motion X = 600 mm
Y = 450 mm
Z = 500 mm
Resolution 0.01 mm
Controlled axis X,Y,Z &180 rotation

Figure 2.7 Universal milling Machine

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2.3.2 5-Axis CNC Milling Machine

The range of motion of the tool is X, Y, Z directions as well as the workpiece can rotate
360 ° along with -120 ° to +30 ° motion of tool.

Table 2.2 Specification of CNC 5-Axis milling Machine

MU Tech 6 [XXXL] by JYOTI

Range of motion X = 750 mm
Y = 560 mm
Z = 560 mm
Tool motion -120° to +30°
Resolution 1 micron per degree
Position accuracy 10 micron

Figure 2.8 CNC 5-Axis milling machine

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2.3.3 CNC Milling Machine (DECKEL FP3NC)

CNC milling (Figure 2.9), or computer numerical control milling, is

a machining process which employs computerized controls and rotating multi-point
cutting tools to progressively remove material from the workpiece and produce a
custom-designed part or product.

Table 2.3 Specification of DECKEL FP3NC Milling Machine

DECKEL FP3NC
Range of motion X = 400 mm
Y = 400 mm
Z = 400 mm
Tool motion 3&1/2
Resolution 1 micron per degree

Figure 2.9 CNC milling machine DECKEL FP3NC

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2.3.4 Universal Milling and Boring Machine

A boring machine (Figure 2.10), boring mill is a machine tool which bores holes in
a horizontal direction. There are three main types table, planer and floor. The table type
is the most common and, as it is the most versatile, it is also known as the universal
boring machine.

Table 2.4 Specification of DECKEL FP3 Boring machine

DECKEL FP3
Range of motion X = 500 mm
Y = 400 mm
Z = 400 mm
Concentricity 0.010/300mm
Parallelism of table 0.010mm

Figure 2.10 Universal milling and boring machine DECKEL FP3

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2.3.5 JIG Boring Machine

Jig boring machines (Figure 2.11) are designed to machine holes with the tightest
tolerances possible with a machine tool.

Table 2.5 Specification of Jig Boring machine

DECKEL FP3NC
Range of motion 200 X 200 mm
Surface of area table 360 X 240 mm2
Drill 0.05 to 5 mm
Accuracy of slide 0.002 mm
location

Figure 2.11 JIG boring machine

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2.3.6 CNC Engraving Machine

Engraving is the practice of incising a design onto a hard, usually flat surface by cutting
grooves into it with a burin. CNC Engraving Machine (Figure 2.12) uses computerized
numerical commands to trace the path of tool and engrave graphics and words.

Table 2.6 Specification of CNC Engraving

Max job size 300 x 200 x 50mm

2D Engraving
Depth of cut Al-Alloy = 0.3mm
Wood = 0.4 mm

Figure 2.12 CNC Engraving Machine

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2.3.7 Honing Machine

Honing is an abrasive machining process that produces a precision surface on a metal

workpiece by scrubbing an abrasive stone against it along a controlled path. Honing is
primarily used to improve the geometric form of a surface, but may also improve the
surface texture. Honing machine (Figure 2.13) uses a tool with a significant surface area
that is covered or made up of abrasive material.

Table 2.7 Specification of Honing Machine

Operations Blind Holes

Open holes with keyway
Open hole with tandem
Open hole with no interruption
Hole 1.524 mm - 66.675 mm

Figure 2.13 Honing machine

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2.3.8 Gear Hobbing Machine

Hobbing is a machining process for gear cutting, and cutting sprockets on a hobbing
machine (Figure 2.14), which is a special type of milling machine.

Table 2.8 Specification of Gear Hobbing Machine

Spur gear Teeth = 6 - 400

Max Dia.=200mm
Max pitch 2 (12 D.P.)
Bevel gear Teeth = 6 - 400
Max Dia. = 80 mm
Max Pitch 2 (12 D.P.)
Worm gear Teeth = 6 – 400
Max Dia. = 125mm
Max Pitch 2 (12 D.P.)

Figure 2.14 CNC Gear Hobbing Machine

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The teeth or splines of the gear are progressively cut into the material (a flat, cylindrical
piece of metal) by a series of cuts made by a cutting tool called a hob. Compared to
other gear forming processes it is relatively inexpensive but still quite accurate, thus it
is used for a broad range of parts and quantities. It is most widely used for cutting spur
and helical gears and hobbing process is extensively used for gear cutting, more than
any other process owing to its quick speed and inexpensive feature.

2.3.9 CNC Lathe Machine

CNC Machine (Figure 2.15) comprises of a mini computer that acts as the controller
unit of the machine where the program that is written using G and M code, is stored.
CNC Machines offer great additional flexibility and computational capability, because
of which they are sometimes also known as “soft wired” NC.

Table 2.9 Specification of CNC Lathe Machine

HARDING COBRA 42

Max Machining Dia. 209 mm

Max Turning Length 355 mm
Turing Tool System VDI 30

Figure 2.15 Harding Cobra CNC Lathe

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2.4 Mechanical Inspection Lab

Mechanical inspection lab (MIL) deals with the material testing, quality check and
metrology of the job. At OME the MIL double up as a material testing unit and the
quality check unit. It performs mechanical tests, Mechanical testing reveals the
properties of a material under dynamic or static force. Designed to ensure that materials
are suitable for their intended applications, mechanical testing includes methods such
as tensile strength, compression strength, impact resistance, fracture toughness and
fatigue.

MIL also performs quality control tests to check wither the finished product meets the
geometrical specification of the design. If the job does not meet the desired
specification it either send back to the workshop or rejected. Approved workpiece goes
for the finishing.

2.4.1 Vernier Caliper

The Vernier caliper (Figure 2.16) is an extremely precise measuring instrument; it is

used to measure internal and external distances extremely accurately. The VERNIER
is a small movable graduated scale for obtaining fractional parts of subdivisions on a
fixed main scale of any measuring instrument. With a normal scale we may be able to
measure down to 0.50 mm or so, while with a Vernier scale the least count may be 0.10
mm.

Figure 2.16 Vernier Caliper

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2.4.2 Micrometer

A micrometer (Figure 2.17) sometimes known as a micrometer screw gauge, is a device

incorporating a calibrated screw widely used for accurate measurement of components.
Micrometers are usually, but not always, in the form of calipers (opposing ends joined
by a frame). The spindle is a very accurately machined screw and the object to be
measured is placed between the spindle and the anvil. The spindle is moved by turning
the ratchet knob or thimble until the object to be measured is lightly touched by both
the spindle and the anvil. A micrometer have least count of 0.01 mm.

Figure 2.17 Micrometer

2.4.3 Depth Gauge Micrometer

The depth gauge micrometer (Figure 2.18) is a precision measuring instrument, used
by engineers to measure depths. Each revolution of the rachet moves the spindle face
0.5mm towards the bottom of the blind hole. The ratchet is turned clockwise until the
spindle face touches the bottom of the blind hole. The scales are read in exactly the
same way as the scales of a normal micrometer.

21
 Figure 2.18 Depth gauge Micrometer

2.4.4 Micro Height Gauge

Micro height gauge (Figure 2.19) applicable to geometric elements measuring

including: height, depth, thickness, slot width, outside & Inside hole, automatic highest
and lowest point search, parallelism, flatness, concentricity, angle, squareness 1D basic
or 2D measuring.

Table 2.10 Specification of Micro Height Gauge

Range 0-900mm
Least count 0.001mm
Accuracy 2+L/600mm
Operations Height measurement
Diameter measurement
Width measurement

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 Figure 2.19 Micro Height Gauge

2.4.5 Coordinate Measuring Machine

A coordinate measuring machine (Figure 2.20) is a device that measures the geometry
of physical objects by sensing discrete points on the surface of the object with a probe.
Various types of probes are used in CMMs, including mechanical, optical, laser, and
white light. Depending on the machine, the probe position may be manually controlled
by an operator or it may be computer controlled. CMMs typically specify a probe's
position in terms of its displacement from a reference position in a three-dimensional
Cartesian coordinate system (i.e., with XYZ axes). In addition to moving the probe
along the X, Y, and Z axes, many machines also allow the probe angle to be controlled
to allow measurement of surfaces that would otherwise be unreachable.

23
 Figure 2.20 CMM

The typical 3D "bridge" CMM allows probe movement along three axes, X, Y and Z,
which are orthogonal to each other in a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system.
Each axis has a sensor that monitors the position of the probe on that axis, typically
with micrometer precision. When the probe contacts (or otherwise detects) a particular
location on the object, the machine samples the three position sensors, thus measuring
the location of one point on the object's surface. This process is repeated as necessary,
moving the probe each time, to produce a "point cloud" which describes the surface
areas of interest.
A common use of CMMs is in manufacturing and assembly processes to test a part or
assembly against the design intent. In such applications, point clouds are generated
which are analyzed via regression algorithms for the construction of features. These
points are collected by using a probe that is positioned manually by an operator or
automatically via Direct Computer Control (DCC). DCC CMMs can be programmed
to repeatedly measure identical parts; thus an automated CMM is a specialized form
of industrial robot.

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2.4.6 Universal Testing Machine

Figure 2.21 Universal testing machine

A universal testing machine (Figure 2.21), also known as a universal tester, materials
testing machine or materials test frame, is used to test the tensile strength and
compressive strength of materials. An earlier name for a tensile testing machine is a
tensometer. The "universal" part of the name reflects that it can perform many standard
tensile and compression tests on materials, components, and structures.

2.4.7 Profile Projector

Profile projector (Figure 2.22) is widely used for complex shape stampings, gears,
cams, threads and comparing the measured contour model. It's easy to use and highly
efficient.
It is a commonly used measurement of optical instruments. Thus, profile projector is
widely used in major machinery manufacturing including aviation, aerospace industry,

25
watches and clocks, electronics, instrumentation industry, research institutes and
detection metering stations at all levels and etc.

Figure 2.22 Profile Projector

2.4.8 Handheld Metal Analyzer

XRF (Figure 2.23) is an acronym for x-ray fluorescence, a process whereby electrons
are displaced from their atomic orbital positions, releasing a burst of energy that is
characteristic of a specific element. This release of energy is then registered by the
detector in then XRF instrument, which in turn categorizes the energies by element

26
 Figure 2.23 XRF Handheld Metal Analyzer

2.5 Single Point Diamond Turning (SPDT)

It is a process of mechanical machining of precision elements using lathes or derivative

machine tools equipped with natural or synthetic diamond-tipped tool bits. The term
single-point diamond turning (SPDT) is sometimes applied, although as with other lathe
work, the "single-point" label is sometimes only nominal (radiused tool noses and
contoured form tools being options). The process of diamond turning is widely used to
manufacture high-quality aspheric optical elements from crystals, metals, acrylic, and
other materials. Plastic optics are frequently molded using diamond turned mold inserts.
Optical elements produced by the means of diamond turning are used in optical
assemblies in telescopes, video projectors, missile guidance systems, lasers, scientific
research instruments, and numerous other systems and devices. Most SPDT today is
done with computer numerical control (CNC) machine tools.

27
 Figure 2.24 SPDT

Table 2.11 Specification of SPDT

Shapes/Types  Flats
 Spherical
 Diffractive Optical Elements
 Aspherical
 Polygons

Diffractive Optical Elements  Metal mirror

 PMMA lenses
 Germanium lenses
 Micro lens array
Materials  Non ferrous metals
 Crystals-Ge, Si, Lithium, ZnS,
ZnSe , Polymers-PMMA
X and Z side travel 220 mm
Maximum spindle speed- 9000 rpm
X-Axis Straightness 0.05 micron/25mm
Z-Axis Straightness- 0.05 micron/25mm
C-Axis Feedback Resolution- 0.010 arc-sec
Motion Accuracy Axial/Radial <= 15nm
Form Accuracy- <= 0.15 micron

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 2.6 Technical Development Centre

Machines available in this division are mostly CNC operated conventional machines.
Apart from that there are conventional machines. Various machines in TDC are
described below.

2.6.1 Harding Machine

This machine is used for performing cutting operations to a very highest accuracy and
superior finished quality and it is able to work in three different axes. This machine is
having an accuracy of about 4 microns. The supporting bed is made of stainless steel
instead of cast iron. In this machine to maintain the cutting speed, hydraulic system is
used. Unlike other machines where gears are used through which only specific speed
can be obtained, but in this machine any particular value of cutting speed can be
obtained.

 Carbide Tool

The cutting speed of this tool is two and a half times to that of high speed steel still, high
speed steel is more preferable because the impact resistance of high speed steel is good
and if there is any vibration, it will be able to bear that and won’t break whereas carbide
won’t be able to resist and will break. The carbide tool is having 15% tungsten.

 High Speed Steel Tool

This tool has high strength and comparatively low hardness whereas carbide has higher
hardness. HSS is having about 52% tungsten.

 Diamond Tool

Diamond tool is used generally for non-ferrous metals. When diamond tool is used with
mild steel, it loses its one bond and becomes weak and might lead to breaking. Work
piece is set or centered on chuck with laser and set it using compressor. This type of tool

29
is generally used to make lenses where very high accuracy is required and we desire a
superior finishing on the surface of the job as crystal clear.

2.6.2 Grinding Machine

Figure. 2.25 Grinding Machine

Grinding machine (Figure 2.25) is used to make the surface of the work piece smooth
and shiny and give it a lustrous appearance. It consists of a wheel made up of a abrasive
material which strikes the surface of the work piece to make it shiny. The types of
materials used in making the abrasive wheels are SiC (silicon carbide), tungsten
carbide.

2.7 CAD Centre

Computer-aided design (CAD) is the use of computer systems to assist in the

Designing, modification, analysis, or optimization of a design. CAD software being
used in CAD Centre increases the productivity of the designer, improves the quality of
design, improves communications through documentation, and helps to create a
database for manufacturing. Different Cad software used are SolidWorks, Auto-desk

30
inventor, AutoCAD etc. To produce detailed engineering designs through 3D and 2D
drawings of the physical components of manufactured products.
To create conceptual design, product layout, strength and dynamic analysis of assembly
and the manufacturing processes themselves. To prepare environmental impact reports,
in which computer-aided designs are used in photographs to produce a rendering of the
appearance when the new structures are built. CAD systems exist today for all of the
major computer platforms, including Windows, Linux, UNIX and Mac OS X. The user
interface generally centers on a computer mouse, but a pen and digitizing graphic tablet
can also be used. View manipulation can be accomplished with a space mouse (or space
ball). Some systems allow stereoscopic glasses for viewing 3D models.

2.7.1 AutoCAD

Figure 2.26 Example of AutoCAD Designing

AutoCAD is a commercial computer-aided design and drafting software application.

Developed and marketed by Autodesk, AutoCAD was first released in December 1982
as a desktop app running on microcomputers with internal graphics controllers. Before
AutoCAD was introduced, most commercial CAD programs ran on mainframe
computers or minicomputers, with each CAD operator (user) working at a separate

31
graphics terminal .Since 2010, AutoCAD was released as a mobile- and web app as
well, marketed as AutoCAD 360. AutoCAD is used across a wide range of industries,
by architects, project managers, engineers, graphic designers, and many other
professionals.

2.7.2 SolidWorks

Figure 2.27 Example of SolidWorks Design

SolidWorks is a solid modeling computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-aided

engineering (CAE) computer program that runs on Microsoft Windows. Solid-Works
is published by Dassault Systems. SolidWorks Corporation was founded in December
1993 by Massachusetts Institute of Technology graduate Jon Hirschtick. SolidWorks
released its first product SolidWorks 95, in November 1995. Solid-Works is a solid
modeler, and utilizes a parametric feature-based approach which was initially
developed by PTC (Creo/Pro-Engineer) to create models and assemblies. The software
is written on Para solid-kernel.
SOLIDWORKS is an easy to use parametric design modular, meaning you can easily
edit the design at any stage in the design process. Real View graphics allow you to
visualize your design in real time whilst Photo View 360 can create sophisticated photo
realistic renderings and animations.

32
2.7.3 ANSYS

Figure 2.28 ANYSYS analysis of spring coil

Ansys software is used to design products and semiconductors, as well as to create

simulations that test a product's durability, temperature distribution, fluid movements
and electromagnetic properties. Ansys was founded in 1970 by John Swan-son.
ANSYS is a general purpose software, used to simulate interactions of all disciplines
of physics, structural, vibration, fluid dynamics, heat transfer and electro-magnetic for
engineers. Ansys made numerous acquisitions of other engineering design companies,
acquiring additional technology for fluid dynamics, electronics design, and other
physics analysis. Ansys develops and markets finite element analysis software used to
simulate engineering problems. The software creates simulated computer models of
structures, electronics, or machine components to simulate strength, toughness,
elasticity, temperature distribution, electromagnetism, fluid flow, and other attributes.

2.8 Rapid Prototyping Technology

Rapid prototyping is a group of techniques used to quickly fabricate a scale model of a

physical part or assembly using three-dimensional computer aided design (CAD) data.
Construction of the part or assembly is usually done using 3D printing (Figure 2.29) or
“additive layer manufacturing” technology.

33
The first methods for rapid prototyping became available in the late 1980s and were
used to produce models and prototype parts. Today, they are used for a wide range of
applications and are used to manufacture production-quality parts in relatively small
numbers if desired without the typical unfavorable short-run economics. This economy
has encouraged online service bureaus. Historical surveys of RP technology start with
discussions of simulacra production techniques used by 19th-century sculptors. Some
modern sculptors use the progeny technology to produce exhibitions. The ability to
reproduce designs from a dataset has given rise to issues of rights, as it is now possible
to interpolate volumetric data from one-dimensional images.

Figure 2.29 3D Printer

Types Techniques
1. 3D Printing
2. Directed light fabrication
3. Fused deposition modelling
4. Laminated object manufacturing

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2.9 Chemical Lab

Chemical lab is the facility where finished products are send for final coating that
preserve the work piece, various type of coatings and paint jobs are done that protects
the job from abrasion, erosion , corrosion and oxidation.
Types of coatings

1. Normal Anodizing
2. Chroming of alloys
3. Phosphating of Steel
4. Black Bronzing of Brass Components.
5. Galvanic Anodization of Magnesium

2.9.1 Normal Anodizing

Figure 2.30 Anodizing Process

Anodizing (Figure 2.30) is an electrolytic passivation and one of the more

environmentally friendly metal finishing process used to increase the thickness of the
natural oxide layer on the surface of metal parts. The part to be treated forms the anode
of the electrical circuit. Anodizing increases resistance to corrosion and wear and
provides better adhesion for paint primers and glues than bare metal does.

35
Anodized aluminum surfaces are harder than aluminum but have low-medium wear
resistance that can be improved by increasing thickness or by applying suitable sealing
substances.

2.9.2 Chroming of Al alloy

Figure 2.31 Chroming of different materials

Chroming is a widely used conversion coating process used to passivate steel,

aluminum, zinc and other metals. The process is named after the chromate that is found
in chromic acid, which is the most widely used chemical in immersion bath process
whereby the coating is applied. During the process, hexavalent ions are reduced to
trivalent ions and a gelatinous layer of chromium ions gets deposited on Al surface. On
drying, hardness is imparted to the material. If there is a scratch on its surface, oxygen
will go inside and will corrode the surface. However if the material is chromatized,
trivalent ions convert into hexavalent ions which have good leachability and thus
prevent chipping off of material. Later on, hexavalent ions get reconverted to trivalent
ions.

36
2.9.3 Bronzing of Brass

Figure 2.32 Bronzed Brass metal

Bronzing is the process of giving a bronze like or antique metallic appearance to

surfaces (Figure 2.32). Before bronzing, the brass is annealed, pickled in dilute nitric
acid till the scales can be removed from the surface and then finally dried. Bronzing is
then performed according to color desired. A steel grey color is deposited on brass from
dilute boiling solution of arsenic chloride and blue by careful treatment with strong
soda hydro-sulphate.

2.9.4 Phosphating of Steel

Figure 2.33 Steel drawn with Phosphating coils

37
Phosphating is the process of converting a steel surface to iron phosphate. A layer of
phosphate coating typically includes iron, zinc or magnesium crystals. When steel or
iron parts are placed in phosphoric acid, this causes a metal reaction which locally
depletes the hydronium ions and raises the pH and causes the dissolved salt to fall out
of the solution and precipitate on the surface. The acid and metal reaction also creates
iron phosphate, which may be deposited.

38
 CHAPTER – 3
HEAT PIPE & TECHNOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

The term HEAT PIPES indicated various types of closed independent evaporator-
condenser devices. Such devices can transport large sum of heat through small cross-
section over a significantly long distance without using any external driving force such
as pumps. Heat pipes does not need a larger temperature gradient to facilitate efficient
heat transport between heat source and heat sink, and have high thermal conductivity
and high heat flux.
Heat pipes are mainly consist of two parts evaporator section and condenser section.
Evaporator section is that part of heat pipe which is in contact with the heat source.
Where else condenser is the part in contact with heat sink. In evaporator, heat is
extracted from heat source because of latent heat of vaporization due to the occurrence
of the phase change from liquid phase to vapour phase of the working fluid. At the
condenser the vapor rejects the heat in form of latent heat of fusion into the heat sink
and changes phase back to liquid again. Heat pipes are more effective because the heat
transfer occurs due to latent heat of phase change and greatly exceeds its sensible heat
capacity.
The motion of vapour occurs because the vapour pressure in the evaporator is higher
than the vapour pressure of condenser, and due to a large difference the vapour motions
is rapid. Whereas the transition of liquid from condenser to evaporator after heat
rejection is facilitated by either gravitational pull or capillary action.
Mass and heat transfer in capillary medium follows the known law of conservation of
mass, momentum and energy. The process of heat transfer through the heat pipe wall
is described in terms of heat conduction equation. Whereas the motion of vapour in
vapour channel is expressed by the system of energy and hydrodynamic motion.
Use of heat pipe provides solutions to problems such as in factors of fuel saving,
environmental protection, large amount of heat transport, range of application,
improves modern mechanical engineering, electronic and heat engineering devices.

39
3.1.1 Literature Review

1. 1839, Jacob perkins (USA, Massachusetts) has patents for heating and air cooling
technology. He investigated refrigeration machinery after discovering from his
research in heating that liquefied ammonia caused a cooling effect. He did his
experiments using HERMETIC (Closed) BOILER TUBES. He is also known as the
father of refrigeration. Most of the Perkins tubes were wickless gravity-assisted heat
pipes (thermosyphons), in which heat transfer was achieved by a change of phase
(latent heat of evaporation). The Perkins tube design closest to the present heat pipe
was patented by Jacob Perkins. This design was a closed tube containing a small
quantity of water operating as a two-phase cycle. [1] (Perkins, J., 1836, UK Patent
No. 7059)

2. 1944, R.S. Gaugler of general Motors Inc. first put forth the concept of modern day
heat pipe. He patented a light weight, heat transfer system which was supposedly
applied to a refrigeration system. He was the first one to introduce the concept of
wick to make the inner fluid return back to the evaporator. Gaugler suggested the
use of a capillary structure consisting of a sintered iron wick. A refrigeration unit
proposed by Gaugler used a heat pipe to transfer the heat from the interior of a
compartment to a pan of crushed ice below. [1,2]

3. 1962, Trefethen, resurrected the idea of a heat pipe in connection with the space
program. Serious development started in 1964 when the heat pipe was
independently reinvented and a patent application was filed by Grover at Los
Alamos National Laboratory in New Mexico. [1,3]

1963, George Grover independently developed capillary-based heat pipes at Los

Alamos National Laboratory in 1963, with his patent of that year being the first to use
the term "heat pipe", and he is often referred to as "the inventor of the heat pipe". He
noted in his notebook: “Such a closed system, requiring no external pumps, may be of
particular interest in space reactors in moving heat from the reactor core to a radiating
system. In the absence of gravity, the forces must only be such as to overcome the
40
capillary and the drag of the returning vapor through its channels.” Grover's suggestion
was taken up by NASA, which played a large role in heat pipe development in the
1960s, particularly regarding applications and reliability in space flight. This was
understandable given the low weight, high heat flux, and zero power draw of heat pipes
– and that they would not be adversely affected by operating in a zero gravity
environment. [1]
George Grover made the following entry into his laboratory notebook: “Heat transfer
capillary movement of fluids. The “pumping” action of surface tension forces may be
sufficient to move liquids from a cold temperature zone to a high-temperature zone
(with subsequent return in vapor form using as the driving force the difference in vapor
pressure at the two temperatures) to be of interest in transferring heat from the hot to
the cold zone. Such a closed system, requiring no external pumps, may be of particular
interest in space reactors in moving heat from the reactor core to a radiating system. In
the absence of gravity, the forces must only be such as to overcome the capillary and
the drag of the returning vapor through its channels.” [1]

Thus, began heat pipe research at Los Alamos. Later that year, Grover submitted the
results of “heat pipe” experiments with water and sodium as working fluids to the
Journal of Applied Physics [6]. The sodium heat pipe, 90 cm long with a 1.9 cm outer
diameter (OD), operated at 1100 K with 1 kW heat input. This paper reviews 28 years
of space power-related liquid-metal heat pipe research that has been conducted at Los
Alamos since the invention of the heat pipe. [2]

3.2 Operation principle of heat pipes

Heat pipes can be of any shape and size. However the working if heat pipes can be
understood by constructing a cylindrical closed geometry (Figure 3.1). The components
of heat pipes can be sub divided into three parts, a sealed container, working fluid to
undergo phase change and work as heat transporting medium, and a wick structure to
facilitate the motion of liquid. Now the operation is carried out in pipe which is divided
into three section namely evaporator section, adiabatic section and condenser section.
A heat pipe may have multiple heat sinks and heat sources with or without the
availability of adiabatic section which depends upon the design and application. Heat

41
is applied to the evaporator forcing the working fluid to change phase, keeping the right
working fluid according to the temperature range. The resulting pressure difference
drives the vapour through the adiabatic part of pipe towards the condenser where heat
is rejected and vapor is converted to the liquid medium and is transported back to the
evaporator section by mean of capillary action of gravitational pull.

Figure 3.1 Schematic of heat pipe

There are many factors that plays important role in designing of heat pipe, structure,
size and shape, material of container and wick, working fluid some of them are
temperature range of operation, available size, field of application and cost.

3.3 Type of heat pipe

3.3.1 Two-phase Closed Thermosyphons

A two-phase closed thermosyphons heat pipe is wickless and gravity assisted heat pipe
(Figure 3.2). It is a vertically oriented heat pipe with condenser section right above the
evaporator section as allowing the gravity to favor the condensed working fluid to reach
the evaporator. Thermosyphons is independent of capillary limit constraints but the

42
operation of this heat pipe is constrained by the sonic and vapour pressure limits, along
with more entrainment limit then any capillary driven heat pipe because of free liquid.
The opposite of entrainment limit is flooding, which proves to be more dominating limit
in operation of thermosyphons systems. Boiling limit is imposed by the boiling of the
film of heat pipe. Boiling limit occurs when temperature of film reaches a point where
working fluid instantly forms vapour and that vapour film covers the boundary film of
heat pipe. Volume of liquid also plays an important role as for smaller volume of fluid
the dry out limit can be reached, where feed to evaporator becomes null and no fluid
pool exists.

Figure 3.2 Two Phase Closed Thermosyphon

For wickless thermosyphons, it’s been observed that the maximum heat transfer rate
increases with the increase in volume of fluid.

43
3.3.2 Capillary Driven Heat Pipes

CHP is a closed container with wick covering its inner radial surface wall (Figure 3.3).
Wick is introduced to provide capillary action to drive condensed working fluid back
to evaporator section. Enough volume of fluid is present inside the container to saturate
the wick entirely.

Figure 3.3 Schematic of CHP

Fluid gets evaporated inside the wick of the evaporator section and enters the vapour
channel and gets condensed in condenser section from there liquid is collected on the
wall of the wick and driven back to evaporator zone. Due to two phase conversion, heat
pipe become ideal device for the long distance heat transportation with small
temperature drop. The most dominating limit in capillary heat pipe is the capillary limit
when wick becomes unable to feed evaporator with enough fluid to saturate the wick
causing dry out.

44
3.3.3 Annular Heat pipe

Figure 3.4 Conventional Annular Heat pipe

It is similar to the capillary heat pipe, but the main difference is that the cross-section
of the vapour space is annular instead of circular (Figure 3.4). This allows provides the
advantage of putting wick on the inner wall of the outer pipe as well as on the outer
wall of the inner pipe. This increases the surface area for heat rejection and absorption
without covering more space of increasing outer diameter.

3.3.4 Vapour Chamber

Figure 3.5 Schematic of Vapour Chamber Heat Pipe

45
It is also capillary driven flat plate or rectangular heat pipe (Figure 3.5). Vapour
chambers have higher heat flux then compare to conventional heat pipes, the application
is very much preferred in electronics as the flatness and higher heat flux.

3.3.5 Rotating Heat Pipe

Figure 3.6 Schematic of Rotating heat pipe

Rotating heat pipe is a two phase heat pipe, it uses a rotating shaft to create centrifugal
force on fluid to feed the walls of the heat pipe (Figure 3.6). The rest of the process is
the same as any other heat pipe. The inside of the pipe is conical frustum.

3.3.6 Gas-loaded Heat pipe

These are the variable conductance heat pipes. They are same as the thermosyphon or
capillary driven except for the fact that a noncondensing gas is introduced in the vapour
channel. While operating heat pipe this gas swept down the length of the heat pipe by
fluid vapours to the condenser section (Figure 3.7).

So some of the condenser wall is covered by the noncondensing gas that does not allows
the working fluid vapours to condense and transferring heat to the sink. If the heat
increases then the temperature of both vapour and gas increases, leading to the
compression of inert gas. With increases the condenser area. This phenomenon helps
maintain the temperature of evaporate constant irrespective of heat input.

46
 Figure 3.7 Schematic of Gas loaded heat pipe

3.3.7 Loop Heat Pipe

It works on same physical processes as of conventional heat pipes. The simplest LHP
consist of a evaporator (capillary pump), a reservoir (compensation chamber), a
condenser and a liquid and vapour line (Figure 3.8). Wicks are only installed in
evaporation and condenser chamber. To induce high capillary forces on liquid fine
pored wick (primary wick) of sintered nickel, titanium and copper powder are used.
With porosity nearly 55-70% and pore radius of 0.7-15 micrometer.

The compensation chamber often serves as an integral part of evaporator. The whole
objective of compensation chamber is to buffer excess liquid in loop heat pipe during
operation. Secondary wick connects the compensation chamber and the evaporator to
supply the primary wick with fluid especially in conditions when the LHP operating in
the microgravity condition or the evaporator is above the compensation chamber.

47
 Figure 3.8 Schematic of LHP

The flow of liquid and vapour in the primary wick occurs in radial direction. Liquid
and vapour lines are made up of small tubing with no wick. LHP can sustain bending
as it can be made flexible and serves heat removal over long distances.

3.3.8 Capillary Pumped Loop Heat Pipe

Evaporator consist of a hollow rod of wick material closed at one end and fitted in an
internally axial grooved pipe (Figure 3.9). Heat is applied on the outer surface of pipe
which causes the liquid to vaporize and flow down the line to vapor header and then to
the condenser where it condenses on the inner wall and enters into a sub cooler, which
helps in eliminating remaining vapour bubbles before entering evaporator again.
Multiple assist systems like two phase reservoir is installed to control both the working
fluid and the working temperature.

48
 Figure 3.9 Schematic of Capillary pumped loop heat pipe

3.3.9 Pulsating heat pipe

Pulsating heat pipes are made from bending a very long tube into multiple turns, having
evaporator and condenser situated in middle of turns. The type of PHP depends upon
that either there end connect or not, Unlooped (Figure 3.10(a)) or looped (Figure
3.10(b)).

Figure 3.10 Schematic of Pulsating Heat Pipe (a) Unlooped, (b)Looped

49
Pipe tubing is partially filled with working fluid and having very small diameter
(<5mm). It tend to form vapour plugs and liquid slugs due to capillary action. PHPs are
self –pushed oscillating motion driven heat pipes. Due to absence of wick structure
there is no counter current flow of vapour and liquid. PHPs are light weighted, tubes
are of smaller diameter then compare to conventional heat pipes.

3.3.10 Monogroove Heat Pipe

Figure 3.11 Schematic of Monogroove Heat pipe

Monogroove heat pipe uses an extruded cross section with prevent liquid to enter
vapour space. Heat absorption and rejection is done from the flat face on the top of the
vapour space. Since no heat is passed through wall of liquid path, causing reduction in
the arterial blockage due to vapour bubbles.

50
3.3.11 Micro And Miniature Heat Pipes

Figure 3.12 Micro And Miniature Heat Pipe

Cotter introduced the micro heat pipes in electronic devices. The micro heat pipe was
defined as a heat pipe in which the mean curvature of the liquid vapor interface is
comparable in magnitude to the reciprocal of the hydraulic radius of the total flow
channel.

3.4 Working Fluid

Working fluid is the heat transport medium in heat pipe, working fluid in evaporation
section changes its phase to vapour from liquid by absorbing latent heat and sensible

51
heat and rejects it in the condensation section in form of latent heat of fusion and
changes back to liquid where wick favors the flow of working fluid to the evaporation
section. The classification of working fluid is done into four parts on basic of the boiling
point: cryogenic, low, intermediate, and high temperature.

3.4.1 Cryogenic Range

The operational range varies between the 2 K to 200 K. which includes the use of
helium, argon, oxygen and krypton gases as the working fluid. The amount of heat
transfer is comparatively low because of small heat of vaporization, less surface tension
and high viscosity of fluid.

3.4.2 Low Range

Low range heat pipes operates from 200 K to 500 K. Ammonia, acetone, Freon
compounds and the water are the commonly used working fluids. Wide range of
applications fall within the range of the LOW TEMPERATURE RANGE category.

3.4.3 Medium Range

Medium range heat pipes operates between 450 K to 750 K and includes the use of
mercury, Sulphur, thermex and Dowtherm-A. Mercury has high thermal conductivity.
However, mercury shows capillary dip instead of raise and has problems in wetting the
wick along with the toxicity which is a significant problem.

3.4.4 High Range

Operational temperature is above 750 K and sodium, cesium, silver, lithium and
potassium sodium compounds are commonly used. The heat transfer rate is generally
higher in comparison with others due to high thermal conductivity, surface tension,
latent heat of fusion and vaporization.

52
 Table 3.1 Working Fluids with their operational temperature range

Working Melting Boiling Range Of

Fluid Point(K) Point(K) Latent Heat Operation
At 1 atm At 1 atm (KJ/Kg) (K)

Fusion Vaporization
Helium 1.0 4.21 5.23 20.9 2-4
Hydrogen 13.8 20.38 60 449 14-31
Neon 24.4 27.09 16.8 84.8 27-37
Nitrogen 63.1 77.35 25.5 201 70-103
Argon 83.9 87.29 29.5 161 84-116
Oxygen 54.7 90.18 13.8 213 73-119
Methane 90.6 111.4 58.4 112 91-150
Krypton 115.8 119.7 16.3 108 16-160
Ethane 89.9 184.6 95.1 150-240
Freon 22 113.1 232.2 193-297
Ammonia 195.5 239.9 332 1370 213-373
Freon 21 138.1 282.0 135-166.2 233-360
Freon 11 162.1 296.8 233-393
Pentane 143.1 309.2 253-393
Freon 113 236.5 320.8 263-373
Acetone 180.0 329.4 273-393
Methanol 175.1 337.8 99.2 838 283-403
Flutecpp2 223.1 349.1 283-433
Ethanol 158.7 351.5 109 838 273-403
Heptane 182.5 371.5 273-423
Water 273.1 373.1 333 2260 303-550
Toluene 178.1 383.7 323-473
Flutecpp9 203.1 433.1 273-498
Naphthalene 353.4 490 408-623

53
 Working Melting Boiling Latent Heat Range Of
Fluid Point(K) Point(K) (KJ/Kg) Operation
At 1 atm At 1 atm (K)
Fusion Vaporization
Dowtherm 285.1 527.0 423-668
Mercury 234.2 630.1 11 294 523-923
Sulphur 385.9 717.8 38.1 326 530-947
Cesium 301.6 943.0 723-1173
Rubidium 312.7 959.2 800-1273
Potassium 336.4 1032 773-1275
Sodium 371.0 1151 113 4240 873-1473
Lithium 453.7 1416 432 21200 1273-2073
Calcium 1112 1762 1400-2100
Lead 600.6 2013 24.5 870 1670-2200
Indium 429.7 2353 2000-3000
Silver 1234 2485 88.2 2330 2073-2573

54
3.5 Wick Structure

The wick structure within the heat pipe is present to return condensate to the evaporator section.
While small pores are needed at the liquid-vapor interface to develop high capillary pressures,
large pores are preferred within the wick so that the movement of the liquid is not restricted
too greatly. For this reason, many different types of wick structures have been developed in
order to optimize the performance of the capillary heat pipe. The types of wick structures can
be divided into two categories, homogeneous and composite wicks. There are three properties
of wicks that are important in heat pipe design.

 Minimum Capillary Radius

This parameter should be small if a large capillary pressure difference is required, such
as in terrestrial operation for a long heat pipe with the evaporator above the condenser,
or in cases where a high heat transport capability is needed. Permeability: Permeability
is a measure of the wick resistance to axial liquid flow. This parameter should be large
in order to have a small liquid pressure drop, and therefore, higher heat transport
capability.

 Effective Thermal Conductivity

A large value for this parameter gives a small temperature drop across the wick, which
is a favorable condition in heat pipe design. A high thermal conductivity and
permeability, and a low minimum capillary radius are somewhat contradictory
properties in most wick designs. For example, a homogeneous wick may have a small
minimum capillary radius and a large effective thermal conductivity, but have a small
permeability.

 Permeability

Permeability reflects to the effectiveness of the interaction between working fluid and
the porous medium. A large value of permeability gives rapid transport of heat load and
working fluid motion.

55
3.5.1 Homogenous Wick

Homogeneous wicks are constructed with one type of material or machining technique.

Table 3.2 Types of Homogenous wicks and their typical properties

Wick type Capillary Thermal Permeabilit Comments

Pumping Conductivity y
High High Low-average Single or
multiple
wraps of
wire screen
mesh.

High Average Low-average Packed

spherical
particles, felt
metal fibers
or powder.

Low High Average- Rectangular,

High circular,
triangular, or
trapezoidal
grooves.

56
 Low Low High Wire screen
mesh spaced
from wall.

Low High High Wire screen

mesh formed
into artery
and wall
lining

High High Average- Homogeneo

high us material
with built-in
arteries

 Screen Mesh

The screen wick is seemingly the simplest and most common type of wick structure. It
consists of a metal or cloth fabric which is wrapped around a mandrel and inserted into
the heat pipe. After placement, the mandrel is removed, leaving the wick held by the
tension of the wrapped screen, in the case of a metal fabric. For a cloth fabric, a spring
may be inserted into the heat pipe to hold the wick against the inside of the pipe wall.
The capillary pressure generated by a screen wick is determined by the size of the
rectangular pores between the individual threads. The permeability is determined by
the number of wraps and the looseness of the wraps, which create annular gaps through
which the condensate can flow.

57
 Sintered Metal Wick

Sintered metal wicks are manufactured by packing tiny metal particles between the
inner heat pipe wall and a mandrel in powder form. This assembly is then heated until
the metal spheres are sintered to each other and to the inner wall of the heat pipe. Special
materials are used for the mandrel so that it can be removed, leaving an open vapor
space. This type of wick is obviously more difficult to manufacture compared to the
simple screen wick. However, the capillary pressure developed by the sintered metal
wick (and therefore capillary limit) is more easily predicted, as the annular gaps present
in a screen wick present uncertainties in the permeability. Also, since a metal powder
is sintered, the effective thermal conductivity is much higher than a comparable screen
wick due to the poor thermal contact between the screens wraps.

 Axial Groove Wick

Axial groove wicks are formed by the extrusion or broaching of grooves into the inner
radius of the pipe. Several different types of grooves have been used and proposed,
which have rectangular, triangular, trapezoidal, or nearly circular cross-sections.
Trapezoidal grooves are currently the most common type. The performance of axial
groove wicks is excellent, provided that the application does not call for a significant
adverse elevation against gravity. Since the size of the grooves are large compared to
those of a screen or sintered metal wick, the capillary pumping pressure is quite small.
However, the permeability and the effective thermal conductivity are very high.
Drawbacks to this type of wick are the difficulty in machining the grooves for long heat
pipes, which might prove to be excessively expensive, and the liquid-vapor interaction
at the opening of the groove at high vapor velocities. Other attractive features of axial
groove wicks include the field-tested performance, reliability, and simplicity of design.

 Open Annulus Wick

The open annulus wick is simply a single-wrap screen wick, held away from the inner
pipe wall by stand-offs. This provides an unimpeded return flow path between the
screen and the pipe, which greatly increases the permeability over the simple screen

58
 wick, while maintaining the high capillary pressure. However, the effective thermal
conductivity of this wick is very low for most working fluids due to the low liquid
thermal conductivity. Difficulties in priming during startup, and depriming during near-
dryout operation are common in this type of wick. The idea of an open condensate
return path is also present in the artery wick, but the problem of a low effective thermal
conductivity, as is present in the open annulus wick, is significantly reduced.

 Artery Wick

The artery wick combines the two necessities of having a small pore radius for capillary
pressure generation and having a large pore radius for high permeability. In the artery
wick structure, the interior of the heat pipe is either covered by a screen wick or a
sintered metal powder in the usual manner, but a hollow passage(s) running the length
of the pipe is fashioned and is in communication with the rest of the wick structure.
Condensate is collected within this passage(s) or artery and is pumped back to the
evaporator section by the capillary forces generated at the liquid-vapor interface. Since
the inner diameter of the artery is much larger than the effective pore radius of the wick,
the liquid is able to easily traverse the length of the heat pipe with a minimum pressure
drop. As with any design, there are difficulties associated with the artery wick. First,
problems associated with the manufacturing of arteries must be addressed. The startup
of artery wick heat pipes is also critical due to the inevitable presence of vapor bubbles
within the artery, which effectively block liquid return. Methods of collapsing these
bubbles are complicated and not always effective.

3.5.2 Composite Wick Structure

Composite wick structures employ the benefits of having small pores for generating high
capillary pumping pressures and having large pores for increasing the permeability of the liquid
return path.

59
 Table 3.3 Type of Composite wick structures and their typical properties

Wick type Capillary Thermal Permeability Comments

Pumping Conductivity
High Low-average Average Two or more
layers of
homogeneous
material. The
material next
to wall has
largest pore
size.
High High Average-high Axial
grooves
covered with
one screen.

High High High Slab of

homogeneous
or non-
homogeneous
material with
circumferenti
al grooves.
High High Average-high Spiral wire
screen mesh
and
circumferenti
al grooves.

60
 Average High High Slab of non-
homogeneous
material with
circumferenti
al grooves.

High High Average-high Concentric

perforated
externally
grooved
inner tube
wall. Inner-
annuli screen
mesh wick.

 Composite Screen Mesh

The simplest type of composite wick is the screen wick, except that two screens with
different pore sizes are used. Several wraps of a screen with a large pore size is used
against the inner pipe wall for the liquid return path, and a single wrap of a screen with
a much smaller pore size is placed adjacent to the vapor space to develop high capillary
pressures.

 Screen Covered Groove

Axial grooves covered by a single wrap of a small-pore screen can solve many of the
problems associated with the homogeneous axial groove wick. Since the screen
effectively separates the liquid and vapor flows, the entrainment of the liquid into the
vapor flow by the interfacial shear is nearly eliminated. Also, this composite wick can
be used in adverse gravity fields because the screen generates the needed capillary
pressures.

61
 Composite Slab Wick

A slab wick in conjunction with circumferential grooves is often used for applications
where vapor velocities are generally low. The slab wick, which is usually a felt or
several layers of screen, is made in the shape of a bar with a rectangular cross section.
The longest side of the cross section is the same as the inner diameter of the heat pipe.
Circumferential grooves distribute the condensate around the entire circumference.
Obviously, this type of wick is not appropriate for very long heat pipes due to the
difficulty in machining circumferential grooves on the inside of the pipe.

 Spiral Artery

Spiral artery also uses a felt or several layers of screen, but is fashioned in the shape of
a tube, which is smaller than the inside diameter of the pipe. The artery is then located
on the pipe axis by slab wick stand-offs, which provide condensate communication
between the hollow artery and the circumferential grooves on the inside diameter of the
pipe.

 Monogroove Wick

In the monogroove wick heat pipe design, the vapor and liquid condensate flow in
different channels separated by a narrow groove. As with other arterial type wick
designs, circumferential grooves in the vapor channel help distribute the condensate.

 Double Walled Artery Wick

The double-walled artery consists of an inner tube with external grooves, which is
perforated at the evaporator and condenser sections to allow vapor to escape into the
interior. This inner tube is concentrically placed in an outer tube with a screen mesh
wick at the inner wall. The double-walled artery wick design produces high capillary
pressures, and since condensate returns to the evaporator by both a screen wick and
arteries on the exterior of the inner pipe, total blockages of the liquid return are unlikely.

62
3.6 Heat Pipe Applications

 Compact Electronics Enclosures

 Aerospace
 Medical
 Consumer Electronics
 HVAC

3.6.1 Compact Electronics Enclosures

Heat Pipe Exchanger provide highly-efficient, compact cooling design for electronic
cabinets and enclosures, and it also meets today’s growing demand for thermal power
requirements, due to greater miniaturization.

3.6.2 Aerospace

Heat pipe is a very attractive element in the area of aerospace for spacecraft cooling
and temperature stabilization, due to their low weight, zero maintenance cost, and
reliable functionality. Maintaining isothermal structures in aerospace is a crucial task
with respect to obituary astronomy practices under the adverse solar heating.

3.6.3 Medical

Passive thermal applications (Heat pipes) offer a valuable advantages in

medical/hospital devices in terms of saving space, minimizing weight, and reduction of
maintenance costs, as they result in less environmental effects as compare to other
cooling systems that depend various technologies such as pumped liquids etc. As there
is a constant increase in electronics and electrical operated devices and their need of
computing power results increased heat to be rejected (wasted), and also because of
miniaturization is minimizing the required amount of space for thermal management
systems, new thermal technologies today like heat exchangers play a very major role in
the tomorrow’s manufactured medical devices.

63
3.6.4 Consumer Electronics

Heat pipes heat exchangers are mostly applicable in many day to day consumer specific
electronic devices such as Power supplies, Laptop and desktop computers, Computer
microprocessors, Audio amplifier components, Computer gaming equipment.

3.6.5 HVAC

A specially manufactured passive reliable heat recovery HVAC heat pipe will provide
you an affordable and effective power recovery system for the hot summer days and
your cold winter months continued throughout the year. It also lowers your energy bills
and also provides you a rapid return on your initial investment cost.

3.7 Heat Pipe Features and Benefits

Grooved– Low Cost, does not work well against gravity

Wire Mesh – Most common method
Sintered – Highest performance and cost
High thermal conductivity
Light weight
Fast thermal response
Heat pipe Advantages:
Passive Operation
Long Life
Zero cross contamination since streams of source and sink are physically separated
Minimum Maintenance
Compact Size

64
3.8 Constraints

Constrains are constitutes of the limitations on the heat transfer capability, constraints plays a
significant role in the heat pipe design as the maximum heat transport limitations are defined
by the lowest limit. Some of the parameters affecting the heat transport capability in
conventional heat pipes are capillary limit, entrainment limit, boiling limit, viscous limit, and
sonic limit. [6]
Table 3.4 Nomenclature [7]

𝐴: Area (m2) Greek Symbols Subscripts

ℎ: Heat transfer coefficient
(W/m2K) 𝜇: Viscosity (Ns/m2) 𝑎: Adiabatic section
ℎ𝑓𝑔: Latent heat of 𝜌: Density (kg/m3) 𝑐: Condenser section
vaporization (J/kg) 𝜎: Surface tension (N/m) 𝑒: Evaporator section
𝑘: Thermal conductivity 𝜀: Porosity eff : Effective
(W/mK) 𝜃: Contact angle (degree) gen: Generated
𝐾: Permeability (m2) 𝛼: Inclination angle (degree). hs: Hydraulic radius
𝑙: Length (m) 𝐻: Source
𝑚: Mass flow rate (kg/s) 𝑙: Liquid
𝑁: Mesh number (1/m) 𝐿: Sink
𝑝: Pressure (Pa) 𝑛: Nucleation
𝑃𝐶: Capillary pressure (Pa) 𝑜: Outside
𝑄: Heat transfer rate (W) V: Vapour
𝑟: Radius (m) 𝑤: Wick
𝑅: Resistance (K/W) 𝑏: Boiling
𝑆: Entropy (J/kgK) cap: Capillary
𝑡: Thickness (m) con: Container
𝑇: Temperature (K) ent: Entrainment
𝑉: Velocity (m/s) 𝑠: Sonic
𝑤: Width (m). vis: Viscous.

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3.8.1 Boiling Limit

A transverse temperature gradient accompanies the heat transfer across the liquid saturated
wick in the liquid, when heat flux in the evaporator region becomes high, the wall temperature
increases causing the liquid to boil in evaporator. Bubbles forming due to boiling causes
formation of hot spots and obstruct the continuum of the fluid leading wick to dry and burn
eventually. [6][7]The expression for the boiling heat transfer limit is obtained as (equation 1)-

𝑄𝑏 = 2𝑤𝐿𝑒𝑘eff[(2𝜎 /𝑟𝑛) − 𝑃𝑐]

(ℎ𝑓𝑔𝜌V𝑡𝑤) (1)

The constraint of Q−𝑄𝑏 ≤ 0 should be satisfied.

3.8.2 Capillary Limit

The ability of wick to function and maintain a continuous circulation of working fluid is limited
due to hydrodynamic limitation. When the heat transfer is increases above a capillary limit,
pumping rate will not be sufficient to feed the evaporator with the working fluid. This
phenomenon happens because the sum of the liquid and vapor pressure drops in the heat pipe
overpowers the capillary pressure that can be sustained by wick.[6][7] Expression for capillary
limitation given by (equation 2):-

𝑄cap = ℎ𝑓𝑔 [(2𝜎𝑙/𝑟cap) cos𝜃 + 𝜌𝑙𝑔𝑙 sin 𝛼] (2)

(2𝜇V/𝑡3V𝜌V + 𝜇𝑙/2𝐾𝑡𝑤𝜌𝑙)

Expression for the constraint limit Q - Qcap < 0

3.8.3 Sonic Limit

Increase in the temperature the flow velocity becomes higher or equal to the sonic velocity
which raises a condition of chocking of flow. The limit is called sonic limit. Maximum axial
heat transfer rate at this limit, subsequently it cannot be increased by decreasing the condenser
temperature under chocked flow. [6,7]The expression for the limit is (equation 3)

66
 𝑄𝑠 = 0.5ℎ𝑓𝑔𝑡V(𝑝V𝜌V) 0.5 (3)

Where 𝑄−𝑄𝑠 ≤ 0.

3.8.4 Entrainment Limit

Shear force exists at the two phase interface, as both liquid and vapor are present inside the
chamber and moves opposite in direction, when the relative velocities becomes high and
reaches a limit where liquid gets sheared from the wick surface and entrained to the vapor
region and start flowing toward condenser section. When the limit is reached the wick dry out
in the evaporator region. [6][7] The entrainment heat load for flat heat Pipe is obtained as
(equation 4)

𝑄ent = 𝑤𝑡Vℎ𝑓𝑔 (2𝜋𝜎𝜌V / 𝑟hs) 0.5 (4)

The limit of entrainment can be represented as 𝑄−𝑄ent ≤ 0.

3.8.5 Viscous Limit

At lower temperature the viscosity of the fluid will be high as well as the vapor pressure
difference between condenser and evaporator will be small, viscous force may be dominating
and can limit the operation of the heat pipe. Thus the condition of the flow where total pressure
in the vapor region gets low to sustain an increased flow is called viscous limit. [6][7] The
expression for viscous limit is obtained as (equation 5)

𝑄vis = 𝑡3V𝑤ℎ𝑓𝑔𝑝V𝜌V
24𝜇V𝑙eff (5)

Where the limit is written as 𝑄−𝑄vis ≤ 0.

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3.9 Annexure

Some of the work done by researchers using different material for container, wick structure
and working fluid combinations for variety to improve the thermal performance of heat
pipes are tabulated.

Table 3.5 List of Conclusion of different combinations of working fluid, type of heat
pipe and wick structure.

S. Type of Type of Type of Heat Comments Reference

No. Heat pipe wick working load/Thermal
fluid Resistance
1 Loop Heat Sintered water 500 W Thermal Singh R
pipe wick resistance of et.al.
(porosity 0.15°C/W for (2014)
>65%) max. heat load
of 500W
2 Loop heat Biomaterial Nano-Fluid 0.68°C/W The biomaterial Nandy
pipe sintered Al2O3 wick decrease Putra
powder thermal et.al.(2014)
copper resistance by
56.3%
3 Sintered Copper Surfactants Heat input For 1Wt% CuO G
wick heat sintered heat free CuO initially 10W nano fluid heat Kumaresan
pipe pipe nano- & increased transport et.al.
particles in steps of capacity of heat (2014)
dispersed 10W upto pipe increased
in DI water 160W by 31.2%
4 Loop heat Glass fibre DI water Heat input The result have Alexander
pipe 2.6 μm pore 20W to shown non- et.al.
size, 140W insteps metal wick can (2013)
stainless of 20W have much
steel metal greater
wick of temperature
10μm pore difference
size between heater
surface and
wick and the
use of non-
metal wick
reduce

68
 thickness of
evaporator
5 Cryogenic Porous wick Liquid Heat Load of On primary Ya nan
heat pipe sintered nitrogen 14W evaporator low Zhao et.al.
with thermal (2011)
stainless resistance of
steel 0.146K/W
obtained
6 Loop heat MonoPorous Ammonia Maximum Thermal Fang-Chou
pipe & bidisperse tolerable heat resistance of Lin et.al.
sintered load of 400W the system was (2011)
porous wick for 0.12° C/W & of
of nickel monoporous the evaporator
particles wick and 0.1°C/W
575W for
bidisperse
wick
7 Loop heat Biporous Ammonia Heat load of Thermal Chen et.al.
pipe with wick of 10W to resistance (2012)
flat nickel 130W varies between
evaporator power 1.42 and 0.33°
C/W
8 Loop heat Biporous Methanol Heat load of Loop heat pipe Huan Li
pipe with wick of 40W to found to have et.al.
flat nickel 100W good start up (2012)
evaporator powder characteristics
and run stably
9 Loop Heat Wick made Water & With Ti wick An advanced Leonid
pipe of nickel acetone and water as method of LHP Vasiliev
titanium working fluid wick et.al.
pressed on can transport manufacturing (2009)
soft matrix heat load of was proposed
(polymer 900W & Ni for high power
envelope) wick and dissipation in
acetone as electronic
working fluid cooling.
transport
300W of heat
load.

69
[1]https://thermalfluidscentral.org/encyclopedia/index.php/Historical_Development_o
f_Heat_Pipes

[2] Heat pipe design and technology: Modern applications for practical thermal
management, second edition (pp.1-41), DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-29841-2_1

[3] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_pipe

70