URINARY SYSTEM

Describe the process of urine formation

There are 3 stages in urine formationi)

i. Ultra filtration
ii)Selective reabsorption
iii)Tubular secretion

Ultrafiltration/ glomerular filtration – Filtration takes place through the semi permeable walls of the glomerulus
& glomerular capsule or Bowman’s capsule. Water and small molecules pass through it. The afferent renal
artery brings blood to the glomerulus and the efferent artery carries the blood away from it. As the diameter of
afferent artery is more than the efferent artery, a hydrostatic pressure is generated in the glomerulus(55mm Hg).
This pressure is opposed by osmotic (30 mmHg) and filtrate hydrostatic pressure in capsule (15mm Hg). The
net filtration pressure is 55-(30+15) = 10 mm of Hg. All constituents of blood are filtered except blood cells and
plasma proteins.

Selective reabsorption- This is the process by which composition and volume of filtrate are changed during its
passage through the tubule. The constituents required by the body are reabsorbed. Components like glucose,
vitamins, amino acids get completely re- absorbed into the blood. These are called high threshold substances.
Low threshold substances like urea, uric acid are absorbed slightly. Some substances like creatinine is not
reabsorbed at all.

Tubular secretion- substances not required & foreign materials (non threshold substances) eg- drugs like
penicillin may not be cleared in filtration. Such substances are cleared by secretion into convoluted tubules and
excreted from body in urine.

Explain how kidney helps to maintain B.P.

Due to Low blood volume, decreased B.P. or sympathetic stimulation, enzyme Renin is released by the kidneys.
Renin converts plasma protein angiotensinogen to angiotensin I. Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) formed
in lungs, proximal convoluted tubules and other tissues convert angiotensin I to angiotensin II which is a
powerful vasoconstrictor and increases BP.
Renin also stimulates adrenal cortex to produce aldosterone which causes increased absorption of Na+. This is
followed by reabsorption of water. Blood volume increases thereby increasing BP. This inhibits the enzyme
rennin by negative feedback mechanism.

Low blood volume/ decreased B.P.

↓
Stimulates kidney to secrete renin ← ──inhibition
┌ −inhibition−−−→↓
│ Angiotensinogen
│ ↓rennin
│
│ angiotensin I
│ ↓ACE

│ Angiotensin II (vasoconstriction, thus increases B.P.) ────┘

│ ↓

│ Adrenal glands stimulates kidney tubules

│ ↓

│ Sodium ions & water reabsorption

│ ↓

└ ───────Increased blood volume (increased B.P.)

1. Enlist and discuss different functions of kidney.

1. Formation of urine
2. Maintenance of acid base balance
3. Maintenance of electrolyte balance
4. Maintenance of blood pressure
5. Maintenance of water Balance
6. Formation of erythropoietin hormone for erythropoiesis

Functions of kidney are:

1. Formation of urine: Kidneys form the urine, which passes to the ureters to the bladder for storage prior to
excretion. Formation of urine involves three processes like filtration, selective reabsorption, and tubular secretion.
The urine is nothing but waste product of the body which is produced during metabolic activity. The waste products
are urea, uric acid and creatinine.

2. Maintenance of acid base balance: In order to maintain the normal blood pH (acid-base balance), the cells of the
proximal convoluted tubules secrete hydrogen ions. In the filtrate they combine with buffers.

3. Maintenance of electrolyte balance: Changes in the concentration of electrolytes in the body fluids may be due
to changes in the body water content, or electrolyte levels. The balance between water and electrolyte concentration
is maintained by several mechanisms like sodium and potassium balance, renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system and
by calcium balance etc.

4. Maintenance of blood pressure: Kidney regulates blood volume by long term control, and maintains blood
pressure by ‘Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system.

5. Maintenance of water Balance: The balance between the fluid intake and output is controlled by the kidneys.
The minimum urinary output, i.e. the smallest volume required to excrete body waste products, is about 500 ml
per day. Urinary volume in excess of this is controlled mainly by antidiuretic hormone (ADH) released into the
blood by the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland. The posterior pituitary is closely related to the hypothalamus in
the brain.

6. Formation of erythropoietin hormone for erythropoiesis: Red cell numbers remain fairly constant, because the
bone marrow produces erythrocytes at the rate at which they are destroyed. This is due to a homeostatic negative
feedback mechanism. The hormones that regulates red blood cells is erythropoietin, produced mainly by the kidney.
Draw and label urinary system.

Explain how kidney helps for maintenance of water balance.

Ans. Kidney controls urine output & maintain water balance by 3 ways.
1. ANTI-DIURETIC HORMONE
Increased blood osmotic pressure Osmoreceptors in hypothalamus Stimulation of post.Pituitary Release of ADH
promotes Reabsorption of water Reduces loss of water in urine
(reduced blood osmotic pressure)

2. ALDOSTERONE
Decrease in blood volume & pressure Secretion of Renin by Kidneys
Angiotensinogen Angiotensin I Angiotensin II Stimulation of Adrenal Cortex release of aldosterone Promotes
urinary reabsorption of Na+ & Cl- simultaneously increases water reabsorption via osmosis Reduces loss of water in
urine.

3. ATRIAL NATRIURETIC PEPTIDE

Increased blood volume Secretion of ANP by atria of heart Reduces Reabsorption of Na +, Cl- by Kidneys Promotes
natriuresis, increased urinary excretion of Na +, Cl- Increases loss of water in urine via osmosis

GFR (Glomerular Filtration Rate):

The volume of filtrate formed by both kidneys each minute is called the glomerular filtration rate. Normal
value 125ml/min.

With the help of labelled diagram (2M)explain the microscopic structure of kidney.(1M) ( As the question
is not well defined, either of the following answer can be considered)

An outer fibrous capsule, surrounding the kidney . Cortex : A reddish brown layer of tissue immediately below
the capsule and outside the renal pyramids. The medulla the innermost layer consisting of conical shaped
striations, the renal pyramids.The kidney consists of 1 million functional units the nephrons and much smaller
no. of collecting tubules. The collecting tubules transport urine through the pyramids to the calysis giving
pyramids its striated appearance. The collecting ducts are supported by connective tissue, containing blood
vessels nerves & lymph vessels.
 OR

Nephron: It is the functional unit of the kidney. Nephron consists of a long tube of which one end is closed and
the other end opens into collecting tubule. Each nephron consists of following parts:- Malphigian body: It
consists of 1) Bowman’s capsule and 2) Renal glomerulus: Bowman’s capsule is a balloon like hollow
capsule,which begins in cortex. Renal glomerulus consists of compact tube of interconnected capillaries, formed
by branching of afferent arterioles from renal artery. These capillaries reunite to form efferent arterioles which
emerges out of glomerulus. 3) Renal tubule:- It is a long tube which is a continuity of Bowman’s Capsule,
connected by a narrow portion called neck. It is made up of single layer epithelial cells. The renal tubule is
described as: i) Proximal convoluted tubule:- It is the first part of renal tubule and is convoluted, lined by large
columnar cells & extends to medulla as loop of Henle. ii) Henle’s loop:- It is a hair pin like structure situated in
medulla. Has descending and ascending loop, lined with columnar cells.Returns to cortex to become distal
convoluted tubule. iii) Distal convoluted tubule:- It is lined with cuboidal cells and joins collecting tubule. iv)
Collecting tubule:- Receives urine from distal tubule &. lined with columnar cells. 4) Blood vessels:-Besides
tubules, kidney consists of blood vessels, renal arteries-afferent and efferent arteriole which brings oxygenated
blood and renal vein takes away blood from kidney.
How male urethra differs from female urethra. Urethra is a canal/tube from the neck of the bladder to the
exterior. The female urethra is approx. 4 cm. in length. The male urethra is 19-20 cm. The male urethra is
associated with the urinary & reproductive functions & provides common pathway for the flow of urine &
semen & therefore is longer than female urethra.

How male urethra differs from female urethra.

 Urethra is a canal/tube from the neck of the bladder to the exterior.

 The female urethra is approx. 4 cm. in length.
 The male urethra is 19-20 cm.
 The male urethra is associated with the urinary & reproductive functions & provides common
pathway for the flow ofurine & semen & therefore is longer than female urethra.
Explain structure and functions of uterus.

Structure:
It is a hollow muscular, pear-shaped organ situated in pelvis. It consists of three parts viz. body, fundus and cervix.
The walls of uterus consist of three layers viz., perimetrium, myometrium and endometrium.

Perimetrium covers most of the surface of uterus. Anteriorly, it extends over fundus and body; posteriorly is
extends over fundus, body and cervix, and laterally only fundus is covered. There is a double fold of ligament
(broad ligament) which laterally attaches uterus to the sides of the pelvis.
Myometrium is the thickest layer of tissue in the uterine wall. It is amass of smooth muscle fibres interlaced with
areolar tissue, blood vessels and nerves.
Endometrium consists of columnar epithelium and contains a large number of mucus secreting tubular glands.

Functions: 1. Menstrual cycle every month. The endometrium is prepared for the reception of fertilized ovum during
each menstrual cycle.
2.If the ovum is fertilized, the uterus grows to accommodate the developing baby until the time of delivery.
3. It serves as pathway for sperm deposited in the vagina to reach uterine tubes.

Describe the phases of “menstrual cycle”(3.5 marks)

Menstrual cycle is defined as a series of changes in endometrium of a female every 26 to 30 days throughout the child
bearing period

Phases of menstrual cycle are divided into

Menstrual phase : 4 days
Proliferative phase : 10 days
Secretory phase : 14 days

Menstrual phase: It is characterized by periodic discharge of 25-65ml of blood, tissue fluid, mucus and epithelial cells. It
is caused by sudden reduction in oestrogen and progesterone and lasts for approximately 4- 5 days. During menstrual
phase, ovarian cycle is also in operation and primary follicle begins its development. At birth, each ovary contains
200,000 follicles each consisting of primary ovum surrounded by single epithelium. Towards the end of menstrual phase,
many primary follicles developed into secondary follicle which consists of secondary ova.

Proliferative phase: It is characterized by release of oestrogen. During this, endometrium gets proliferated and it gets
renewed in this period. Also, graafian follicle is maturing and this phase is terminated when ovulation occurs and
oestrogen production is inhibited.

Secretory phase: Immediately after ovulation, the cells lining ovarian follicle are stimulated by LH to develop corpus
luteum which further produces progesterone. Under the influence of progesterone, the endometrium becomes
oedematous and secretory glands produce an increased amount of watery mucus which is also called luteal phase. If the
implantation of fertilized ovum occurs, then endometrium grows further. Then the menstrual cycle is interrupted during
the period of lactation .If ovum is not fertilized, the cycle enters in the next phase.
i)Spermatogenesis( 2 marks)
The process by which male primordial germ cells undergo meiosis and produce a number of cells called spermatozoa is
termed as spermatogenesis. primordial germ cell → Spermatogonia (stem cell) → primary spermatocyte → secondary
spermatocytes → spermatids → sperms

ii)Oogenesis(1.5 marks)
The formation of ovum or egg cell in the ovaries is called oogenesis. Primordial follicles →primary follicle → secondary
follicle → mature follicle → ovulation

ii) Reproduction - Reproduction can be defined as the process by which genetic material is passed from one generation
and thus maintains the continuation of the species.
OR
Reproduction: A process by which a living organism produces an individual of the same kind. OR Reproduction is the
biological process by which new individual organisms – "offspring" – are produced from their "parents".

What is Puberty? (2M)

Puberty is defined as age at which the internal reproductive organs reach maturity

(ii) Semen:
Composition of semen: Semen is the fluid ejaculated during intercourse from urethra. It consists of:
1. Spermatozoa 10%
2. A viscid fluid secreted by seminal vesicle 50-60%
3. A thin lubricating fluid produced by prostate gland 20-30%
4. Mucus
Functions of Semen:
1. Increase motility and fertility of spermatozoa.
2. Semen is slightly alkaline, to neutralize the acidity of vagina.
3. It contains a clotting enzyme, which the semen in the vagina, increasing the likelihood of semen being retained close
to the cervix.
4. It contains nutrients to nourish and support the sperm during their journey through the female reproductive tract.

Give functions of uterus,(1M for any two) fallopian tubes (1M for any two))and ovaries.(1M any two)
Functions of uterus:
1.Uterus serve as part of pathway for sperm deposited in the vagina to reach uterine tubes
2. It is site of implantation of fertilized ovum.
3. It is site of development of the fetus, during 40 weeks of gestation.
4. It causes labour by contracting muscles of fundus & body cervix relaxes & dilates.
5. During reproductive cycles, when implantation does not occur, it is source of menstrual flow.

Functions of fallopian tubes:

1. Tube provide route for sperm to reach ovum, transport secondary oocyte and fertilized ova from ovaries to uterus.
2. Mucus secreted in tube provides nutrition for ovum. 3. Usually it is site for fertilization.

Functions of ovaries:
1. Maturation of the follicle is stimulated by FSH from anterior pituitary and estrogen is secreted by the follicle lining
cells.
2. Ovulation is triggered by LH by anterior pituitary.
3. After ovulation the follicle lining cells develop into corpus luteum (yellow body) under the influence of LH.
4. The corpus luteum produces progesterone & some estrogen.

Draw a well labelled diagram of female reproductive system.

Explain the process of micturition.

In infants, accumulation of urine in the bladder activates stretch receptors in the bladder wall generating sensory
impulses that are transmitted to the spinal cord, where the spinal reflex is initiated. This stimulates involuntary
contraction of the detrusor muscle & relaxation of the internal urethral sphincter and expels urine from the bladder. This
is micturition. When bladder control is established, the micturition reflex is still stimulated but sensory impulses also
pass upwards to the brain and there is awareness of the need to pass urine as the bladder fills.By learned & contious
effert, contraction of the external urethral sphincter and muscles of pelvic floor can inhibit micturition until it is
convenient to pass urine.

Give the role of oestrogen (1.5 marks) & progesterone in body.(1.5 marks)
Role of Oestrogen in the bodyi) It promotes the development & maintenance of female reproductive system,
secondary sexual characteristics & the breasts. The secondary sexual characteristics include distribution of adipose
tissue in the breasts, abdomen, mons pubis, & hips,. Voice pitch, a broad pelvis & pattern of hair growth on the head &
body. ii) It increases protein anabolism including building of strong bones. It lowers blood cholesterol level. iii) Moderate
levels inhibit both the release of GnRH by the hypothalamus and secretion of LH & FSH by the anterior pituitary. Role of
Progesterone in the body – i) It along with with oestrogen to prepare & maintain the endometrium for implantation of a
fertilised ovum & to prepare breasts for milk secretion. ii) High levels of progesterone inhibits secretion of GnRH & LH.
Name the different parts (1.5 M) of male reproductive system with their functions (1.5M) 2 Testes: spermatogenesis,
secrete male hormone testosterone 2 Epididymis: It is the site of sperm maturation Scrotum: Maintains optimal
temperature for spermatogenesis 2 deferent ducts (vas deferens) : Storage of sperms and also conveys sperms from
epididymis to urethra 2 spermatic cords : Suspends the testis in the scrotum 2 seminal vesicles : accessory gland which
secretes seminal fluid 2 ejaculatory ducts : Eject spermatozoa & seminal fluid into prostatic urethra prior to ejaculation 1
prostate gland : It secrets prostatic fluid Urethra & penis: introduces spermatozoa in vagina

Name different organs of male reproductive system with their functions.

The male reproductive system consists of the following organs:
Testes 2
Scrotum Epididymides 2
Deferent ducts 2
Spermatic cords 2
Seminal vesicles 2
Ejaculatory ducts 2
Prostate gland 1
Penis 1
Scrotum : It is a pouch of deeply pigmented skin, fibrous and connective tissue and smooth muscle. It is divided into two
compartments each of which contains one testis, one epididymis and testicular end of spermatic cord. It maintains
optimal temperature for spermatogenesis
Testis: Spermatogenesis, secrete male hormone testosterone
Epididymides : It is the site of sperm maturation
Deferent ducts (Vas deferens): Storage of sperms and also conveys sperms from epididymis to urethra
Spermatic cords : Suspends the testis in the scrotum
Seminal vesicles: Accessory gland which secretes seminal fluid
Ejaculatory ducts: Eject spermatozoa & seminal fluid into prostatic urethra prior to ejaculation
Prostate gland: It secrets prostatic fluid

Explain the structure (2M) & function of ovaries. (2M)

Ovaries- They are the female gonads. it is made of two layers of tissuesThe cortex & the medulla Structure The germinal
epithelium is a layer of simple epi. That covers the surface of the ovaries. The tunica albuginea is a whitish capsule of
dense connective tissue located deep to the germinal epi. Cortex-it surrounds the medulla It contains ovarian follicles in
various stages of maturity each contain an ovum. Before puberty, the ovaries are inactive but it contains immature
follicles( primordial follicles), which the female has from birth.During the childbearing years, (after puberty), one ovarian
follicle matures ( Graafian follicle) & ruptures & releases ovum in to the peritoneal cavity. . This is called ovulation. &
occurs during each menstrual cycle. The ruptured follicle develops into the corpus luteum which in turn will leave a small
permanent scar of fibrous tissue called corpus albicans. The corpus leutium secretes oestrogen & progesterone. Medulla
It lies in the center & consists of fibrous tissues, blood vessels & nerves.
Write functions of Lymphatic system. (0.5 x 4=2M) Functions of Lymphatic system: 1) It drains excessive tissue fluids
from the intercellular spaces to the blood. 2) It returns plasma proteins to the blood. 3) It absorbs and transport fatty
acids and fats from the digestive system. 4) It plays an important role in immune response of the body either by
releasing cytotoxic chemicals or by producing antibodies.

Explain formation and composition of Lymph. (1.5 x 2 = 3M) Lymph is a fluid connective tissue. All the body tissues are
bathed in tissue fluid; some tissue fluid diffuses through the lymph capillaries forming lymph. Formation of lymph:
Lymph is the fluid that circulates throughout the lymphatic system. The lymph is formed when the interstitial fluid (the
fluid which lies in the interstices of all body tissues is collected through lymph capillaries. It is then transported through
larger lymphatic vessels to lymph nodes, where it is cleaned by lymphocytes, before emptying ultimately into the right
or the left subclavian vein, where it mixes back with the blood. Since the lymph is derived from the interstitial fluid, its
composition continually changes as the blood and the surrounding cells continually exchange substances with the
interstitial fluid. It is generally similar to blood plasma, which is the fluid extracellular matrix (ECM) of whole blood.
Lymph returns proteins and excess interstitial fluid to the bloodstream. Lymph may pick up bacteria and bring them to
lymph nodes, where they are destroyed. Metastatic cancer cells can also be transported via lymph. Lymph also
transports fats from the digestive system (beginning in the lacteals) to the blood via chylomicrons. Composition of
lymph: 1)Water: 94%, 2)Solids: 6%. i) Proteins: Total protein content varies from-2.0-4.5%. Three proteins are albumin,
globulin and fibrinogen. In addition to this, traces of prothrombin are also found. ii) Fats: It varies between 5-15%
depending on diet. iii) Carbohydrates: Sugar- 132 mg per 100 ml. iv)Other Constituents: urea, creatinine, chlorides,
phosphorus, calcium, enzymes and antibodies are also present.