Mining Exploration: Miris

MIRIS 22 octobre 2019
Mining Exploration
Mineral and Energetic Resources
 Deposit concept
• What is an ore deposit ?

– It is a natural concentration of mineral (or energetic matter) that is economically
minable, namely from which we can extract chemical element(s) at a profitable cost
during a given period.
– Mineral concentration
• Mineral (or energetic matter)
– Extraction
• Ore minerals must be separated from gangue and refining (metallurgy)
– Cost
• Investment , operating cost
– Profitable
• Competitive and make profit
– Period
• Price variability on the stock market
• Supply and demand
2
Demand and exploration
 Global use by resource type
3
 Economic Profitability and Exploration Budgets
4
 Economic Profitability and Exploration Budgets
World Exploration Budgets
5
Earth source of elements
 Mineral concentration: geochemical cycles ?
• The Earth in the solar system

– 3rd planet
– 150.106 km from the sun
– Radius : 6371 km
• Structure and geochemical differentiation
– Layered in spherical shells
– Crust / Mantle / Outer and inner core
6
The Earth
 Global geochemical differenciation
Weathering:
Atmosphere responsible for physical, chemical
and biological alteration
 Moho
 Gutemberg
 Lehman
7
The Earth
 Chemical composition and differentiation
Earth Mantle Crust Core

Clarke &
Earth Washington
composition Chondrites Earth composition as 1924
Masson 1966 average oxides Average Oceanic Continental Simplified
wt% wt% wt% wt% wt% wt% wt% wt%
Si 15,2 17,1 SiO2 32,57 45,2 59,1 49,4 59,15
Ti 0,05 0,06 TiO2 0,08 0,2 1 1,8 1
Al 1,09 1,22 Al2O3 4,12 3,5 15,2 15,7 15,35
Cr 0,26 0,29 Cr2O3 0,57 0,43 0,026
Fe 34,63 27,24 Fe2O3 9,58 8,8 / 9,2 6,2 11,6 8
Mg 12,7 14,29 MgO 21,17 37,5 3,4 6,7 4,6
Ni 2,39 1,64 Ni 2,39 0,0096 9,4
Ca 1,13 1,27 CaO 1,58 3,1 5,1 9,5 6,7
Na 0,57 0,64 Na2O 1,54 0,6 3,7 2,9 3
K 0,07 0,08 K2O 0,17 0,1 3,1 1,1 2,25
O 29,53 33,24
S 1,93 1,93 S 1,93 15,6
P 0,1 0,11
Co 0,13 0,09
Mn 0,22 0,25
Fe 24,23 75
8
Earth in the Solar system
 Element Abundance in the Solar system (normalized Si= 106)
after Cameron, 1973 and Curtis et and al., 1980 in Anderson, 1982
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 Source of elements
• Thermonuclear fusion
– Fusion of hydrogen products helium 4He
• It is the main reaction
• In stars
– At higher temperature in the center of stars
• Fusion of 4He gives 12C, 16O, 18O, 20Ne
• Fusion of carbon gives 20Ne, 23Na, 24Mg
• Oxygen gives 28Si,31P, 32S
• By a succession of reaction, fusion process can give
the elements till iron
– Heavy element are produced during Supernova explosions
– More energy
• Proton capture
• Nuclei synthesis from light particles collision
Nébuleuse du Crabe
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 Chemical composition / Comparison with the solar system
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 Comparison Earth / Solar system
• Par rapport à l’abondance cosmique

(rapport entre l’abondance terrestre et
l’abondance cosmique), la Terre est :
– Très fortement déprimée en H, C, N, gaz
rares
– Très déprimée (0,1 à 0,01) en éléments
volatils à moins de 600°: O, K, Rb, Cs,
Cd, Hg, B, In, Tl, Pb, Bi, Cl, Br, I
– Déprimée (0,1 à 1) en éléments volatils
entre 600 et 1300°K : Na, Mn, Zn, Cu,
Ag, Ga, Sn, Ge, Sb, S, Se, Te, F
– Équivalente en Si, Mg
– Enrichie (1 à 5) en métaux se condensant
de façon précoce : Li, Ba, Sr, Ca, Be, Sc,
Y, La, Ti, Zr, Hf, Th, Cr, U, W, Fe, Os, Ru,
Co, Ir, Rh, Ni, Pt, Pd, Au, Al, P, As
6 éléments majeurs (O, Si, Al, Fe, Mg, Ca)

9 mineurs (H, Na, K, Ti, Cr, Mn, Ni, P, S)
77 éléments traces
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The Earth
 Domain and limit of the mining exploration
• The Earth crust

• The depth limit of the crust is the discontinuity of
Mohorovicic (or Moho)
– Oceanic
• Under the ocean 3000 to 5000 m max. of water
• Specific gravity around 2,8 à 3
sg= 2.7
• Thickness 5 to 10 km sg= 3.3 sg= 3
– Continental Moho
• Thickness : average of 33 km
• Isostasy
Gutemberg 2898
• 60 to 70 km under mountain sg= 5.5 sg= 9.5 km
• Specific gravity around 2,7

– Lithosphere sg= 11.5
Lehman 5121 km
sg= 12
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The Earth Crust
 Petrological composition
• Rocks - great types

– Formation process
• Magmatic
– Magmatic liquids
– Volcanism (effusive)
– Plutonism (igneous)
• Sedimentary
– Deposition process
– Clastic, chemical, biochemical
• Metamorphic
– Mineralogical transformation at a solid state
– Without a modification of the chemical
composition
– With modification of the chemical composition
» Metasomatic (hydrothermal phase)
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Rocks
 Minerals
A granite: an example granular rock
Quartz : SiO2
Potash Feldspar : KAlSi3O8
Plagioclases: NaAlSi3O8 <> CaAl2Si2O8
Micas : K(Mg,Fe)3 AlSi3O10 (OH)2

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Mineral concentration
 An anomalistic petrochemical rock
• Anomalistic regarding a reference

– Basalt / Granite / Gneiss / …
– Clarke abundance
• Element abundance in the earth crust
• Abnormal enrichment
– Regarding to the main processes at the origin of rocks that represent the great part
of the volume of the crust (average chemical composition)
– An exceptional concentration of minerals linked to a set of processes that allowed
the telescoping of several geological conditions and events resulting in the
deposition or the formation of minerals of interest.
• It is an exceptional geological object
– Natural processes have resulted in an increase in the content of specific elements. If
the concentration reaches or exceeds a favorable level and volume, its extraction
may be carried out under profitable economic conditions.
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Mineral concentration
 A petrochemical anomaly
Element Continental Exploitation rate Enrichment

crust Factor
Fe 7,4 % 60 % 8
Ti 0,54 % 35 % 65
Ni 0,011 % 3% 270
Pb 16 ppm 10 % 1250
Sn 2,5 ppm 1% 4000
Au 0,3 ppb 3-10 ppm 30000
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Mineral deposit
 Ore-forming processes
SOURCE Extraction Transfert Trap

Weathering
Groundwater
Magma Surface water Rock
Sediment Hydrothermal fluid +
Soil Magmatic fluid
Rocks … Metamorphic fluid geochemical reactions,
… physical processes
Engine
(Energy)
Magmatism, erosion, thermal convection, gravity, magma degassing, …

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Dynamic of the Earth …
 Energy for ore-forming processes
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Earth and rocks regenerate as the accretion-subduction cycle continues
Seafloor Datation
Inversion of the Earth's magnetic field

Paleomagnetism
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Obduction Seafloor spreading
Collision
Subduction
21
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 Magmatism processes and enrichment
Fractional crystallization
melts become enriched in incompatible elements : metal potential in late stage fluids
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 Fundamental fractionation processes
• Partial melting
• Fractional crystallization
– Fluid circulation in intruded formation
• Subduction
– Magmatic assimilation of crustal rocks
• Element fractionation due to fluid circulation
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Minerals
 Elementary components of rocks
• Up to 5000 species
– 94 natural chemical elements
• Mineral classification : 10 main classes
– Native elements
– Sulfides and sulfosalts
– Halides
– Oxides and hydroxides
– Carbonates and nitrates
– Borates
– Sulfates, chromates, molybdates, tungstates
– Phosphates, arsenates, vanadates
– Silicates
– Organic minerals
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Minerals
 Native elements
Copper Silver Sulfur
Diamond Gold
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Minerals
 Sulfides
Pyrite: FeS2 Galena: PbS Sphalerite: ZnS
Chalcopyrite: CuFeS2 Stibnite: Sb2S3
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Minerals
 Oxides et hydroxides
Cassiterite: SnO2 Hematite: Fe2O3 Magnetite: Fe3O4
Ilmenite: FeTiO3 Gibbsite: Al(OH)3
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Minerals
 What gives an interest to a mineral?
• Elements that are part of the natural chemical

composition of a mineral
– Metals, ..
• Physical properties
– Industrial minerals
– fibrosity, insulation capacity, density, hardness, …
• Why do we extract mineral …
– Minerals are essential and irreplaceable components for
the things we use daily
– Only 90 elements make up the building block of everything
around us,
– These elements are present in widely varying amounts
• The ability to extract and transform them
– Mining
– Recycling and reuse
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Minerals

– Metals, ..
around us,
– Mining
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Minerals

– Metals, ..
around us,
– Mining
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Minerals

– Metals, ..
around us,
– Mining
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Minerals
 How uses evolved over the ages …
35 000 years
1,3 My
2,5 My
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Minerals
 Evolution over time
• Metals form native elements

– Cu, Au, Ag
– Jewels
• Copper
– Melting ~1100 °C
– Anatolia -7500 BC
– France -2000 BC
• Bronze – Alloy Cu/Sn (90/10)
– Europe between -2000 and -800 BC
• Iron
– -1100 BC Mediterranean area
– -800 BC in France
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Minerals
 Trade development - diffusion of metallurgy in Europe
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Minerals
 Improving extraction technics
Blast furnace
1000 °C
Low furnace
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Chemical elements
 Diversity needed in our daily life
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Mining exploration
 At the base of an operating chain
Finding the ressource

Extracting the resource
Refining useful elements
Shaping processes
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Mining exploration
 At the beginning …
Find the ore Extract the ore

> Geologist > Mining engineer
Exploration
Operation
Prospecting Closure
Developing
Mining
Mineral resources development cycle Metallurgy

Remediation
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Mining exploration
 What are we looking for in the end?
• Chemical elements
– That have an industrial interest
– Inseparable from mineral s that may contain them
• We are looking for a volume of rock containing these valuable minerals
– Technically
• Extract them from the mass
• Concentrate them
• Transform them to recover all or part of the pure elements contained (refining)
• Economically
• To earn money and make a profit
– This is what allows you to consider that a mineralization has a deposit
status
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Mining exploration
 How to minimize the economic risk
High Risk
Steps Technics
Exploration Geophysics, geochemical
prospection, mapping,
Initial steps trenches, …
Economical Risk
Resource Trenches, drilling

operations, geophysics, …
identification
Resource Drill holes, 3D modelling,
…
definition
Pre-feasibility engineering, metallurgy,
inferred mineral
studies resources, cost estimation
Feasibility Optimisation, operating

cost, measured mineral
studies resources
Development Build a mine, financing,

engineering, operating
licences
Low Risk Production Mine planning,

exploitation, growth, …
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Mining exploration
 How to carry out a mining exploration ?
• Where do we look and how do we find it ?

• Geologist needs field guide to be able to perform efficient mineral exploration
– A strategy must be defined before starting on field
• Define objectives
– What ?
– Where ?
– How ?
• Define budgets
– How much does it cost ?
– Evaluate the situation step by step
» Function of a set of parameters
» Should we continue ?
• The prospecting geologist relies on geological models
• The geologist needs to reduce surfaces to explore in an intelligent way
– A methodology to follow
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Mining exploration, a methodology
 Phase 1: définir des cibles
• Define the type of resource to prospect

• Establish criteria favourable to a discovery and its operating conditions
– Economic analysis
– Analysis of market conditions
– Analyse the evolution of demand in the future
• Analyse the possibility of joint venture with other companies
– Geographical and geological analysis
• Selection of geographic areas where the resource could be present
– Regional geology
– gathering all available data on the resource and the local geology
– Climatic conditions / natural hazards
• Political Risk Analysis
– Stability and security of targeted countries
– Mining and environmental laws and regulation (Mining code)
• Economical context
– Currency, taxes, salaries
• Infrastructure quality and human resources
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Mining exploration: Phase 1
 Where to look and what ? Metallogenic province concept
• Metallogenic province concept

– Spatio-temporal concept introduced by Louis de Launay in 1913
– We are not looking for anything anywhere
• Definition given by par the Austrian metallogenist Walter Emil Petrascheck
(1906-1991)
– " A metallogenic province is a set of mineral deposits formed during a tectonic-
metallogenic period in a large tectonic unit and characterized by a certain
mineralogical relationship, by the shape of the deposits and by the intensity of the
mineralization."
• The probability of finding new deposits of a known type in previously in already
explored zones, or in neighboring zones where the geology is similar, is much
greater
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Mining exploration – Phase 1
 Where to look?
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Metallogenic provinces
 The copper case Production Mt Cu CHILI 5320
USA 1140
INDONESIA 1070
1.14 Mt (7.6 %) PEROU 1010

Porphyry copper AUSTRALIA 927
> Morenci (0.38 Mt)
CHINA 755
> Bingham (0.26 Mt)
Etats Unis RUSSIA 700
CANADA 567
POLOGNE 523
5.32 Mt (35.5 %) ZAMBIA 436

Porphyry copper MEXICO 429
> Escondida (1.4 Mt)
> Chuquicamata KAZAKHSTAN 402
Chili
1.07 Mt (7.1%)
Porphyry copper
Ore Copper Content > Grasberg (0.75 Mt)
t > Batu Hijau (0.3 Mt)
5 400 000
Indonesie
Ore Copper Content
Kt
800-5330 (6)
24 Pays : 98 %
440-800 (3)
200-440 (4)
130-200 (3)
80-130 (7)
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 The copper case
Volcanoes distribution in the world
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 Porphyry copper – Main deposits map
- Mesozoïc and cenozoïc orogenic belts
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Porphyry copper
 Geological context
• Mise en place assez haut dans la croûte terrestre

Chuquicamata - Chili
– Epi à mésozonal
• Associé à des zones de subduction
• Magmatisme calco-alcalin (acide)
– Cristallisation fractionnée
– Hydrothermalisme
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 The iron case Production 2008 Mt
China 770
Brazil 390
Australia 330
India 200
Russia 110
World Production of iron ore
Ukraine 80
United States 54
South Africa 42
Canada 35
Iran 32
Sweden 27
Kazakhstan 26
Venezuela 20
Mexico 12
Mauritania 12
Others 50
TOTAL 2200
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The biggest iron ore deposits
• BIF
– Banded Iron Formation
– Itabirites, taconites
– 90% of world reserves
– Archean
– Lower Proterozoic
– 2300 My – 1900 My
• Banded iron ore
– Hematite
– Cherts (silica)
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• During Archean period

– Reducing atmosphere (N2, CO2, NH4)
– Ocean warmer and much more acid
– Huge mass of dissolved Si and Fe
• During Proterozoic period
– Live arise developing photosynthesis
– O2 increase
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• Alternating layers of iron-rich material and silica

– Precipitation of Si and Fe by mixing deep waters rich in reduced Fe and Si with
oxidizing surface waters
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Uranium deposits
 Main types of deposits
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Uranium deposits
 The great deposits and their production
Name Country Reserves (t) Grade (%) Type Status Production

1 OLYMPIC DAM Australia 600 000 0,08 breccia production 2715
2 RANDSTADT Sweden 300 000 0,03 black shales stand-by
3 McARTHUR River Canada 180 000 19,6 unconformity production 5830
4 CIGAR LAKE Canada 136 000 15,1 unconformity development
5 MUNKUDUK Kazakhstan 130 000 0,036 sandstones production 2840
6 ROSSING Namibia 125 000 0,04 magmatic production 2040
7 ITATAIA Brazil 120 000 0,08 veins stand-by
8 IMOURAREN Niger 100 000 0,08 sandstones stand-by
9 JABILUKA Australia 94 000 0,45 unconformity stand-by
10 KEY LAKE Canada 71 000 2,5 unconformity mined-out
11 STRELTSOVSKA-ANTEI Russie 60 000 0,3 volcanic production 3070
12 RANGER 3 Australie 55 000 0,23 unconformity production 4355
13 RANGER 1 Australie 52 000 0,29 unconformity mined-out
14 EAGLE POINT Canada 51 000 1,55 unconformity production 2280
15 ARGUNSKOYE Russie 39 000 0,25 volcanic stand-by
16 YEELIRRIE Australie 45 000 0,15 calcrete stand-by
17 ILIMAUSSAQ Groenland 40 000 0,034 magmatic stand-by
18 TULUKUYEVSKY Russie 35 000 0,4 volcanic mined-out
19 MUYUMKUM Kazakhstan 34 000 0,06 sandstones development
20 POCOS DE CALDAS Brazil 24 000 0,085 magmatic production 310
2003 WORLD PRODUCTION : 35 250 tons

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Uranium deposit
 The great deposits and their production
1
1 - Athabasca
5 6 9 2 - Elliot Lake
2
3 3 - Wyoming
12
4 - New Mexico
4 5 - Erzgebirge
6 - Ukraine
7 7 - Niger
8 - Witwatersrand
9 - Streltsovka
10 - Pine Creek
11 - Olympic Dam
12 - Kazakhstan /
Ouzbekistan
10 13 - Rossing
13
11
8
URANIUM TONNAGE
> 200.000 t (1 à 11)
100.000 à 200.000 t
U production > 1000 tU/an
20.000 à 100.000 t U production < 1000 tU/an
Precambrian
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Uranium deposits
 Ages of formation
LOWER ARCHEAN No exploitable deposit known

(4.5 – 3.1 billion years)
UPPER ARCHEAN AND LOWER Primary concentrations of clastic uranium in conglomerates (South
Africa, Canada)
PROTEROZOIQUE
(3,1 - 2,2 billion years)
PROTEROZOIQUE INFERIEUR First deposit in sedimentary rock from a chemical deposition of
uranium (Oklo, Gabon)
2 billion years
PROTEROZOIQUE MOYEN Mains deposits related to albitite in old basements (Canada, Russia,
Brazil)
(1,8 - 1,5 billion years)
(1,5 - 0,9 billion years) Deposits related to unconformity (Pine Creek, Australia and
Saskatchewan, Canada)
During PERMIAN Vein deposits related to granites

(Vendée and Limousin FRANCE, Erzgebirge Central Europe)
(300 – 250 million years) Tectono-lithological deposit (Lodève)
From JURASSIC Roll front type deposit

(USA, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan)
(200 – 140 million years) Deposits of volcanic origin (Streltsovska)
From CENOZOIC Basal type uranium deposits (Blizzard, Canada), stratiform deposits in
sandstones (Coutras), deposits of volcanic origin (Mexique)
(65 million years)
CENOZOIC TO PRESENT Calcrete deposit type
(Yeelirrie, Australie)
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Hydrothermal deposits
 High temperature fluid in a magmatic context
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 SEDEX – “sedimentary exhalatif"
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 VMS "Volcanogenic Massive Sulfides"
• Hydrothermal mineralization
– Syngenetic, stratiform accumulation from hydrothermal fluids
– In a volcano-sedimentary context
– Metallic (sulfide) / base metals, Au, Ag
60
 VMS "Volcanogenic Massive Sulfides"
• Multiple volcanic contexts
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Magmatism and deposit types
 Kimberlites (diamond)
• Mantle origin
– 1 000 à 1 400 °C
– The major part in between
• 150 et 200 km
• Uprising of the magma
– ultramafic
– explosive > pipe
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 Kimberlites (diamond)
Deposit in old cratons geological context
63
 Ni – Cu – Co et PGE (Platinum Group Element)
• Noril’sk deposit- Talnakh

– Continental basalts in a Triassic province
– Mafic and ultramafic intrusions mainly in the form of sills
– Sulfide mineralization
• Ni
• Cu
• PGE
– Magmatic differentiation
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 From magmatic type (Bushveld complex)
An example: the magmatic Bushveld complex (South Africa)
Chromite in the lower part (lower zone), platine (Merenski reef, 15% the world reserves)
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Sedimentary deposits
 Placers
• Clastic deposit
– Eroded particles accumulated in alluvial deposits
– Specific properties (capacity to resist to the erosion)
• No alterability
• Hardness
• Density
– Gravitational process
• Gold, diamond, platinum, cassiterite, rutile, zircon, monazite, ilmenite, garnet
– The minerals come from rocks with pre-concentration
– Minerals that are chemically and mechanically resistant are released from the rock
gangue through weathering processes.
– A second enrichment occurs during remobilization and transport (rivers, beach
sands)
• Current alluvial deposits
• Paleo-placers
– Witwatersrand (South Africa)
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 Placers
67
 Lateritic geological context
• Superficial formations
– Roche undergoing a prolonged process of chemical weathering
– It is commonly considered to have formed in hot and wet tropical areas
– Chemical enrichment by leaching of mobiles elements of rocks from the surface
– Are economically interesting if they grow on :
• On silico-aluminous rocks (granites, … )
– Give bauxites and aluminum ore
• On mafic and ultramafic rocks (peridotites, …)
– Give nickel, cobalt and chrome ores
68
 Lateritic geological context
• Chemical origin
• Actual laterite
– Tropical and equatorial weather (Guinea)
• Paleo-laterites
– Cretaceous bauxites from South of France
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Mining exploration – methodology
 Phase 2 : Selection of favorable areas
• Identification of the risk sources for the selected areas

– Risk is defined as chance of failure or loss
– Must be defined in an economic context
– Economic stability of a country
– Currency, Taxes, …
– Salaries level
– Social policy
– Quality of infrastructures
– Power supply
– Transports (railway, road, …)
– …
– Human resources (human capital)
• Human competence and worker availability
• Worker mobility
70
 Selection of favorable areas
• Collect available historical data

– Geology
– Geophysics
– Geochemistry
– Geomorphology
– Satellite imagery
– Drill hole
– Past and present mining exploration
– Production data
• Access the national and international database
– National Geological Survey
• USGS, BRGM, …
– Ministry of Mines
– Web sites
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 Selection of favorable areas
• Re-evaluation of old data with regard to the evolution of techniques and

scientific knowledge's
– Analyze of the evolution of the economic context
– Better performance of the exploration tools
– Machine
– Software (3D modelling)
– New geological and metallogenic model
– Scientific evolution of deposit knowledge
– Development and improvement of extraction methods and mining techniques
– Improvement of smelting techniques
72
 Phase 3: official procedures and strategic exploration
• Initiate the official procedures

– Agreement with local authorities
– Registration of the company
– Prospecting license
• Strategic exploration
– At a regional scale
• Geophysics
– Reconnaissance with airborne surveys
– Remote sensing
• Geochemistry
– At a great scale
• Geology
• Mapping
73
 Phase 4: tactical exploration
• From data from strategic exploration

– Identifying targets corresponding to regional anomalies
– Each anomaly must be controlled
• The next step consist on a more detailed prospection
– Smaller scale techniques to identify the potential of each anomaly
– We want to know if anomalies have roots to develop a volume
• Detailed geophysics
• Soil geochemistry
• Trenches
• Detailed geological mapping
• Mineralization analysis (mineralogy, chemical analysis)
– Target selection for deeper investigation
• Auger drilling
• Deep drilling
• Chemical and mineralogical analysis of the crossed mineralizations
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 Phase 5: Feasability study
• Drill hole operation

– Regular grid to perform an evaluation in terms of volume and grade
• Depends on the rock and ore type
– Systematic sampling of drill cores
• Geochemistry
• Mineralogy
– Ore processing Test
– Estimation of geological reserves
• Assessment of the mining site
• Topography
• Infrastructure
• Type of work
• Remediation
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Mining exploration
 Resource and reserve classification, an international reporting harmonization
• Geological resources
– tonnage
• An ore volume identified by subsurface works in the envelope of a
mineralization
• Different methods of calculation
– Polygonal (manual)
– Kriging (computer calculation)
– From the influence area of drill holes
• Different categories of resources could be evaluated
– Inferred
– Indicated
– Measured
• Mining exploration stops at this stage
• Reserves
– Ore tonnage valuable and legally, economically, and technically feasible to extract.
Reserves are either Probable reserves or Proved Reserves.
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Resource and reserve
 International harmonization
Relation entre les résultats obtenus après l'exploration, les ressources

minérales et les réserves minérales (CRIRSCO)
77
Resource and reserve
 International harmonization
Equivalence between CRIRSCO and UNFC-2009 classifications

UNFC : United Nations Framework Classification
CRIRSCO : Committee for Mineral Reserves International Reporting Standards
78
Mining exploration – The tools
 Remote sensing
• Definition
– "Remote sensing is the science (and to some extent, art) of acquiring information
about the Earth's surface without actually being in contact with it. This is done by
sensing and recording reflected or emitted energy and processing, analyzing, and
applying that information"
– (web site of Natural Resources Canada http://www.nrcan.gc.ca)
– The different materials on the surface of the earth absorb, reflect or emit a quantity
of energy that depends on several factors
– Wave length
– The intensity of incident radiation
– The properties of material (absorption)
– The incidence angle of the radiation source (sun or artificial)
– Aircraft and satellites are the common platforms for remote sensing observations
– Aerial photography using the visible spectrum of the electromagnetic radiation
or other wavelength (IR, …) could help to highlight geological structures (fold,
fault, unconformity, lithology, …)
– Costs are moderate
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 Remote sensing
• Principes
– Se développe depuis qu'on a la possibilité de prendre de la hauteur
• Ballons, avions satellites, drones, …
– Utilise les propriété du rayonnement électromagnétique
– Mesure du rayonnement réfléchit par la surface terrestre
• Luminance / réflectance
• Intensité du flux radiatif émis ou réfléchi par une portion de la surface de la
terre
• Notion de signature spectrale
– Utilisation de différents capteurs
• Appareil photographique
• Radiomètres
• Radars (capteur actifs)
– Traitement numérique des images
• Filtrage
• Combinaison
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 Remote sensing
• Sensor collecting information across the electromagnetic radiation

– Panchromatic
– visible spectrum
– Multispectral
– subset of targeted wavelengths
– Hyperspectral
– ranges of wavelengths
– continuous
– contiguous
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 Remote sensing
• The electromagnetic spectrum

– Detectable over very long distances
– Energy reflected by materials like soils, vegetation, water, rocks and minerals
– Different materials reflect and absorb differently at different wavelengths
– Targets can be differentiated by their spectral reflectance signatures
– These interactions between reflection and absorption are the basis of spectroscopy
– The reflected energy is collected continuously by specific sensors
• The resolution depends on the technological level of the sensor and of course
the distance between the sensor and targets
– 30 m (LANDSAT, ASTER) to 0.5 m
82
 Remote sensing
Granite
Unconformity
Limestone
Gypsum
Sandstone
Anti-Atlas (Marocco) – ASTER

Superposition short waves and IR
83
 Remote sensing
• Hyperspectral
– Minerals detection
– Potential for automatic mapping
– Each part composing the surface
participates to the reflected spectrum
– Soil
– Vegetation
– Minerals
– The difficulty is to decrypt the spectrum
– Field control
84
 Remote sensing
DTM from LIDAR sensor
85
 Geophysics
• Geophysical survey
– Offer a means of looking into the Earth
– Don’t give a direct detection of metallic element but some information concerning
their properties
• Positive detection or not on the presence of mineralization
– Allows to highlight anomalies in depth although there are no detectable indications
on the surface
– Give a 2D or 3D of geological objects
– Methodology developed from well known deposits
– Method that only works with a good knowledge of geology
– Geology and geophysics are complementary methods
• Airborne survey
– Covering large surfaces
– Strategic / Early stage of exploration process
• Survey directly in contact with the surface
– Only cover small areas
– Tactical phases
86
 Geophysics
• Methods
– Magnetism
• Measurements of magnetic susceptibility
• Magnetic minerals in the rocks (ore)
– Radiometry
• Radioactive ore
– Electromagnetism / electrical methods
• Measurement of resistivity or conductivity
• Conductive ore
– Gravimetry
• Measurement of gravity and density contrast (lateral variation of gravity)
– Seismic method
– Measurement of the propagation velocity of acoustic waves
• High cost and not really used by mining operator
– Electrical requiring ground contact
• Resistivity, induced polarization (IP), SP
87
Mining exploration – Geophysics
 Magnetism
• The first and the classical method

– Since the 19th century
– Iron ore
– Low cost
– anomalies in the earth's magnetic
field
• Depends on the presence
– Magnetite
– Ilmenite
– Pyrrhotite
– Volcanic rocks (basalt, …)
• Measurement of the earth's magnetic

field intensity
– Secondary magnetic field
– Induced by the Earth’s field
88
 Magnetism
89
 Electromagnetism (EM)
• Analyze of electromagnetic field in the rock to characterize their electrical

properties
– The ground is exited by an artificial electromagnetic field
– The secondary generated field is measured by a sensor
90
 Electromagnetism (EM)
• Granitic batholite
Document COGEMA
91
 Transient electromagnetism method (TEM)
• Data acquisition
– After the current in the emitting coil (Tx) has been turned off, a loop of induced
current se diffuse in the ground and create a secondary magnetic field. The decay of
the edit currents is measured by the receiver coil (Rx).
– The signal is recorded over the time when the primary field is absent. It is the main
advantage of this technique
Guillemoteau 2012
92
Guillemoteau 2012
Few examples of TEM system mounted on different types of aircraft
93
Guillemoteau 2012
Few examples of TEM system mounted on helicopter
94
Comparison of the resolution of the 2 types
Guillemoteau 2012
Depth penetration in the ground
95
Data interprétation of TEM prospection for

graphite.
British Columbia (Canada)
96
Data interpretation of TEM prospection on

epithermal gold deposits and skarns
related to mafic intrusive bodies.
Guerrero Gold Belt (Mexico)
97
 Sismique réflexion
• The general principle of seismic reflection

– A ground shock or a pressure wave is caused
– Elastic waves are emitted from these sources
– These waves propagate in the rocks
• The speed of propagation depends on the nature of the rocks
– The main discontinuities (markers) reflect these waves
– These reflections reach the surface, are recorded (geophones), processed and
analyzed
98
 Seismic reflection

– The recorded signal is composite
– Depends on :
• Rock types (acoustic impedance )
– Velocity
– Density
• The impedance contrast between facies
99

– The received signal is the product of convolution of the pulse wave (shaking) and
subsequently of the series of reflection coefficients (markers)
100

– Gives a cross-section of the ground that is an distorted image of the geology
– Visualization of the geological structures
– Based on the velocity of acoustic waves
– It is necessary to interpret the resulting profiles
• the velocity model is not known before
• Converting in depth
101
 Seismic reflection and mining exploration
102
 Seismic reflection 3D
103
 Radiometry (gamma radiation)
104
 gravimetry
• Gravity field measurement

– The method is based on the measurement of little variations of the gravity vector
– These differences are from a variation of the density of geological formations
• Gravimeter
– Measure the level of g (gravity acceleration) at each point
– Correction must be done function of the location and the elevation
– The maximum variation of g around the Earth is about 0,5%
– The sensibility of a gravimeter is 10-12 of the Earth gravity
105
 gravimetry
Magnetic and gravimetric prospection from a kimberlite

Tsodilo Resources Limited, Botswana
106
 gravimetry
gravimetric signature of Olympic Dam (South Australia) copper and uranium deposit
Tsodilo Resources Limited, Botswana
107
 Electrical Methods with ground contact
• Resistivity
– Mesure de la résistivité d'une masse rocheuse en appliquant un courant continu
entre 2 électrodes enterrées
– Mesure du courant résultant en se déplaçant le long d'un profil
– Les variations observées sont à relier à la présence de minéraux qui conduisent
plus ou moins le courant ou à des nappes d'eau souterraines
• Induced polarisation (IP)
– On mesure la capacité d'une roche à accumuler le courant (comme un
condensateur)
– Met en évidence la présence de sulfures
• Self potential (SP)
– Mesure du courant propre généré dans les roches par des réactions
électrochimiques
– Ne nécessite pas l'application d'un courant
108
Mining exploration - Geophysics
 Contextes et méthodes
109
Mining exploration - Geophysics
 Contexts and methods
110
Mining exploration – Geochemistry
 Geochemical survey
• Stream sediment sampling technique

– Natural processes are used to reduce the areas to sample
– Stream sediment is derived from the erosion and transport of soil and rock debris,
and other materials within the catchment basin upstream of the sampling site.
– Stream sediments are composite products of erosion and weathering
– Sampling must take into account watersheds and confluences
– Delineation of watersheds and potentially anomalous slopes
– Geochemical soil sampling survey
– Sample from the soil
• Low depth
• Regular grid well located from strategical anomalies
• Chemical analysis of all the sample from the grid
• Iso-contour map to highlight anomalous areas
111
Mining exploration – Geochemical survey
 Stream sediment sampling technique
Écoulement de l’eau dans le sol
Longueur du corps minéralisé
Anomalie en sol
Anomalie en bas de pente
Anomalie en sédiment
112
 Stream sediment sampling technique
113
114
115
 Geochemical soil sampling survey - trenches
116
Mining exploration
 Deep drill hole – Targets reconnaissance by deep drill holes
117
Mining exploration - GIS
 Overlapping data – integrated mapping
• Deposit
– A : Geological map
– C : Magnetism
– D : Gravimetry
– E : Conductivity
• A-A’ : Cross section
– with drill holes
118

Mining Exploration: Miris

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MIRIS 22 octobre 2019

• What is an ore deposit ?

World Exploration Budgets

• The Earth in the solar system

Earth Mantle Crust Core

• Par rapport à l’abondance cosmique

6 éléments majeurs (O, Si, Al, Fe, Mg, Ca)

• The Earth crust

• Specific gravity around 2,7

• Rocks - great types

A granite: an example granular rock

Potash Feldspar : KAlSi3O8

Plagioclases: NaAlSi3O8 <> CaAl2Si2O8

Micas : K(Mg,Fe)3 AlSi3O10 (OH)2

• Anomalistic regarding a reference

Element Continental Exploitation rate Enrichment

Sn 2,5 ppm 1% 4000

Au 0,3 ppb 3-10 ppm 30000

SOURCE Extraction Transfert Trap

Magmatism, erosion, thermal convection, gravity, magma degassing, …

Earth and rocks regenerate as the accretion-subduction cycle continues

Inversion of the Earth's magnetic field

Obduction Seafloor spreading

Copper Silver Sulfur

Pyrite: FeS2 Galena: PbS Sphalerite: ZnS

Chalcopyrite: CuFeS2 Stibnite: Sb2S3

Cassiterite: SnO2 Hematite: Fe2O3 Magnetite: Fe3O4

Ilmenite: FeTiO3 Gibbsite: Al(OH)3

• Elements that are part of the natural chemical

• Elements that are part of the natural chemical

• Elements that are part of the natural chemical

• Elements that are part of the natural chemical

• Metals form native elements

Finding the ressource

Find the ore Extract the ore

Mineral resources development cycle Metallurgy

Resource Trenches, drilling

Feasibility Optimisation, operating

Development Build a mine, financing,

Low Risk Production Mine planning,

• Where do we look and how do we find it ?

• Define the type of resource to prospect

• Metallogenic province concept

1.14 Mt (7.6 %) PEROU 1010

5.32 Mt (35.5 %) ZAMBIA 436

- Mesozoïc and cenozoïc orogenic belts

• Mise en place assez haut dans la croûte terrestre

• During Archean period

• Alternating layers of iron-rich material and silica

Name Country Reserves (t) Grade (%) Type Status Production

2003 WORLD PRODUCTION : 35 250 tons

LOWER ARCHEAN No exploitable deposit known

During PERMIAN Vein deposits related to granites

From JURASSIC Roll front type deposit

• Multiple volcanic contexts

Deposit in old cratons geological context

• Noril’sk deposit- Talnakh

An example: the magmatic Bushveld complex (South Africa)

• Identification of the risk sources for the selected areas

• Collect available historical data

• Re-evaluation of old data with regard to the evolution of techniques and

• Initiate the official procedures