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Compressibility Characteristics of Organic Soils in Egypt: by Eng. Hossam Ibrahim Abdel Kader
Compressibility Characteristics of Organic Soils in Egypt: by Eng. Hossam Ibrahim Abdel Kader
IN EGYPT
By
By
By
Eng. HOSSAM IBRAHIM ABDEL KADER
B.Sc. In Civil Engineering, 1985
Dipl. In Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, 1990
Dipl. In Construction Engineering and Management, 2002
Approved by the
Examining Committee:
Title Page
LIST OF TABLES x
LIST OF FIGURES xiii
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABREVIATIONS xxiii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT xxvii
ABSTRACT xxviii
CHAPTER 1: INTODUCTION
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Problem Statement 2
1.3 Research Objectives 4
1.4 Scope of Work 5
1.5 Thesis Structure 6
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS-Continued
Title Page
2.5.1.1 Solid Phase 36
2.5.1.2 Pore Water 37
2.5.1.3 Pore Gas 37
2.5.2 Organic Soil Structural Elements 37
2.5.3 Fabric or Structure 38
2.5.3.1 Macrostructure 39
2.5.3.2 Microstructure 41
2.6 Classification Systems for Organic Soils and Peat 43
2.6.1 Classification Systems for Organic soils 48
2.6.2 Classification Systems for Peat 55
2.7 Site Investigations for Organic Soils 58
2.7.1 Sampling 59
2.7.1.1 Disturbed Sampling 61
2.7.1.2 Undisturbed Sampling 62
2.7.1.2.1 Block Sampling 63
2.7.1.2.2 Deep Sampling 64
2.7.1.2.3 The Swedish Geotechnical
Institute Sampler 65
2.7.2 In-situ Testing 67
2.8 Index and Chemical Properties of Organic Soils 69
2.8.1 Chemical Properties of Organic Soils 73
2.8.1.1 Chemical Composition 73
2.8.1.2 pH Value 73
2.8.1.3 Cation Exchange Capacity 74
2.8.2 Index Properties of Organic Soils 76
2.8.2.1 Organic Content 76
2.8.2.2 Fiber Content 80
2.8.2.3 Void Ratio 80
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS-Continued
Title Page
2.8.2.4 Water Content 81
2.8.2.5 Bulk Unit Weight 83
2.8.2.6 Dry Unit Weight 84
2.8.2.7 Specific Gravity 84
2.8.2.8 Atterberg Limits 86
2.8.2.9 Shrinkage 88
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS-Continued
Title Page
3.7.1One-Dimensional Oedometer Testing of Organic
Soils 141
3.7.1.1 Problems related to conventional Test 143
3.7.1.2 Biodegradation of Peat in Laboratory
Environment 144
3.7.2 Compression Curves 145
3.7.2.1 Time-Compression Curves - e (εv)-log t 145
3.7.2.2 The e (εv)- σ`v Curves 150
3.7.3 Compression Parameters of Organic soils 152
3.7.3.1 Primary Consolidation 152
3.7.3.2 Secondary Compression 161
3.8 Compressibility of Natural Organic soils 166
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS-Continued
Title Page
4.4.3.3 Consolidation Tests 184
4.4.3.4 Data Analysis 185
viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS-Continued
Title Page
CHAPTER 6: ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
6.1 Introduction 232
6.2 General Characteristics of Encountered Organic
Soils 234
6.3 Engineering Characteristics of Encountered
Organic Soils 248
6.3.1 Undrained Shear Strength 249
6.3.2 Permeability Characteristics 256
6.3.3 Compressibility Characteristics 261
6.3.3.1 Primary Compression 266
6.3.3.2 Secondary Compression 282
REFRENCES 297
APPENDIX –A 322
ix
LIST OF TABLES
Table Title Page
Table 2.13: Organic soil samples at East Nile Delta and their 71
properties
x
LIST OF TABLES-Continued
Table Title Page
Table 5.5: Chemical analysis of the groundwater for the two 202
sites
Table 5.8: Results of permeability tests for RU, RL, and D 214
Table 6.2: Summary of index, and chemical properties of RU, RL, 236
and D stratums
xi
LIST OF TABLES-Continued
Table Title Page
Table 6.5: Summary of Bulk Unit Weights of RU, RL, and D 244
Samples
Table 6.8: Strength parameters of muck and organic silt and 251
clay soils from literature.
Table 6.9: Summary of the permeability characteristics of the 256
soils
xii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Title Page
Figure 2.4: The Nile Delta in the first century BCE, showing 18
the names and locations of Known Nile
Distributaries
xiii
LIST OF FIGURES - Continued
Figure Title Page
xiv
LIST OF FIGURES-Continued
Figure Title Page
Figure 3.19: Perry and Poskitt (1972) model for Fibrous peat 137
based on the concept of micro and macro pores.
xv
LIST OF FIGURES-Continued
Figure Title Page
Figure 3.32: Relationship between initial water content and void 161
ratio
xvi
LIST OF FIGURES-Continued
Figure Title Page
Figure 4.3: Muffle furnace and porcelain crucibles used for 174
LOI determination
Figure 4.7: MIT procedure for obtaining test specimen from 183
tube sample
Figure 4.8: Tube sample cutting apparatus and the rotational 184
trimming table
Figure 5.4: particle size distribution of RU, RL, and D samples 196
xvii
LIST OF FIGURES-Continued
Figure Title Page
xviii
LIST OF FIGURES-Continued
Figure Title Page
Figure 5.24: The variation of σ`vo, σ`p, OCR, and εvo with depth 225
for RU & RL stratums
Figure 5.25: The variation of σ`vo, σ`p, OCR, and εvo with depth 226
for D stratum
Figure 5.28: The variation of variation of time to the EOP (tp) 231
with effective stress for RU, RL, and D stratums
Figure 6.1: Correlation between loss on ignition and void ratio 239
Figure 6.4: Correlation between bulk unit weight and the loss 245
on ignition (OC)
Figure 6.5: Correlation between dry unit weight and the loss 245
on ignition (OC)
xix
LIST OF FIGURES-Continued
Figure Title Page
Figure 6.11: Correlation between initial void ratios, eo, and 258
initial permeability, ko.
Figure 6.15: Relationship between Ck and in-situ void ratio (eo) 260
xx
LIST OF FIGURES-Continued
Figure Title Page
Figure 6.19: Relationship between Cr` and Cc` for RU, RL, and D 272
stratums
Figure 6.22: The envelope diagrams drawn for the coefficient of 277
consolidation data of peaty muck from West
Lafayette (Santagata et al., 2008), and Middleton
fibrous peat (Ajlouni, 2000)
Figure 6.24: Correlation between Cc and Wn for RU, RL, and D 281
samples
Figure 6.25: Correlation between σ`p and eo for RU, RL, and D 281
samples
xxi
LIST OF FIGURES-Continued
Figure Title Page
xxii
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABREVIATIONS
Symbol Description
Ac Ash content
av Coefficient of axial compressibility
ASTM American Society for Testing and Material
BP Before present
C Carbon
c` Effective cohesion
C14 Carbon 14 dating
Cc Compression index
Ck Permeability change index = ∆e ⁄∆ log kv
Cr Recompression index
Cs Rebound index
CRS Constant-rate-of-strain consolidation tests
D Constrained modulus (D=1/mv)
DSS Direct simple shear test
DST Direct shear test
ECP Egyptian code of practice
e Void ratio
ef Postconstruction void ratio
eo In situ void ratio under effective overburden pressure
eop Void ratio at the end of primary consolidation (EOP).
Gs Specific gravity of soil solids
GWT Groundwater table
H Hydrogen
Hdr Maximum drainage distance
Hn Degree of humification
h Hour
IL Incremental loading
xxiii
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABREVIATIONS-Continued
Symbol Description
xxiv
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABREVIATIONS-Continued
Symbol Description
xxv
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABREVIATIONS-Continued
Symbol Description
xxvi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to praise deeply ALLAHH SWT for offering me the opportunity
for better learning and knowledge. I would like to express my sincere gratitude
to those who have contributed directly or indirectly towards the completion of
this work.
This work could not have been completed without my supervisor, Prof. Dr
Mostafa E. Mosaad. I am really indebted to him for his guidance throughout
the research process from topic selection, problem solving directions, advice,
encouragement, constructive criticism to thesis revision. His personal kindness
and patience are highly appreciated. Special gratitude is due to my co-
supervisor, Dr Marawan M. Shahien for his constructive ideas, continuous
support, and providing facilities as well as references followed by interesting
discussions throughout the course of this work. His personal kindness and
friendship are sincerely acknowledged.
Finally, I would like to deeply thank my parents for their sincere prayers and
encouragement. My sincere gratitude and appreciation are also due to my wife
and children for their patience, encouragement and keeping up with me during
the period of strain. Their continuous support helped me to culminate this
work.
xxvii
ABSTRACT
xxviii
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Organic soils are known for their very low shear strength and high
compressibility. The highly compressible nature of organic soils makes it one
of the most undesirable foundation materials, and its low strength adds to its
reputation as a poor foundation material (McVay and Nugyen, 2004)
In Egypt, organic deposits are mainly found in Delta region, about 80 km to the
north of Cairo. Those areas which contain organic deposits include Dakahlia,
south Domyat, north Sharqia, north-east of Gharbia, middle and west of Kafr-
Elsheikh and north-east of Bohira governorates (see Fig. 2.2). These organic
deposits are mainly of buried nature. West-Delta contains the most extensive
deposits which may reach to 9 m thick, in addition to frequent presence in the
form of multiple layers (Geotechnical Encyclopedia of Egypt, 2002)
1
methods such as surface reinforcement, preloading, thermal preconsolidation,
chemical stabilization, and the use of sand or stone column, pre-fabricated
vertical drains, and piles are discussed in literatures (Noto, 1991; Hartlen and
Wolsky, 1996; Huat, 2004).
However, the selection of the most appropriate method should be based on the
examination of the morphological, physical, index, chemical, and engineering
characteristics of the soil. The knowledge on the permeability, shear strength
and compression behavior, of various types of organic soils, is essential as it
enables designers to understand the response of encountered type to load and to
suggest proper engineering solutions to overcome the problem.
Also, the vastness of organic soil deposits in Egypt and their occurrence close
to or within population centers and existing cropped areas (see Fig. 2.2) means
some form of infrastructure development has to be carried out in these areas.
These would include road crossings, irrigation and drainage, housing
development, water supply, etc. However, few researches had been so far
published in Egypt dealing with the engineering characteristics of the organic
soils encountered. Also, the common practice is to use piling wherever organic
soils encountered which is very expensive. It is, therefore, necessary to expand
the current knowledge of the morphological, physical, index, chemical, and
2
engineering characteristics of these soils in order to better understand their
mechanical behavior, devise reasonable design parameters, and suggest proper
and economical construction techniques for foundations and earth structures
founded on these soils.
Moreover, all over the world, organic soils most commonly occur as extremely
soft, wet, unconsolidated surficial deposits normally as an integral part of
wetland systems. They may also occur as strata beneath other surficial deposits
(Huat, 2004). In Egypt, the most distinctive characteristic of organic soils is
occurring as buried deposits, under alluvial soils, thousands of years ago. It is
the major task in this research; to assess the extent of problematic nature of
organic soils in Egypt, in term of compressibility, compared with those highly
compressible surficial deposits typically encountered all over the world.
The high compressibility of organic-rich soils stands out as the most significant
engineering property. Different from both sands and clays, peats and organic
soils generally undergo rapid and large consolidation settlement and extensive
long-term secondary compression (Fox, 2003). For most organic deposits in the
field, rapid dissipation of water pressure are completed within a few weeks or
months (Mesri et al., 1997). Also, long-term compression has no end within the
time of engineering interest. In addition, typical organic-rich soils contain 5-
10% gas which contributes to the immediate compression and the immediate
and complete rebound if the load is removed immediately after application
(Landva and La Rochelle, 1983). On the other hand, organic clays or silts
present similar engineering challenges as soft silts and clays, including low
hydraulic conductivity, low shear strength and high compressibility, in addition
to, significant creep deformations.
Also, physical, index, and engineering properties of organic soils show a great
variation both spatially and with depth depending on the type and amount of
organic matter. That is, organic soils are well known for their high variability in
3
soil properties, especially in organic contents. Samples from Shelby tube may
have their organic content range from Organic Silt to Peat, i.e. may exhibit
vastly different mechanical behavior (McVay and Nugyen, 2004). This
characteristic is related mainly to variable degree of decomposition within an
organic deposit. Therefore, detailed soil investigation, on high quality samples,
need to be conducted whenever a facility is intended to be constructed in a
particular site.
Several testing methods have been used to study the compressibility of organic
soils. The most popular one is the conventional incremental loading (IL)
oedometer test. However, there may be differences in the magnitudes of
various quantities measured for organic soils but the general shapes of the
consolidation curves appear reasonably similar and the formulation developed
for clay compression can be used to predict the magnitude and rate of
settlement. Alternatively, constant-rate-of-strain (CRS) tests are conducted to
obtain equivalent information as generated by the IL tests, except that
information on the creep behavior cannot be derived from the CRS tests.
4
3. To correlate various types of organic soils, based on the recommended
classification system, and their index and engineering properties, reported in
literature, to provide rationale of the research.
4. To identify and classify the various types of organic soils encountered in
Egypt, based on the recommended classification system.
5. To determine physical, index, chemical and engineering properties of the
various types of organic soils encountered in Egypt, and compare the results
with those reported in literature.
6. To focus the study toward evaluating compressibility characteristics of the
organic soils encountered in Egypt in order to devise suitable design
parameters for settlement analysis.
7. To assess the extent of problematic nature of organic soils in Egypt, in term
of compressibility, regarding the usual loading scenarios encountered.
5
5. Identifying the chemical properties of the soil including pH level, injurious
chemical compounds of groundwater and organic soils (sulfates and
chlorides content), and the different minerals constituting the inorganic
portion of organic soils encountered through X-Ray diffraction analysis.
6. Classifying organic soils encountered based on their organic content.
7. Evaluating undrained shear strength characteristics of the organic soil using
pocket penetrometer and unconfined compressive tests.
8. Evaluating permeability characteristics based on falling-head permeability
test during the secondary compression stage of IL oedometer tests.
9. Evaluating compressibility characteristics, in terms of primary and
secondary compression, based on the results of the incremental loading
oedometer test under different loading scenarios.
10. Comparing general and engineering characteristics measured for organic
soil in Egypt to those published in literature all over the world.
6
computations are discussed. Also, the distinct compressibility characteristics of
organic soils in terms of one-dimensional oedometer testing, compression
curves, and compression parameters both in primary and secondary
compression are illustrated. The available published data for organic soils, in
terms of permeability, shear strength and compressibility are illustrated.
7
CHAPTER 2
2.1 Introduction
Organic soils commonly occur as extremely soft, wet, unconsolidated surficial
deposits normally as an integral part of wetland systems. They may also occur
as strata beneath other surficial deposits (Huat, 2004). Organic-rich soils are
those whose solid constituents consist predominantly of vegetable matter in
various stages of decomposition or preservation. They are commonly
designated as bog, fen, muskeg, and moor soils with differentiation between
peat and muck soils on one hand, and coastal marshland soils on the other
(Winterkorn and Fang, 1975). Organic-rich soils can easily be identified by
their combustibility, and when containing significant amounts of decomposed
organic matter are usually characterized by a dark grey to black color and an
odor of decomposition.
On the other hand, organic silts or clays are not as bad as peat but worse than
inorganic deposits. These soils most probably appear as inorganic fine-grained
soils, probably black to dark brown in color; have an organic odor and possibly
some visible organic remains. Their plasticity limits should be evaluated as for
other fine-grained inorganic soils and then be classified as silts or clays of low,
medium and high plasticity.
The characteristics of the organic soils are the product of the interaction of
topography, vegetation, high water table and decomposition and preservation
processes i.e. morphology of peat land. According to Winterkorn and Fang
(1975), "Pedologically, organic soils are intrazonal hydromorphous soils, and
may occur within any macroclimatic zone as long as hydrologic and
topographic conditions provide basins of standing water or land areas with a
8
rising water table". Organic soils accumulate in a landscape when the natural
decay processes fail to keep up with the amount of vegetation being produced.
They form during the decomposition of dead organic substances; mainly
remnants of plants. Decomposition takes place in different ways, mainly
through bacterial activity, and is intensified by a hot climate, suitable humidity
and access to oxygen from the air. Therefore, the specific properties of the
organic particles vary greatly depending upon parent material, climate, and
stage of decomposition.
The physical, index, and engineering properties of organic soils show a great
variation depending on the type and amount of organic matter. The organic
matter may occur in many forms from small amount of amorphous or colloidal
substance embedded in the pores of a mineral soil to fibrous peat with a
structure resembling a coarse, loosely woven mat. The effect of the organic
content on the engineering properties in relation to the properties of a pure
mineral soil is in the former case mainly confined to a decreased permeability
and a somewhat increased tendency to creep. In the latter case, the properties
are quite different in most respects.
9
6. The permeability of natural organic deposits varies widely depending on the
effective size of the voids and on the portion of the water held physico-
chemically at the external surface of the particulate constituents; also,
permeability is often much greater in the horizontal than in the vertical
direction.
7. Large compressibility (high settlement reach 50% of the layer thickness and
half of the settlement occurs during the early few days or weeks).
8. Low bearing capacity (shear strength Su = 5 – 20 kPa).
9. Tensile and shear strength of fibrous peat even in their natural wet state is
provided by the felt-like inrtweaving of their fibrous constituents.
10. The aqueous phase of most organic deposits is acidic with pH values
ranging from 4 to 7 but values as low as 2 and as high as 8 have been
encountered.
11. After drying out, peat upon rewetting do not regain their original high water
content.
12. Disturbance of the natural organic soil structure decreases its strength
properties. The sensitivity of it ranges from 1.5 to 10.
13. Potential for further decomposition as a result of changing environmental
conditions.
Many approaches have been developed to address the problems associated with
construction over organic deposits (Lea and Brawner, 1963; Berry, 1983;
Hansbo, 1991). Replacing the organic deposits with good quality soil is still a
common practice even though most probably this effort will lead to
uneconomic design. Alternative construction and stabilization methods were
discussed in literatures (Noto, 1991; Hartlen and Wolsky, 1996; Huat, 2004).
However, the selection of the most appropriate method should be based on the
examination of the morphological, physical, index, chemical, and engineering
characteristics of the soil.
10
In this chapter, the general characteristics of organic soils including
morphology and formation, physical properties, index and chemical properties
of organic soils shall be discussed. The distributions of organic soils in Egypt
and around the world are described, and the distinct depositional features of
organic soils in Egypt are outlined. Different classification systems used for
organic soils and peats are illustrated. Different methods for organic soils'
sampling and in-situ testing are discussed. Also, the available data, in literature,
on physical, index and chemical properties of organic soils are illustrated.
2.2 Definitions
In the following, the definitions of the terms, usually used in the context
dealing with organic soils, are introduced. These definitions are:
• Technically any material that contains carbon is called organic.
• An organic soil is one that contains a significant amount of organic
material recently derived from plant remains in various stages of
decomposition or preservation. This implies that it needs to be fresh and
still in the process of decomposition, and thus retains a distinctive texture,
color and odor. Some soils contain carbon, but are not recently derived from
plants and thus are not considered organic in this context (e.g. sand
containing calcium carbonate – chemical precipitate). Also, engineers and
geologists use a more narrow definition when applying the term to soils as
will be seen subsequently.
• Peat land can be defined as an area of land where organic soil is found on
the surface. Also, peat land is commonly designated as mire in Europe,
muskeg in Canada, or moor in Japan. However, it is generally known as
wetland or peat swamp because of its water table, which is close to, or
above the peat surface throughout the year and fluctuates with the intensity
and frequency of rainfall. Rainfall and surface topography regulate the
overall hydrological characteristics of the peat land.
• In temperate regions such as in Canada, Europe and the USA, Mires
(organic deposits) are termed bogs and fen. Bogs and fen are pits or basins
11
filled with organic material. Bogs are typically covered with live moss.
Swamps are larger than bogs and may contain a wide variety of materials.
Slow streams or lakes typically feed them. A noteworthy example is the
Everglades in Florida, USA. Sometimes, thoroughly decomposed peat is
called muck.
• In Japan several types of moors (high moors, transitional moors and low
moors) are recognized depending on the source of water supply,
topographic characteristics, and types of underlying soil or rock.
• In tropical countries like Malaysia and Indonesia, peat land is generally
termed basin and valley peat. Water plays a fundamental role in the
development and maintenance of tropical peat. A balance of rainfall and
evapotranspiration is critical to their sustainability.
• Mire (Moor) – a peat land where peat is currently forming and
accumulating.
• Fen (Low-moor) – a peat land which receives its water and nutrients from
the soil, rock and groundwater as well as from rain and ⁄ or snow falling on
its surface.
• Bog (High-moor) – a peat land which receives its water solely from rain
and ⁄ or snow falling on its surface.
• The terms peat and organic soils, used for describing soils with an organic
content, were once synonymous, i.e. used interchangeably, but the term
organic soil is presently used for soils that contain organic matter. The
precise definition of peat however varies between soil science and
geotechnical engineering, as well as between countries.
• Soil scientists define peat as soil with organic content greater than 35%.
• To a geotechnical engineer, all soils with organic contents greater than
20% are known as organic soil. The engineering definition is essentially
based on the mechanical properties of the soil. It is generally recognized
that when the organic content of the soils exceeds 20%, their mechanical
behavior will start to depart from that of mineral soils (Huat, 2004).
12
• Under the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS), organic soils are
recognized as a separate soil entity and has a major division called Highly
Organic Soils (pt), which refers to peat, muck and highly organic soils. In
general, muck indicates a higher degree of decomposition of the vegetable
matter or intermixing with mineral soil constituents in contrast to the purely
vegetable peat that has well-preserved plant remains (Winterkorn and Fang,
1975).
• Macroscopically, peaty material has been divided by Radforth (1952)
into three basic groups, namely amorphous granular, coarse fibrous
and fine fibrous peat. The amorphous granular peat has a high colloidal
fraction, holding most of their water in an adsorbed rather than a free state,
the adsorption occurring around the grain structure. In the other two types
the peat is composed of fibers, these usually being woody. In the coarse
variety a mesh of second-order size exists within the interstices of the first-
order network, whilst in fine fibrous peat the interstices are very small and
contain colloidal matter (Bell, 2000).
2.3 Distribution
2.3.1 Global Distribution of Peat lands
Organic soils are encountered at widely varying areas of the world. They tend
to be most common in those parts of the world with a comparatively cold and
wet climate, but they are also found in the tropics and within the non-tropical
world (Africa, South America) as can be seen from Figure (2.1). There is over
4 million km2 of peat land worldwide, as most recent estimation (Joosten and
Clarke, 2002), as illustrated in Table (2.1).
Considering the definition of peat land as an area of land where organic soil is
found on surface: Figure (2.1) deos not show any peat land in Egypt. Thus
emphasizing, the most distinctive characteristic of organic soils, in Egypt, as
being deposits that are buried underground, as will be seen in the following
sections.
13
14
Fig. (2.1): Extent and Location of Global Peat lands (after Lappalainen, 1996)
Table (2.1): Global distribution of peat lands (adapted from Lappalainen, 1996)
% peat
Area of peat land
Location land of
(km2)
total area
Organic deposits in Egypt are mainly of buried nature. They exist as intrusions
and/or interbeded layers, of varying thicknesses and at varying depths, within
the thick soft clayey deposits of Delta region shown in Figure (2-3). These
organic deposits are thought to have been developed in relation to the changes
in sea level which occurred after the retreat of the last ice sheets (Andres and
Wunderlich, 1986) in areas along and around the old Nile river branches as
shown in Figure (2-4). According to Said (1981), the sedimentary sequence in
which the organic deposits are recorded belonged to Holocene age.
15
16
Fig. (2.2): Areas of organic deposits in Nile Delta region.(Geotechnical Encyclopedia of Egypt, 2002)
17
Fig. (2.3): Areas of soft clay deposits within Delta region. (Geotechnical Encyclopedia of Egypt, 2002).
18
Fig. (2.4): The Nile Delta in the first century BCE, showing the names and locations of Known Nile Distributaries
(Source: A Traveler's Guide to the Geology of Egypt, Sampsell B M, 2003)
According to the Geotechnical Encyclopedia of Egypt (2002), the Delta region
was subdivided to 26 geotechnical zones. The organic deposits, encountered in
Nile-Delta region, are covering the geotechnical sub-regions No. 6-11, 14, and
15 as shown in Figure (2-5).
At the eastern part of Nile Delta, in geotechnical zones No. 6, 9, 10, and 11,
organic deposits exist at depths 11.0, 9.0, 5.5 and 5.0 m respectively, with
thickness ranging between 1-2 m. They exist at shallower depths and of less
thickness to the north. At mid-Delta, in geotechnical zone No.7, they exist at
depth of 6.5 m with thickness ranging between 1-4 m, and of 2.0 m in average.
At the north-western part of Nile Delta, in geotechnical zones No.8, 14, and 15,
they form the thicker and deeper deposits of all organic deposits in Egypt, in
addition to frequent presence in the form of multiple layers. These organic
deposits exist at average depths 11, 11, and 14 ms, and extend to varying
thicknesses 1-8 m, 1-9 m, and 1-3 m respectively with average thickness of 2-3
m.
To the south of the area, the organic deposits are underlain by medium stiff to
stiff silty clay deposits or sandy layers in geotechnical zones No 6-8, while to
the north of the area, they are underlain by soft to medium stiff silty clay
deposits in geotechnical zones No 9-11, 14, and 15.
Hegab and Bahloul (1987) studied the organic deposits of the eastern part of
the Nile Delta. They noted that the encountered deposits are dark brown to
black in color, non-compacted, and granular in texture. The higher carbon
content was reported in the peaty soil of the southern area while the higher ash
content was reported in that of the northern area. Figure (2-6) shows a cross
section of Holocene sediments running from the south to the north of the
studied area.
19
20
Fig. (2.5): Geotechnical zones of Nile Delta region.(Geotechnical Encyclopedia of Egypt, 2002)
21
Fig (2.6): Cross-section of Holocene sediments in the eastern part of Nile Delta, running from El-Mansoura south to
Damietta north (after Hegab and Bahloul, 1987)
Zayed (1989) noted that many scattered borings in Dakhlia governorate
recorded organic deposits of thicknesses ranging from 1.1 to 2.4 meters, and at
depth ranges from 5.6 to 14.4 meters from the ground surface in many parts of
this area and it surroundings.
22
shores form ideal habitats but river banks also suitable provided the water flow
is not too energetic.
Geology, the third component of the hydrology of the area, plays an important
part in peat land formation; its chief influence is on the chemistry and
concentration of nutrients in the water entering the basins and valleys by run-
off and percolation; this especially applies to the pH value of the water. Base
rich rocks, such as limestone encourage more diverse plant communities
dominated by grasses, sedges and bushes than acidic rocks, such as sandstones,
which lead to less diverse vegetation with bog moss and cotton-grass, or, more
accurately, cotton-sedge. Weathered rock masses, particularly if permeable;
permit easy solution of nutrients by percolating water.
In temperate regions such as in Canada, Europe, north Asia and the US with a
comparatively cold wet climate, mires (moors) will form and organic deposits
accumulate in areas where there is an excess of rainfall and the ground is
poorly drained, irrespective of altitude or latitude. However, upland mires
(bogs) are very different in topography, morphology, chemistry and botany
from the low level fenlands. Upland mires exist in a maritime climate where
for most of the year precipitation exceeds evaporation and low fenlands in a
drier continental-type of climate (Hobbs, 1986).
Mires (fens and bogs) normally arise through a process that is commonly called
the wetland succession as explained by Hobbs (1986). This wetland succession
has 3 stages, each with its peculiar plant communities producing their
characteristic peat with distinctive geotechnical properties. These stages can be
set out as follows:
• The rheotrophic stage (low moor), in which the mire develops in a body
of water such as a lake, pool or flooded basin and gets its nutrients through
the feeding streams, ground water and seepage. Initially the mire process
starts with inorganic sedimentation, such as silts and clays, but this becomes
23
increasingly more organic as the detritus from plant communities builds up
in the basin floor. The eventual product of this build up is a marsh-like
known as fen. Such mires are generally underlain by very soft organic muds
which can cause severe engineering problems.
• Transitional stage (transitional moor) characterized by a steady growth of
the fen upwards and out of the standing water and into a raised bog. During
this stage, the bog is still influenced by local water levels but is beginning to
rely on rainwater for sustenance;
• Ombrotrophic stage (high moor), where the mires has grown fully out of
the standing water and out of the influence of the local water table. At this
stage the bog relies totally on rainwater for its survival and holds its own
survival water reservoir within its mass above the local groundwater table.
This type of bog is termed a raised bog for obvious reasons and is generally
acidic in character.
24
Those broad stages and mire types are set out diagrammatically in Table (2-2)
in a simplified form with a small selection of the more common plants and the
corresponding index properties of the peat from which it will be seen that a
broad correlation exists between the morphological state and the properties of
the associated peat. The various stages in the normal development from
shallow open water to raised bog and the corresponding lake mud and peat
stratigraphy are shown in Figure (2-7).
All present-day surface deposits of peat in northern Europe, Asia and Canada
have accumulated since the last ice age and therefore have formed during the
last 20,000 years. On the other hand, some buried peat may have been
developed during inter-glacial periods. Peat also has accumulated in post-
glacial lakes and marshes where they are interbeded with silts and muds.
Similarly, they may be associated with salt marshes. Fen deposits are thought
to have developed in relation to the eustatic changes in sea level which
occurred after the retreat of the last ice sheets (Bell, 2000).
As can be seen, the morphological differences between fen and bog organic
deposits arise from the circumstances surrounding their formation and the plant
types constituting organic soil. These differences extend to structure, fabric,
humification and proportion of mineral material, factors which have a
considerable influence on the plasticity, permeability, compressibility and
strength of organic soil and so on engineering behavior.
25
Table (2.2): Mire stages, morphology, flora and associated properties of some British peats (after Hobbs, 1986)
26
27
Fig. (2.7): Raised bogs in deep and shallow basins (after Ivanov, 1981)
In the tropics like Malaysia and Indonesia, peat deposits also occur in both
highlands and lowlands area. They are generally termed valley and basin peat
respectively. However lowland or basin peat is more extensive and occurs in
low-lying poorly drained depressions in the coastal areas. It is usually found in
the inward edge of mangrove swamps along the coast. It is generally classified
as ombrogenous or rain fed peat, and is poor in nutrients. The individual peat
bodies may range from a few to 100,000 hectares and they generally have a
dome-shaped surface. Due to coastal and alluvial geomorphology they are often
elongated and irregular, rather than having the ideal round bog shape. The
depth of the peat is generally shallower near the coast and increases inwards,
locally exceeding more than 20 m. Coastal peat land is generally elevated well
above adjacent river courses. Steep gradients are found at the periphery while
the central peat plain is almost flat (Huat, 2004). According to Mutalib et al.
(1991) basin peat forms domes which are up to 15 m high whilst valley peat is
flat or interlayered with river deposits. Normally, sandy ridges bound basin
peat at their seaward side or they gradually merge into muddy coastal flats.
Lam (1989) postulates the possible event leading to the development of peat
deposits as a result of sea level changes. After the last maximum glaciations
(some 20,000 years BP), the sea level rose rapidly and reached a maximum
level 5,500 years BP. The last global glaciations resulted in rapid denudation
and deep incision of the parent rock formation. This would result in
transportation and deposition of large amount of sediment, which formed deltas
and flood plains (Huat, 2004). Peat swamps were initiated in the depressions
and basins between isolated hills and levees, and in the deltas.
During the initial stage, plants developed in mineral soils. The areas were still
under the influence of rivers with an influx of clastic (mineral) sediments
during flood. The accumulation of clastic sediments and plant remains resulted
in the formation of clayey peat (topogenous peat). As plant remains
accumulated, the ground surface levels were elevated. Then it led to formation
28
of peat, which was free from or low in clastic sediments (ombrogenous peat),
and highly acidic. The peat forming vegetation consists mainly of large trees,
resulting in a high lignin content which according to Anderson (1983) is twice
that of bog peat (Huat, 2004). Figure (2-8) illustrates the development of a
revering depositional model leading to the deposition of basin peat.
29
2.4.2 Humification:
Various terms are used to describe the change of state from fresh plant tissue to
peat: decay, decomposition, breakdown and humification. Humification or
decomposition involves the loss of organic matter either in gas or in solution
(including leaching), the disappearance of physical structure and change in
chemical state. Breakdown of the plant remains is brought about by soil
microflora, bacteria and fungi which are responsible for aerobic decay.
Therefore, the end products of humification are carbon dioxide and water, the
process being essentially one of biochemical oxidation.
Metabolic activity, apart from the supply of oxygen, is very much influenced
by temperature, acidity and availability of nitrogen. Normally, the higher the
temperature and pH value the faster decomposition occurs; the slower the
accumulation of peat in relation to plant production. The optimum temperature
for the decay of plant debris seems to fall within the range 35 - 40 C.
Scorching, irreversible dehydration, and oxidation of organic substances begins
at about 60° C (Terzaghi et.al, 1996). Turning to pH value, decomposition
generally tends to be most active in neutral to weakly alkaline conditions pH
value (7 - 7.5). The more acid the peat, the better the plant remains are
preserved. The acidity of the peat lands depends upon the rock types in the area
draining into the peat land, the types of plants growing there, the supply of
oxygen and the concentration of humic acids. Normally, decomposition takes
place more rapidly as the amount of available nitrogen increases (Bell, 2000).
30
In temperate regions, blanket and raised bogs are generally acidic with pH
values in the range 3.3 - 4.3. Fen peats on the other hand are generally neutral
or slightly alkaline. Therefore, bog peat is generally more fibrous compared
with fen peat. According to Hobbs (1986), some fen peat in Britain, because
they occur in areas of carbonate rocks such as chalk or limestone, is supplied
with water which is slightly alkaline. As such the plant communities are more
diverse, giving rise to what is called rich fen peat. Rich fen peat develops a
much higher degree of humification than acid peat. Because the strength and
permeability of peat declines significantly as humification increases, rich fen
peat represents more problems to engineers than acid peat.
In the Asia tropics, the peat is generally acidic with pH values in the range of
4 – 4.5 (Mutalib et al., 1991). In tropical Africa the acidity is limiting at
higher values; peat does not accumulate unless the pH is less than 5.5; the
temperature is such (20° to 30° C throughout the year) that decomposition is
complete (Thompson and Hamilton, 1983).
In summary, the fresher the peat, the more fibrous material it contains and the
more light in color. As far as engineering is concerned, the more fibrous peat,
the higher the tensile and shear strength, void ratio, and water content. During
humification, the loss of organic matter and change of chemical state is
accompanied by the breakdown of cellulose within plant tissues so that detritus
gradually becomes increasingly finer until the trace of fibrous structure
disappears. The peat then has an amorphous granular appearance; the material
will be dark in color consisting principally of gelatinous organic acids which
have a sponge-like fabric (Bell, 2000). The process is finally complete when
there is only humus (non degradable residue) and microbial cells are left. In
general, decomposition causes a decrease in solid volume, i.e., compression.
Also, the intensity of the humification process varies throughout peat since
some plants are more resistant than others and certain parts of plants are more
31
resistant than others. The change undergone in peat, as a result of increasing
humification, is not uniform since the fibers are reduced in size and strength in
an irregular manner as the quantity of totally humified peat increases.
As physical, index, and engineering properties of peat and organic soil are
closely related to the average state of decomposition or humification; a method
of quantifying this state is therefore useful. The ecologist L Von Post (1922)
proposed a simple field test for assessing the degree of humification on a scale
of 1 to 10; that is, from fresh plant to amorphous-granular completely
decomposed peat. The degree of humification (Hn) is determined based on the
appearance of soil water that is extruded when a handful of peat is squeezed in
the hand, then observations made with the table (Table 2.7) on degree of
humification. This test forms the basis of the Von Post system of classifying
peat, discussed later.
The Von Post scale however is adapted to pure peat containing little or no
mineral matters. Its use in organic soils with more than 25% mineral matter is
difficult (Huat, 2004). As a result, various coarser scales have been devised to
3-5 degrees of humification. Table (2.3) describes the qualifying terms for peat
soil based on degree of decomposition according to Von Post scale.
32
Fibric peat is mostly undecomposed; typically tan to light reddish brown in
color. Hemic peat is intermediate between fibric and sapric peat in degree of
decomposition or humification, organic content and bulk density, and typically
dark reddish brown in color. Sapric peat on the other hand is generally of
darker color than the above two types of peat, and the most decomposed. It
generally has the highest organic content and bulk density of the three types of
peat mentioned above (Huat, 2004).
Approximately 95% of all deposits of peat have been formed from plants
growing under aerobic conditions. The high water-holding capacity of peat
maintains a surplus of water, which ensures continued plant growth and
consequent peat accumulation. The rate of decomposition of plant detritus is
relatively rapid under aerobic conditions but is slowed down several thousand-
fold under anaerobic conditions. The most important feature in this simple
scenario is water and in particular the water balance within the peat. For a peat
land to survive the water balance can not be negative; i.e. the water input must
keep up with the water loss (Hobbs, 1986).
33
Peat is not the only soil with organic content. Organic soils can occur in many
ways and in many landscapes. The organic material can be deposited in-situ,
like peat, by dying vegetation and it can also be washed into place by
inundation, flood, rivers, etc. These latter soils that have had their organic
material washed into them inevitably have a higher mineral content due to the
minerals carried by the incoming water flows. These high mineral content soils
are usually considered to be out with the classification of a peat land.
34
Additionally, drying out, groundwater fluctuations and snow loading bring
about compression in the upper layers of a peat deposit. Under these
mechanisms, the effective pressure is raised causing compression of the peat.
For instance, a fall of 1.0 m of GWT imposes an extra load of 10 kPa which
can lead to approximately 1.5 m of settlement in a layer of peat 10 m in
thickness if the water level is maintained at 1m below the subsided surface for
a year. As there is no loss of material these process of reduction in thickness of
peat are not included within wastage. Indeed, these mechanisms are often more
important as far as near-surface compression is concerned than effective
overburden pressure. This is because the unit weight of peat may be similar to
that of water. As the water table in peat generally is near the surface, the
effective overburden pressure is negligible (Bell, 2000).
Even without drying and at moderate laboratory temperatures, the organic solid
content of soil is susceptible to degradation, decomposition, dissolution and
therefore to loss. Scorching, irreversible dehydration, and oxidation of organic
substances begin at about 60° C (Terzaghi et.al, 1996).
35
soil is extreme both horizontally and vertically. This variability results in a
wide range of physical properties such as particle size, texture, structure
composition, and color. In this section, physical properties of organic soils
which are of interest to the engineer will be reviewed.
36
Humus includes products of advanced decomposition of organic residues,
products of microbial synthesis, precipitates of dissolved organic compounds,
and organic molecules in solution (Gieseking, 1975a). Therefore, soil organic
matter includes: (1) fresh plant and animal residues (decomposable), (2) humus
(resistant), and (3) inert forms of nearly elemental carbon (charcoal, coal, or
graphite). However, carbon is the chief element of soil organic matter that is
readily measured quantitatively by combustion (Huat, 2004).
37
In general, fiber can be defined as a fragment or piece of plant tissue that
retains a recognizable cellular structure and is large enough to be retained on a
# 100 sieve (> 0.15 mm) and not more than 20 mm in smallest dimension.
Fibers may be fine (woody or non-woody) or coarse (woody). On the other
hand, organic fine substances that do not have an identifiable fiber shape, finer
in size than 0.15 mm, and having a granular appearance are designated as
amorphous-granular matter.
Coarse fibers from stems and roots are greater than 1 mm diameter, fine fibers
from leaves, stems and roots are smaller than 1mm diameter. Fiber content is
determined from the dry weight of fibers retained on # 100 as a percentage of
the oven-dried mass of the original sample (ASTM, D 1997). The organic fiber
content is also referred to as the fabric of organic soil.
Organic fine substances are usually smaller than 100 µm and it may range
down to 0.1 µm in size. They are also referred to as soil humus. Humus consist
of irregularly shaped organic skeletons such as cell fragments and tissue parts,
as well as of globular organic precipitates smaller than 1µm, and of 3 to 9 nm
organic polymolecules (Terzaghi et al, 1996). The specific properties of the
colloidal particles vary greatly depending upon parent material, climate, and
stage of decomposition (Mitchell, 1993).
38
orientation - aids in the constitutive modeling of this soil type for basic
understanding of its mechanical behavior (Molenkamp, 1994).
2.5.3.1 Macrostructure
Radforth in the Muskeg Engineering Handbook (1969) provides a classification
of peat structure based on the above mentioned two structural elements: fibers
and granules. In this system, peat structure is classified into 3 predominant
characteristics (in addition to 17 categories further subdividing these
characteristics):
Dhowian and Edil (1980) showed that fiber arrangement appears to be a major
compositional factor in determining the way in which peat soils behave.
However, the difference in the fiber content plays an equal important role in the
behavior of fibrous peat. The higher the fiber content, the more the peat will
differ from an inorganic soil in its behavior.
39
SEM micrographs. On the other hand, in amorphous-granular structure, the
material will be dark in color consisting principally of gelatinous organic acids
which have a sponge-like fabric. Evidence of plant derived organic matter is
more difficult to identify. This may be attributed to the fact that well humified
organic matter is generally difficult to distinguish (Landva and Pheeny, 1980).
40
2.5.3.2 Microstructure
The fibers of peat consist of cellular structures giving rise to a two-level
structure involving macro and micro pores, i.e., those between fibers and within
fibers, respectively. This two-level structure described by Adams (1965) may
be used to describe the unusual compression behavior of fibrous material.
Organic matters
Organic (Solids)
bodies
Water (Inner
voids)
Water (Outer
Organic voids)
spaces
Soil particles
(Solids)
(a) (b)
Fig. (2.10): Schematic diagram of (a) Deposition, and (b) Multi-phase system
of fibrous peat (Kogure et al., 1993)
41
because organic particles are hollow and largely full of water (Terzaghi et al,
1996).
In organic clays and silts, organic polyanions that pigment the surface of fine
mineral particles such as clay minerals result in stable clay-humus complexes
that promote loose and open fabric. Globular organic polyanions attach
themselves, directly through hydrogen bonding or through adsorbed cations, to
specific sites at the surface of minerals and thus promote flocculation and
aggregation of mineral particles (Terzaghi et al, 1996).
42
2.6 Classification System for Organic Soils and Peat
Jeffries (1936) stated that "Disagreements as to the behavior of peat, as evident
from a review of the literature, generally can be shown to arise from a lack of
proper definition of the material concerned. The term peat has been incorrectly
used to describe organic silts and clays with mineral contents as high as 90 %".
Jarrett (1983) stated that "One problem with peats and organic soils is their
classification and, indeed, even the definition of what is a peat". Larsson (1996)
concluded that organic soils or soils with an organic content have often been a
concept with various meanings in geotechnical engineering and the rules for
division into different groups have often been rather diffuse (Embankments on
Organic Soils, 1996).
Myślińska (2003) stated that "It is obvious now that in engineering geological
investigations of organic soils the main problem is posed by their classification
generalizing their properties, which in many cases requires complex
determinations. Also, the classifications for peats and organic soils have not
been standardized yet, and despite many attempts, the problem is still
unresolved".
Huat (2004) concluded that the reason for confusion is that the terms peat and
organic soils, used for describing soils with an organic content, were once
synonymous, i.e. used interchangeably, but the term organic soils is presently
used for all soils with organic contents greater than 20%.
Under the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS), subdivisions within the
fine-grained group comprise inorganic silts and clays, and organic silts and
clays, which distinct from each other based on Atterberg limits and simple
index tests. On the other hand, organic soils are recognized as a separate soil
entity and has a major division called Highly Organic Soils (pt), which refers to
peat, muck and other organic soils. Peat is described as a naturally occurring
43
highly organic substance derived primarily from plant materials. Peat is
therefore organic soil with high organic content. Apart from purely organic
form of peat, there are a large number of transitional forms towards the mineral
soils. It is important from the geotechnical point of view to distinguish between
peat and other organic soils, so that the described behavior can be related to the
proper material.
The first known classification system used by engineers was von Post
classification system (1922), which was intended for horticultural, agricultural,
and forestry requirements (Landva et al., 1983a). The von Post classification
attempts to describe peat and its structure in quantitative terms. It is based on a
number of factors such as degree of humification, botanical composition, water
content, fiber content, and woody remnants. Table (2-4) shows the detail of the
von Post classification system. To classify the soil, a sample of soil is squeezed
in the hand. The color and form of fluid that is extruded between the fingers is
observed together with the pressed residue remaining in the hand after
squeezing with reference to the ten point scale of decomposition (H1to H10: the
higher the number, the higher the degree of decomposition), wetness, fiber
content, and woodiness.
44
Table (2.4): von Post Classification system for organic soils (von Post, 1922)
Degree of
Description
Humification
H1 Completely undecomposed peat which releases almost clear water. Plant
remains easily identifiable. No amorphous material present
H2 Almost completely undecomposed peat, which releases clear or yellowish
water. Plant remains still easily identifiable and no amorphous material
present.
H3 Very slightly decomposed peat which releases muddy brown water, but for
which no peat passes between fingers. Plant remains still identifiable and
no amorphous material are present.
H4 Slightly decomposed peat which releases very muddy dark water. No peat
is passed between the fingers but the plant remains are slightly pasty and
have lost some of the identifiable features.
H5 Moderately decomposed peat which releases very “muddy” water with also a
very small amount of amorphous granular peat escaping between the fingers.
The structure of plant remains is quite indistinct, although it is still possible
to recognize certain features. The residue is strongly pasty.
H6 Moderate strongly decomposed peat with very indistinct plant structure.
When squeezed about one third of the peat escapes between the fingers.
The residue is strongly pasty but shows the plant structure more distinctly
than before squeezing.
H7 Strongly decomposed peat. Contains a lot of amorphous material and very
dry indistinct plant structure. When squeezed about one half the peat escapes
between the fingers. The water, if any is released, is very dark and almost
brown.
H8 Very strongly decomposed peat with a large quantity of amorphous material
and very dry indistinct plant structure. When squeezed about two third of the
peat escapes between the fingers. A small quantity of plant material
remaining in the hand consists of residues such as roots and fibers that resist
decomposition.
H9 Practically fully decomposed peat in which there is hardly any recognizable
plant structure. When squeezed, almost all of the peat escapes between the
fingers as fairly uniform paste.
H10 Completely decomposed peat with no discernible plant structure. When
squeezed, all the wet peat escapes between the fingers.
Wetness
B1 Dry B4 High moisture content
B2 Low moisture content B5 Very high moisture
B3 Moderate moisture content
Fibers
F0 Nil F2 Moderate content
F1 Low Content F3 High content
Woodiness
W0 Nil W2 Moderate content
W1 Low content W3 High content
45
However, Landva et al. (1983a) concluded that the current practice of including
all organic soils in the term peat can be traced back to the von Post's original
work, since this classification system includes all organic soils that can support
plant growth! They concluded also that von Post system is extremely useful for
reconnaissance and survey of peats and organic soils. On the other hand, Huat
(2004) concluded that the von Post classification system however is adapted to
pure peat containing little or no mineral matters. Its use in organic soils with
more than 20-25% mineral matter is difficult.
46
Table (2.5): Classification of Peat Structure by Radforth, (1969)
characteristic Category Name
Predominant
Amorphous-
1 Amorphous-granular peat
granular
2 Non-woody, fine fibrous peat
3 Amorphous-granular peat containing non woody fine
fibers
4 Amorphous-granular peat containing woody fine fibers
5 Peat, predominantly amorphous-granular containing non
woody fine fibres, held in a woody, fine-fibrous
framework
6 Peat, predominantly amorphous-granular containing
woody fine fibres, held in a woody, coarse-fibrous
framework
7 Alternate layering of non-woody, fine-fibrous peat and
amorphous-granular peat containing non woody fine fibers
Fine-fibrous 8 Non-woody, fine-fibrous peat containing a mound of
coarse fibers
9 Woody, fine-fibrous peat held in a woody, coarse fibrous
framework
10 Woody particles held in non-woody, fine-fibrous peat
11
Woody and non-woody particles held in fine-fibrous peat
However, a number of classification systems for peats and organic soils are
used in various countries and are based on similar grounds. Generally, these
classification systems are developed based on organic content, the vegetation
forming the organic material, texture, fiber content and degree of
decomposition of fiber. Most of them, however, have not been specially
designed for geotechnical purposes. In the following some classification
systems used or suggested in context with soil mechanics are illustrated.
47
2.6.1 Classification Systems for Organic Soils based on Organic Content
As mentioned above, peat is an organic soil with high organic content.
However, the cut-off value of the percentage of organic matter necessary to
classify an organic deposit or soil as peat varies throughout the world, usually
depending on the purpose of classification. This cut-off value also service to
differentiate peat from soils with lesser amounts of organic content. Figure (2-
11) shows a comparison of some classification systems used or suggested in
context with soil mechanics for peat and organic soils, based on organic
content. In the following, some classification systems shall be illustrated in
detail.
In France, the French practice makes no use of the geotechnical name of soils
for estimating their mechanical properties; these needs to be measured by
means of laboratory or field tests, not on soil classification as concluded by
Magnan (1994). Therefore, organic soil was described as soil having greater
than 10% organic content in the so-called "LPC Soil Classification" (Schon,
1965), which was mainly based on the USCS as shown in Figure (2-12).
According to the LPC organic soils are sub-divided into:
• Highly organic soils with organic content exceeding 30%.
• Medium organic soils with organic content between 10 and 30%.
• Slightly organic soils containing 3-10% of organic and are included
within fine soils and sub-divided according to the Casagrande diagram.
48
Fig. (2.11): Comparison of Classification Systems Used for Peat and Organic Soils (Source: Anderjko et al, 1983; Woliski et al., 1988)
Karlsson &
Landva et al
Konvalov Hansbo Andrejko et al
(1983) Poland (1984) Jarrett System Davis (1946) LGS System
(1980) USSR (1981) (1983) USA
Canada
Sweden
0 low ash 100
medium
10 Peats ash low ash Peats Peat 90
High
peats
Peats
high ash
Peat
20 organic 80
Peats Peaty
30 organic Peaty 70
(gytta, medium
soils low ash Peaty
49
dy, ash Muck
40 60
peaty
peat,
ORGANIC
50 50
humus-
Muck
highly
Clayey/ Muck Muck
Sedements
rich medium silty /
calcareous soils, gytta
60 organic 40
Carbonaceous
ash Sandy/
Organic Content (%)
high ash
70 soils Clayey 30
medium
organic
Muck
Peaty Soils
80 low 20
organic
Medium Mineral Mineral organic Mineral
&clay
Mucky 10
90 Mineral with organic organic sediments organic clay or silt Soil Clay
organic silt
Landva et al. (1983a) concluded that the major difference between the von Post
and the Radforth classification systems is that the former includes all organic
soils (!), whereas the latter includes only wholly organic deposits, that is, peat.
They suggested that the simplest approach would be to retain the terms peat
and organic soil and to distinguish between various peats and organic soils by
means of standard and special index properties and tests. In their classification
system, organic soils and peat were divided into four groups (Table 2-6):
1. Peats (Pt).
2. Peaty organic soils (PtO).
3. Organic soils (O).
4. Silts and clays with organic content (MO and CO, respectively).
50
Table (2.6): Organic soils and peat classification (Landva et al., 1983)
Ash Moisture Specific
Fiber
Material Content Content Gravity
Content
(Ac%) (wo%) (Gs)
Peats (Pt) < 20 > 500 % < 1.7 > 50 %
Hobbs (1987) compares between the American and Russian definitions of peat,
and suggests a cut-off value to classify peat as follows:
1. Russian geotechnical engineers assume that peat soil containing more than
50% of particle weight of vegetable origin while peaty soil contains from
10% to 50% of particles weight of vegetable origin.
2. The (ASTM-79) prefer that a soil should not be called a peat unless its
organic content exceeds 75%.
3. Hobbs suggests that peat is a soil having organic content more than 27.5%
based on volumetric proportions of organic matter and mineral material
encountered in organic soil. He concluded that due to von Post, there would
be little advantage to distinguish a peat from a peat soil in terms of organic
matter content; more important to recognize its morphological stage, i.e.
fen, transition or bog.
In the Netherlands, where peats and organic soils constitute over 7% of the
country's area (Hobbs, 1986), organic soils are subdivided according to the
percentage content of three components: organic matter, clay and the sum of
sand and silt fraction (Venmans and den Haan, 1990), placed on a triplot
diagram as shown in Figure (2-13). According to this subdivision, prepared for
51
the Committee for Embankments (TAW), two groups of soils are distinguished
as detailed in Table (2-7):
1. Peats: 15-100% of organic matter (OM); 0-70% clay and other fractions.
Peats are subdivided into:
• Slightly clayey (30-55% fi – clay fraction),
• Strongly clayey (55-70% fi),
• Slightly sandy (22.5-35% OM; 30-55% fi; 0-8% fp – sand fraction)
• Strongly sandy (15-22.5% OM; over 8% fp).
2. Other organic soils (humus): 0-15% organic matter; 70-100% clay and other
fractions. Humic soils are subdivided into:
• Slightly organic (0-2.2% OM)
• Moderately organic (2.2-8.5% OM)
• Strongly organic (8.5-15% OM).
52
Table (2.7): Description of mixtures in the organic – clay – silt + sand triangle
Description of mixture
Area in Addition Addition non
triangle Type of soil demonating demonating
triangle triangle
Vm Peat Low mineral content (1)
Vk1 Peat Slightly clayey (1)
Vk3 Peat Strongly Clayey (1)
Vz1 Peat Slightly sandy (1)
Vz3 Peat Strongly sandy (1)
h1 (2) Slightly organic
Moderately
h2 (2)
organic
h3 (2) Strongly Organic
(1) Addition from the clay+silt-sand-gravel triangle.
(2) Denomination obtained from clay-silt-sand-gravel triangle.
53
• Fibrous peat: fibrous peat is characterized by a fibrous structure, with
easily recognizable plant remains, and retains some strength.
• Pseudo-fibrous peat: pseudo-fibrous peat has an easily recognizable
plant structure but a diminution in strength.
• Amorphous peat: the plant structure is not visible in amorphous peat,
which additionally has a mushy consistency.
• Gyttja (Muck): gyttja comprises decomposed plant and animal remains
and may contain inorganic constituents.
• Humic soils: humic soils contain plant remains, living organisms and
their excreta, as well as a large content of inorganic constituents; they
form the topsoil.
According to McVay and Nugyen (2004), the American Society for Testing
and Materials (ASTM) is currently working on a standard classification system
that would apply to all interested disciplines. The activity is within committee
D18 (Soils and Rocks), and specifically Subcommittee D18.18 (Peats and
Organic Soils). The ASTM Subcommittee D18.18, in an attempt to distinguish
peat from organic soils has proposed the following organic soil classification to
be used as a standard definition (Table 2-8):
54
2.6.2 Classification Systems for Peat
Generally, these classification systems are developed based on the vegetation
forming the organic material, texture, fiber content and degree of
decomposition of fiber. The classification based on the vegetation forming the
organic material is not usually adopted in engineering practice even though
researches have indicated that the type of plant forming the peat soil, fiber
content, and degree of decomposition significantly affects the behavior of peat.
Based on the botanical composition, peat is classified as Moss peat, Sedge peat,
and Wood peat. In terms of texture, the peat is classified as woody, fibrous,
sedimentary, and granular peat (Radforth, 1969; Davis, 1997).
Another 3-part division of peat based on the above-mentioned von Post scale
was described as follows by Karlsson and Hansbo (1981):
• Fibrous peat is low-humified and has a distinct plant structure. It is brown
to brownish-yellow in color. If a sample is squeezed in the hand, it gives
55
brown to colorless, cloudy to clear water, but without any peat matter. The
material remaining in the hand has a fibrous structure. Degree of
decomposition on the von Post scale: H1-H4.
• Pseudo-fibrous peat is moderately humified and has an indistinct to
relatively distinct plant structure. It is usually brown. If a sample is
squeezed in the hand, less than half of the peat mass passes between the
fingers. The material remaining in the hand has a more or less mushy
consistency, but with a distinct plant structure, (H5-H7).
• Amorphous peat is highly humified and the plant structure is very indistinct
or invisible. It is brown to brown-black in color. If a sample is squeezed in
the hand, more than half of the peat mass passes between the fingers
without any free water running out. When squeezing, only a few more solid
components, such as root fibers, wood remnants, etc. can be felt. These
constitute any material remaining in the hand, (H8-H10).
According to McVay and Nugyen (2004), the proposed classification for peat
would be based on fiber content, ash content, acidity, absorbency and botanical
composition with the subheadings used as descriptors. On the other hand, peat
is distinguished from phytogenic material of higher rank (i.e., lignite coal) by
its lower BTU value on an "as-received", water-saturated basis (ASTM D388).
Table (2-10) shows the ASTM (D4427-1997) proposed classification system of
peat samples by laboratory testing.
56
Table (2.10): Classification of peat (adapted from ASTM D 4427):
From the above, it could be concluded that European practice prefers the non-
genetic classifications (descriptive) by grouping all highly organic soils in one
group (e.g. Karlsson and Hansbo, 1981; Hobbs, 1986, 1987; Venmans and den
Haan, 1990; Magnan, 1994; and European Norms' Draft). On the other hand,
North American prefers the genetic-descriptive classifications which
distinguish between peat, muck, and organic silt and clay based mainly on
physical, index, and chemical properties (e.g. Davis, 1946; Landva et al.,
57
1983a; Jarret, 1983; Andrejko et al., 1983; and ASTM Tentative standard). The
latter is more realistic since it differentiates between various types of organic
soils, based on simple index test (organic content), so that the described
behavior can be related to the proper material. Also, it could be integrated with
the USCS to bridge the gap between peat as purely vegetable matter, and
purely inorganic silts and clays.
On the other hand, organic soils are well known for their high variability in soil
properties, especially in organic contents. Samples from Shelby tube may have
their organic content range from Organic Silt to Peat, so in the field it is hard to
describe soil layering system based on organic content (McVay and Nugyen,
2004). Also, engineering properties of organic soils can vary significantly both
spatially and with depth, such that samples obtained within a few feet of each
other may exhibit vastly different behaviors during loading. Therefore,
subsurface investigations that encounter organic soils should involve more
sampling and testing as compared to inorganic soils to adequately characterize
58
the materials (Sabatini, et al, 2002). Also, the properties of organic soils must
be determined in-situ, on location, and in the laboratory in as close a state of
disturbance or undisturbance as the respective engineering use may require
(Arman, 1970). In this section, short summaries of the most common ground
investigation methods suited for organic soils are set out on the following
pages.
2.7.1 Sampling
There is a reasonably well-established understanding of the causes of
disturbance during sampling, transporting, and handling of inorganic soft clays
and the corresponding accepted practices for sampling of these soils. Like most
soft clays, it can be difficult to obtain undisturbed samples of organic soils for
laboratory performance testing; due to their high moisture content, large void
ratio, and the possibility of fibrous structure. The act of obtaining a sample can
affect the sample being recovered particularly when sampling in organic soils.
Both physical intrusions of the sampler and the removal of in-situ stresses can
cause disturbance. Also, for sampling of organic soil and peat, additional
factors such as compression while forcing the sampler into the ground, tensile
resistance of fibers near the sampler edge during extraction of the sampler, and
drainage as well as internal redistribution of water content must be considered
(Yulindasari, 2006).
59
• Remolded samples = the soil structure and its physical and mechanical
properties have changed from the in-situ conditions. The type and
proportion of constituents and the water content remain unchanged.
In 1979, Andresen and Kolstad suggest a measure of sample quality referred to
as Sample Quality Designation (SQD), and is mainly applicable to cohesive
soils with values of OCR less than about 3 to 5 (Terzaghi, et al, 1996). This
characterization of sample quality is based on the magnitude of volumetric
strain caused by reconsolidation to the in-situ vertical stress σ`vo in an
oedometer test, or in triaxial compression test to the effective vertical and
lateral stresses under which it existed in the field. Table (2-11) shows the
specimen quality designation (SQD) in terms of volumetric strain measured in
laboratory.
However, organic soil samples may be collected using a variety of methods and
equipments depending on the depth of the desired sample, the type of sample
required, and the type of organic soil. In general, all types of sample have a
value depending on the type of laboratory test planned. For soil identification
only, disturbed or remolded samples can be used. When the deformation and
60
the strength characteristics of the soil are to be investigated in the laboratory, it
is necessary to obtain undisturbed samples.
Peat Sampler:
In very soft organic soil, the peat sampler may be used to extract samples for
soil identification. The peat sampler is an open, side intake sampler which can
be closed with a shuttle as shown in Figure (2-14). The sampler is closed
during insertion in the soil down to the sampling level. The sampler is turned
while the shuttle first opens the sampler and then forces the soil into the
sampler. After one full turn, the sampler is extracted. The peat sampler is often
the most useful method in extremely soft organic soil, such as the bottom of
lakes or pools.
61
Fig. (2.14): Peat sampler (after Noto, 1991)
62
2.7.1.2.1 Block Sampling
For shallow block sampling, typically a pit is excavated and blocks of peat are
removed from the pit wall. Other way is to excavate the surroundings of a
sampling site so that samples can be removed from the perimeter. Hebib and
Farrell, (2003) describes a novel method that was employed to obtain
undisturbed peat block samples of 1 m3 were recovered from a vertical face 2.5
m high in the Ballydermot bog - Irland. The samples were cubic in shape,
1m × 1m × 1m in dimension and were obtained using a steel box consisting of
three faces having sharp edges as shown in Figure (2.15).
Fig. (2.15): Block samples, (a) steel box used for sampling (b) peat block
sample recovered (after Hebib and Farrell, 2003).
Also, large block samples (250 mm-square) can be obtained from below the
ground and groundwater surface, down to a depth of 7 m, using a block
sampler for peat described by Landva et al. (1983b). Moreover, large-size
down hole block samplers such as Sherbrooke sampler (250-mm. in diameter)
that have been developed for sampling clays at depths, were also used for peat
with some modifications (Lefebvre et al, 1984) as shwon in Figure (2.16).
63
(a) (b)
Fig. (2.16): (a) University of Sherbrooke clay sampler modified for peat
sampling, b) Block sample of peat recovered from a depth 0.0-0.4 m
(Lefebvre, et al, 1984)
For organic soils and amorphous peat; thin-wall sampling tubes can be used
but thin walled fixed piston samples are most suitable for undisturbed
sampling. A number of piston samplers with different sample diameter are
available, c. f. ISSMFE Subcommittee on soil sampling (1981).
64
For fibrous peat; where piston sampler is attempted, it is critical that the
sampler have a sharp edge. Also suggested that large diameter (more than 100
mm) thin walled fixed piston sampler can be used such as a 100-mm-diameter
piston sampler have been developed at the University of New Brunswick for
sampling of peat (Landva et al., 1983b).
The piston sampler cuts a sample of soil by being pushed in closed mode down
through the deposit to the test level at which point a piston slowly pushes a
sampler tube into the soil to be extracted. The technique aims to minimize edge
effects on the sample but some disturbance such as smear is inevitable as the
sampler is inserted. Once the cut sample has stabilized the complete assembly
is withdrawn and the test sample recovered. Recovery ratio is above 95 %
except for fibrous peat containing tough fibers (Noto, 1991).
The "SGI sampler" has a sharp circular wave-toothed cutting edge mounted on
100 mm diameter plastic tube capped with a robust driving head on top as
shown in Figure (2-17). The length of the tube is variable and dictates the
length of sample recovered but normally a 1.0m long sampler is used. The
extent of disturbance in the sample largely depends on the method used to drive
the sampler into the ground and following testing. It has been established that
the best results are usually achieved when the sampler is driven down into the
peat by means of a lightweight percussive machine (Ron Munro, 2004).
65
Fig. (2-17): Photographs of the Swedish Geotechnical Institute Sampler in use
(after Ron Munro, 2004).
Samples are taken from the ground surface or the bottom of pre-bored holes.
After extraction of the sampler, the cutting edge and driving head are removed
and the sample in the plastic tube is sealed. Laboratory tests show that samples
of fibrous soils taken with this peat sampler have a higher quality than samples
taken with a small diameter piston sampler. Also, practical experience has
shown a good correlation between laboratory test data results from this kind of
sample and measured field behavior under embankment on fibrous peat
(Embankment on organic soils, 1996).
66
2.7.2 In-situ Testing
A review in the literature on in-situ testing in organic soil and peat indicates
that there are no special tools available for determining in situ properties of
organic soil and peat, and the state of the art and the practice are not as
developed for inorganic soils. However, selected methods from that have been
developed for use in soft clays are used either directly or in a somewhat
modified manner for testing peat and organic soils, with certain methods have
gained prominence over the others. Even though, the methods of interpretation
of the in-situ test results as applied to peat and organic soils are limited in the
literature and direct use of the methods primarily developed on the basis of
mineral soil experience should be conducted with great caution. Edil (2001)
reviewed some of the more common approaches to in situ testing in such
deposits and their use in peat and organic soils which include the following
tests:
• Vane shear test.
• Cone penetration test.
• Pressuremeter test.
• Dilatometer test.
• Plate load test and screw plate load test.
67
On the other extreme, there are serious questions regarding the applicability of
the conventional in-situ tests to fibrous, high organic content, superficial
peat (i.e., not buried and compressed). The presence of fibers, inherent
anisotropy, tendency for high compressibility and rapid drainage, and low and
highly variable strength of these materials make use of the conventional field
tests and interpretation of mechanical parameters unviable. Use of large size
test tools (vanes, cones, etc.), more sensitive measuring devices, and more
rapid loading rates to minimize compression may improve the prospects.
However, irrelevance of the various modes of failure induced in the field as
well as laboratory tests relative to fiber interaction, anisotropy, and
compressibility result in unusual values for mechanical parameters and
inconsistencies between various tests. For instance, the shearing surface is
vertical in the vane shear, ill defined in cone penetration, inclined in triaxial
compression, and horizontal in direct, simple or ring shear test. This situation
has lead some investigators like Landva to recommend test fills as opposed to
solely relying on laboratory or field tests in designing embankments on such
deposits.
68
2.8 Index and Chemical Properties of Organic Soils
Organic soil is a mixture of fragmented organic material derived from
vegetation which has accumulated in wet areas such as swamps, marshes, or
bogs and inorganic earth material mainly of clay mineral, but non-clay mineral
are also encountered. The relative proportion of these components and their
specific nature determine the physical and geotechnical properties of these soils
(Edil, 2003). On the other hand, soil organic matter is complex both chemically
and physically, and a variety of reactions and interactions between the mineral
soil and the organic matter is possible (Oades, 1989). Therefore, organic matter
in soil may be responsible for high plasticity, high shrinkage, high
compressibility, low shear strength, and their wide range of hydraulic
conductivity.
Physically, the organic matter may occur in many forms from small amount of
highly decomposed amorphous or colloidal substance embedded in the pores of
a mineral soil, in many ways resembling clay, to fibrous peat with a visible
plant structure resembling a coarse, loosely woven mat. This variability occurs
throughout the deposit, both horizontally and vertically, especially in peat
deposits, as direct result of the deposit's morphology. Significant variation can
happen within 10 meters horizontally and even less vertically. Therefore, the
physical, index, and engineering properties of organic soils show a great
variation as a consequence of the formation and morphology; i.e. the type and
amount of organic matter.
Table (2.12) illustrates the broad stages and mire types set out in a simplified
form with a small selection of the corresponding index properties of some
British peat and organic soil, from which it will be seen that a broad correlation
exists between the morphological state and the properties of the associated
organic soil and peat (Hobbs, 1986). Table (2.13) illustrates the index
properties of 22 organic soils samples were collected from different locations in
Dakhlia Governorate at East-Delta region in Egypt (Zayed, 1989). Also, Table
69
(2.14) presents the results of previous researches on the index properties of
peaty soils around the world based on location (Huat, 2004). In this section,
some index and chemical properties of organic soils which are of interest to the
engineer will be reviewed.
Table (2.12): Mire stages and associated properties of some British peats
(Hobbs, 1986)
70
Table (2.13): Organic soil samples from East-Delta and their properties (After Zayed, 1989)
Layer Bulk unit Dry unit Cons. Limits
BH. Depth of Organic Moisture Specific Void PH
Site Location Thick- weight weight Description
No. Sample Content % Content % Gravity Ratio Level L.L P.L P.I
ness gm/cm3 gm/cm3
El-Mansoura 13 11.5 1.5 16.06 82.8 2.24 1.85 1.46 0.786 7.71 107 96 11 Dark brown H. O. Clayey Silt, slightly fine fibrous
Dekerness 6 8 2 19.64 120 2.165 2.65 1.35 0.592 7.05 135 77 15 Dark brown H. O. Clay, slightly fine fibrous
Dekerness 12 9 2.1 20.9 106 2.1 2.06 1.37 0.637 7.5 112 96 16 Dark brown H. O. Clayey Silt, slightly fine fibrous
Sherbeen 11 6.5 1.3 21.44 108.9 2.015 2.23 1.35 0.623 7.5 152 131 21 Dark brown H. O. Clayey Silt, slightly fine fibrous
El-Baramon 22 8 1.5 22.55 82.4 2.18 1.8 1.42 0.778 7.9 120 113 7 Dark brown H. O. Silty Clay, slightly fine fibrous
Takha 5 7 2.1 25.35 178.1 2.07 3.76 1.22 0.435 7.35 189 158 31 Dark brown Clayey Muck, slightly fine fibrous
El-Baramon 21 7.5 1.9 27.06 108.7 1.96 2.2 1.31 0.613 7.5 138 127 11 Dark brown Silty Clayey Muck, slightly fine fibrous
Belkas 20 8 1.9 27.83 159.8 1.92 3.23 1.3 0.454 7.15 195 181 14 Dark brown Silty Clayey Muck, slightly fine fibrous
El-Mansoura 10 11.5 1.9 31.71 144.3 1.93 2.83 1.24 0.504 7.27 195 144 51 Dark brown Clayey Muck, slightly fine fibrous
71
El-manzala 19 6.5 1.1 35.14 214 1.9 4.15 1.24 0.369 7.25 225 200 25 Dark brown Silty Clayey Muck, slightly fine fibrous
Meat El-Kholey 4 8 1.5 36.33 214.1 1.81 4.12 1.15 0.354 7 253 196 57 Dark brown Clayey Muck, slightly fine fibrous
Aga 9 7 1.5 37.21 228.3 1.825 4.22 1.15 0.351 7.15 270 217 53 Dark brown Clayey Silty Muck, slightly fine fibrous
Aga 18 11 2 40.73 286.1 1.81 5.28 1.21 0.288 7.2 301 260 41 Dark brown Silty Clayey Muck, slightly fine fibrous
Meniet El-Nasr 3 7 1.5 42.22 373.4 1.625 6.07 1.091 0.23 7.2 378 318 60 Dark brown Clayey Muck, slightly fine fibrous
Simpelaween 8 7 1.4 51.88 395.7 1.64 6.69 1.06 0.213 7 385 NP Dark brown Clayey Silty Peaty Muck, S. fine fibrous
Talkha 2 8 2.9 54.98 421.4 1.575 6.83 1.061 0.201 6.8 402 NP Dark brown Clayey Peaty Muck, slightly fine fibrous
Meet Taher 17 8 1.4 57.42 312.3 1.755 5.48 1.13 0.271 6.9 310 262 48 Dark brown Silty Clayey Peaty Muck, S. fine fibrous
Sherbeen 16 9 1.5 61.41 399.8 1.625 6.56 1.08 0.215 6.71 388 NP Dark brown Silty Clayey Peaty Muck, S. fine fibrous
El-Mansoura 15 13 2.3 62.49 478.8 1.53 7.32 1.065 0.184 6 510 450 60 Dark brown Silty Clayey Peaty Muck, S. fine fibrous
Shobra Sendey 7 11 2.4 63.16 491 1.54 7.71 1.05 0.176 7.15 508 NP Dark brown Clayey Silty Peaty Muck, S. fine fibrous
Dekerness 1 8.5 1.56 68.39 583.9 1.515 9.03 1.04 0.151 6.75 570 493 77 Dark brown Clayey Peaty Muck, slightly fine fibrous
Belkas 14 6.5 1.9 72.11 625.2 1.48 9.25 1.047 0.144 6.5 611 NP Dark brown Silty Clayey Peaty Muck, S. fine fibrous
Table (2-14): Index properties of organic soil and peat based on location (Huat,
2004)
Natural Unit Specific Organic
Soil water weight gravity content
deposits content γb
3
(wo %) (kΝ/m ) (Gs) (%)
Fibrous peat,
310-450 10.5-11.1 - 65-85
Antoniny Poland
Fibrous peat,
865-1400 10.2-11.3 - 98-99
Co. Offaly Ireland
Amorphous peat,
450 10.2 - 80
Cork, Ireland
Cranberry bog peat,
759-946 10.1-10.4 - 60-77
Massachusetts
Peat-America 178-600 - - -
72
2.8.1 Chemical Properties of Organic Soils
2.8.1.1 Chemical Composition
Soil organic matter, when extracted, can be fractionated into components,
primarily those of plant tissues and those based on humus. Humic substances
are a complex series of relatively high molecular weight, yellow to black
colored organic substances that are formed by secondary synthesis reactions in
soils. They represent one of the most chemically reactive fractions of the soil
due to their high surface area and surface charge, and thus have a critical
influence on the chemical and physical properties of soils (Oades, 1989).
Humus fraction consisting basically of humic and fulvic acids and humin and
exists both in solid and liquid phases (Huttunen et al., 1996). The humic
fraction is gel-like in properties and negatively charged (Marshall, 1964).
Soil organic matter may occur in any of five groups: carbohydrates; proteins;
fats, resins, and waxes; hydrocarbons; and carbon. Cellulose (C6 H10 O5) is the
main organic constituent of soil (Mitchell, 1993). Chemically, organic matter
consists of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and small amount of nitrogen. Previous
researches (Chynoweth, 1983; Schelkoph et al., 1983; Cameron et al., 1989)
showed that the percentage of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen are in
the ranges of 40 - 60 %, 20 -40 %, 4 - 6 %, and 0 - 5 % respectively. The
chemical composition is greatly related to the degree of decomposition, the
more the peat is decomposed, the less the percentage of the carbon is produced.
Also, the submerged organic component of organic soil is not entirely inert but
undergoes very slow decomposition, accompanied by the production of
methane and less amount of nitrogen and carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide.
2.8.1.2 pH value
A strong relationship exists between the type of peat and organic soil and the
chemistry of the associated water. Nutrient or base rich waters are
characteristically non-acidic and are associated with fens, while base deficient
waters are acidic and are associated with bogs. This is because decomposition
73
generally tends to be most active in neutral to weakly alkaline conditions pH
value (7 - 7.5). The more acid the peat, the better the plant remains are
preserved (Hobbs, 1986).
Also, organic fine substances are negatively charged and display a substantial
cation exchange capacity which increases with degree of humification and
strongly influenced by the hydrogen concentration in the pore water. Cations
74
such as Ca, Mg, K, Na and also Fe and Al, replace hydrogen at the exchange
sites of the organic polymolecules. The cation exchange capacity of very fine
humic substances may be as high as 1.5 - 5.0 meq/g (Terzaghi et al, 1996).
In the less organic soils most of the cation exchange ability is saturated by
metallic cations from mineral matter in the soil. As the organic content raises
the quantity of exchangeable hydrogen ions slowly increase as shown in Figure
(2-18b). In peats most of the ions are strongly adsorbed into the exchange
complex. The cation exchange capacity of peats present in the ombrotrophic
bogs is very similar to that of Na montmorillonite. Fen peats have similar
cation exchange capacities to illite.
Fig (2.18): (a) pH and (b) exchangeable cations in relation to organic content of
lake, fen and bog soils (after Gorham 1966)
75
Because the specific gravity of the cell walls of plants is half that of clay
minerals, the adsorption complex in peats is approximately twice as effective as
that in clay. This explains why peats possess very high liquid limits as
compared with clays of similar cation exchange capacity. Also, the liquid limit
declines as the degree of humification increases, in other words as the
adsorption complex is weakened due to the destruction of plant material.
Consequently, fibrous peats have higher liquid limits than amorphous peats
(Bell, 2000).
However, the temperature and the length of firing vary. The Muskeg
Engineering Handbook (1969) recommends 800 to 900°C for 3 h or "until the
soil has obviously been reduced to an ash". In Egypt as in Europe, a
76
temperature of 550°C is used for combustion. Arman (1971) recommends 440°
C and holds it for 5 hours, claiming that this temperature is very critical: a few
degrees below will result in incomplete combustion, and a few degrees above
will result in a transformation of clay minerals and hence a loss of mineral
matter. A temperature of 440°C and holding until completely ashed are the
recommendations of ASTM (D 2974-00), and this was followed in this study.
The loss on ignition test method is only approximate because since during the
firing process, more than just the organics are burned off. According to Jackson
(1958) this method can produce an error from 5% to 15%. The errors at loss on
ignition increase with increasing mineral content, especially if the soil contains
carbonates and sulphides. Unless the mineral content is high or the soil contains
carbonates, the errors can usually be ignored. This is the case in peats and other
highly organic soils (Lechowicz et al., in Embankments on organic soils, 1996).
However, the ash method "loss on ignition" is generally preferred for
engineering purposes (McVay and Nugyen, 2004).
77
matter is wet-combusted. At the oxidation of the organic carbon with
dichromate, the color of the oxidation fluid changes from orange to green. A
simple but reliable measurement of the organic carbon content is obtained by
measuring the intensity of the green color with a colorimeter supplied with a
filter for wavelengths close to 620 nm. The colorimeter is calibrated for the
given test procedure with known amounts of organic carbon. The main sources
of error in this method are the relatively small amount of sample in each test
and the fact that the conversion factor used to calculate organic content from
organic carbon may vary somewhat. Usually, organic matter is considered to
contain 58% organic carbon (Lechowicz et al., in Embankments on organic
soils, 1996).
78
Fig. (2.19): Influence of organic content on classification properties of
Juturnaiba organic clay, Brazil (from Coutinho and Lacerda, 1987)
In highly organic soils, such as peat it is common to use ash content instead of
organic content as a measure of the mineral content in the soil. The ash content
(or inorganic content) of an organic soil is the percentage of dry material that
remains as ash after controlled combustion. According to Ron Munro (2004)
organic soil that has grown in-situ normally has an ash content of somewhere
between 2% and 20% of its in-situ volume and this range of ash contents can be
an indicator of this type of organic soil (peat). Also, in many peats the mineral
content increases with depth. On the other extreme, organic muds may contain
some 10% of organic detritus (Bell, 2000).
79
2.8.2.2 Fiber Content
The amount of fiber material presence has an influence on the physical, index,
and mechanical properties of organic soils. The fiber content is determined by a
wet sieving procedure (ASTM D 1997). Fibrous peat has the higher fiber
content in all organic soils. Fibrous peat is the one having fiber content more
than 20 % of the oven-dried mass of the original sample, while amorphous
peat, on the other hand, is the peat soil with fiber content less than 20 %
(ASTM D 4427). Amorphous-granular peat tends to behave similarly to
mineral soils, whereas this behavior deviates more and more as the fiber
content increases. The effect of fibrosity on peat characteristics is shown in the
table (2.15).
Table (2.15): Relative values of various peat properties for predominant types
(MacFarlane, 1969)
80
deposit. Such high void ratios give rise to phenomenally high water contents.
The latter is the most distinctive characteristic of organic soils (Bell, 2000).
These three types of held water have different drainage characteristics. Water is
forced out of the voids when peat undergoes stress. With continuing stress the
particles are brought into contact and the cell structure begins to be distorted.
Hence the water in the plant cells is pressurized. Some of this water moves
through openings in the cell walls, but with increasing stress this begin to
rupture. Water is expelled thereby, giving rise to increasing pore water pressure
in the voids. Wilson indicated that at this point the peat behaves as a material
which has become rapidly softened. Further straining and rupture of the cell
walls means that shear failure is imminent (Bell, 2000).
81
In organic fine substances, water of hydration and double-layer water are
important. The decay of peat is by no means uniform and the water content is
reduced with increasing humification. The water content also declines with
increasing mineral content. Hence, fen peats have lower and less variable water
contents than bog peats (Bell, 2000). Tables (2.12-2.14) show typical values of
natural water contents for a variety of organic deposits.
In general, the water content of peats varies from a few hundred percent dry
weights, e.g. 500% in some amorphous granular peats, to over 3000% in some
fibrous varieties due to its natural fabric structure. Put another way the water
content may range from 75 to 98% by volume of peat. Moreover, changes in
the amount of water content can occur over very small distances as direct result
of the deposit's morphology. Figure (2.20) shows the plot of water content
versus loss on ignition complied by O′Loughlin & Lehane (2003) in the case of
peat and organic soils. The relationship shown is linear but only up to
OC=80%. A high degree of scatter between OC and wo exists for soils with
higher organic content, which they attributed to be due to degree of
humification of the organic matter.
82
The water content is determined for organic soils in the same manner as for
mineral soils. For peat soils, there is a general fear that standard drying of the
soil at 105° C for 24 hours will lead to charring of the organic component in
peat, thus producing too large a figure for water content. Some therefore
advocate a lower temperature, between 50° C and 95° C. Skempton and Petley
(1970) and Kapai and Farkas (1988) investigated the effect, and concluded that
the loss of organic matter at 105°C is insignificant, while drying at lower
temperatures retains a small amount of free water (Huat, 2004).
Hobbs (1986) reported that above natural water content of 600% both the
specific gravity and water content do not greatly influence bulk density. The
primary influence is the degree of saturation or gas content. Bell (2000)
concluded that peats frequently are not saturated and may be buoyant under
water due to the presence of gas.
Based on extensive tests performed on Dutch organic soils, den Haan and El
Amir (1994) proposed the following empirical relationship:
83
γsat (kN ⁄m³) = 12.266 – 3.156 OC (2.4)
MacFarlane (1969) reported that fibrous peats in Canada, in which the water
content was greater than 500% and organic contents in excess of 80%, had
specific gravities in the range 1.4 -1.7. The lower specific gravity indicates a
lower degree of decomposition and low mineral content. Bell (2000) noted that
the specific gravity of peat has been found to range from as low as 1.1 up to
about 1.8, being influenced by the content of mineral matter. Moreover, Huat
84
(2004) concluded that the high lignin content of tropical peat gives it a slightly
lower specific gravity compared with that of temperate peat, with Gs in the
range of 1.07 – 1.70, and an average of about 1.40. Tables (2.12 & 2.14) show
typical values of specific gravity of various organic deposits. According to
Zayed (1989) the values of specific gravity of organic soils obtained from East-
Delta region fall in the range of 1.48 – 2.24 with an average of 1.83, which is
high due to their higher mineral content (Table 2.13).
However, the average specific gravity of soil solids for organic soils can be
calculated from:
Where, "OC" is the organic content or loss on ignition, expressed as ratio. This
assumption may lead to an error of as high as 18% (Edil 2003). Skempton and
Petley (1970) propose the following relationship for the above two parameters:
1 1 − 1.04(1 − N
=
) + 1.04(1 − N ) (2.6)
Gs 1.4 2.7
1
=
N
+
(1 − N ) (2.7)
Gs 1.365 2.695
The values of specific gravity obtained from the den Haan equation (2.7) are
somewhat lower than given by Skempton and Petley equation (2.6). Figure
(2.21) shows a graph of specific gravity versus loss on ignition of Irish peat
compared with data from different locations.
85
Fig. (2.21): Correlation of specific gravity with loss on ignition for Irsh peat
and from literature (O`Loughlin & Lehane 2003)
86
In the case of temperate peat, the liquid limit of fen peat ranges from 200 –
600%, and bog peat from 800 to 1500%, with transition peats between. The
liquid limit of the peat, in other words, increases with increase in natural water
content. Also, the liquid limit is reduced by increasing the degree of
humification (Bell, 2000). For the tropical hemic peat of Malaysia, the liquid
limit is in the range of 200-500%, in about the same range to that of temperate
(fen) peat (Huat, 2004). Figure (2.22) shows a graph of plasticity index versus
liquid limit for some UK peats. All the data is plotted under the A-line.
Fig (2.22): Plasticity index versuss liquid limit for some UK peats (after Hobbs,
1986)
In any case, According to Hobbs (1986) it is not possible to carry out plastic
limit tests on pure bog peats on the one hand even if they are highly humified,
or peat whose liquid limit is greater than 1000% on the other. He concluded
that there is little point in performing the plastic limit test on peat soils since the
plasticity gives little indication of their character. MacVay and Nugyen (2004)
87
stated that "When dealing with peat; determination of the Atterberg limits in
general is neither beneficial nor recommended".
2.8.2.9 Shrinkage
Since organic soil and peat has a high void ratio and water content they
undergo significant shrinkage on drying out. Bell (2000) concluded that the
amount of shrinkage can ranges between 10 and 75% of the original volume
and it can involve reductions in void ratio from over 12 down to about 2. Also,
the change in peat is permanent in that it can not recover all the water lost when
wet conditions return. Only 33 % to 55 % of the water can be reabsorbed
(Mochtar, 1997). Hobbs (1986) noted that the more highly humified peats, even
though they have lower water contents, tend to shrink more than the less
humified fibrous peat. He quoted values of linear shrinkage on oven drying
between 35 and 45%.
88
CHAPTER 3
3.1 Introduction
Organic soils commonly occur as extremely soft, wet, unconsolidated surficial
deposits that are integral parts of wetland systems. They may also occur as
strata beneath other surficial deposits. Organic soils are characterized by their
loose structure and high water content. As a result of their loose state, they
have high permeability. Also, because of their typical locations, i.e., near the
surface, most surficial organic deposits, however, have no significant loading
history as they are fairly recent deposits in waterlogged areas. Larsson (1996)
concluded that many of these profiles do not even have a dry crust and most of
the soil layers have not been subjected to any load other than the weight of
overlying soil (Embankment on Organic Soils, 1996). The resulting effective
stresses are relatively low because of the high groundwater levels and the low
densities of the unconsolidated organic soils.
Therefore, organic soils in its natural state are known for their high
compressibility and low shear strength which often results in difficulties when
construction work has to take place on such deposit. The low strength often
causes stability problem and consequently the applied load is limited or has to
be placed in stages. Large deformation may occur during and after construction
period both vertically and horizontally, and the deformation may continue for a
long time due to creep (McVay and Nugyen, 2004).
89
obtain suitable design parameters for strength and compressibility as well as to
find suitable construction techniques on these materials.
Moreover, the compressibility of fibrous soils is very high. Even for small
external loads, it is common for the settlements to amount to more than half of
90
the original thickness of the peat layer (Berry and Poskitt, 1972; Larsson,
1996). On top of this, there are considerable creep deformations with time,
which for most engineering tasks cannot be accepted and have to be stopped.
On the other hand, the engineering problems in the more humified organic soils
with low permeabilities resemble the problems encountered in soft mineral
clays, but are often more accentuated because of the higher compressibility, the
enhanced creep effects, the very low effective stresses and strengths and the
sometimes very low permeabilities. Also, the effects of structural anisotropy
decrease with decreasing content of fibers and increasing degree of
humification (Larsson, 1996).
However, low shear strength and high compressibility of organic soils and
peats confine them in a problematic category. Therefore, the knowledge on
permeability, shear strength and compression behavior of different types of
organic soils and peats is essential as it enables designers to understand the
response of every soil type to load and to suggest proper engineering solutions
to overcome the problem. In this section, the information on evaluating
permeability, shear strength and compression properties for different types of
organic soils and peats are discussed.
91
3.2 Shear Strength Characteristics of Organic Soils
The shear strength of soil is an important parameter in its behavior under
various loading conditions. Like all soils, the shear strength of organic-rich
soils is directly related to the effective stress in the ground and stress history of
the deposit. Since surficial deposits of organic-rich soils are relatively
lightweight (i.e., low dry density), saturated, and have no significant stress
history, such deposits exhibits high porosities and hydraulic conductivities, and
develop very low vertical effective stresses for consolidation. Such a material
can be expected to behave "drained" like sand when subjected to shear stresses.
With consolidation the porosity decreases rapidly and hydraulic conductivity
becomes comparable to that of clay. Thus, there is a rapid transition
immediately from a well-drained material to an "undrained" material (Huat,
2004).
On the other hand, fibrous soil mobilizes its shear strength in an entirely
different manner. In the natural fabric, the organic fibers tend to be somewhat
oriented and overlapping. In a loose natural state, the fibers are surrounded by
92
water, and the soil matrix has low shear strength. Most of the shear strength in
this condition is from apparent cohesion due to mineral soil (clay)
contamination and /or entanglement of the fibers. During compression the
fibers tend to align themselves at right angles to the direction of the applied
(vertical) stress as shown in Figure (3.1). Water is expelled and the fibers come
in contact. Thus, as the soil is stressed, the organic fibers become more oriented
and move close together. The fibers in this condition act as reinforcement to
triaxial shear. The shear strength, in this compressed state, is a function of the
friction between the fibers, the tensile strength of the fibers, and the apparent
cohesion is relatively small. This results in a large increase in shear strength
from the fiber reinforcing effect (McVay and Nugyen, 2004).
Fig. (3.1): Effect of compression on peat fabric (after McVay and Nugyen,
2004)
93
higher stress levels, the shear strength develops mainly from friction, and the
effective cohesion becomes negligible.
94
Fig. (3.3): Shear failure modes (after McVay and Nugyen, 2004)
95
3.2.2 Determination of Shear Strength
Where good quality undisturbed samples can be obtained, laboratory strength
testing should be performed to obtain shear strength information for design.
Triaxial shear tests and direct shear tests are the most common, direct simple
shear test and ring shear test are used also, but to a lesser extent. Since fibrous
peat has a strong anisotropic behavior, therefore, a large discrepancy in shear
strength is observed when direct shear results are compared with triaxial shear
strengths. This is because the failure plane is forced parallel to the fibers in a
direct shear test and the reinforcing effect is lost. Therefore, with anisotropic
soils, the laboratory test, as well as sample orientation is of significance.
Many investigators have successfully used both drained and undrained triaxial
tests to observe the shear behavior of an organic soil (Adams, 1961; Gautschi,
1965; Hanrahan et al., 1967; Hollingshead and Raymond, 1972; Yamaguchi et
al, 1985a, c, d). In most cases large strains were reached before failure occurred
specially for fibrous peat (McVay and Nugyen, 2004). Sabatini, et al. (2002)
concluded that in drained laboratory triaxial tests, it may require greater than
20% axial strain to mobilize the full strength of the material, and this needs to
be considered in stability analysis so that the mobilized strength is consistent
with the expected level of deformation. Also, Huat (2004) concluded that
drained triaxial tests for peat are seldom performed since they may take several
weeks due to significant change in hydraulic conductivity upon consolidation,
and also, due to gross changes in specimen dimensions and shape during the
test. Therefor, triaxial consolidated undrained test in compression and extention
modes, with and without pore pressure measurements, are usually used.
96
Considering the presence of organic soils is almost always below the
groundwater level, the determination of undrained shear strength is of great
importance. Aaccording to Tsushima and Mitachi (1998) unconfined
compression test have been widely used to perform the stability analysis of
highly organic soils. However, becaue of the unconfined compression strengths
are usually scattered due to inevitable change of effective stress and mechanical
disturbance during the process from sampling to laboratory testing, they
proposed a method for predicting in-situ undrained strength from the
relationship between residual effective stress obtained by suction measurement
and unconfined compression strength (Mitaachi et al., 2001).
Also, the undrained shear strength of organic soils has been measured by field
vane tests (FVT), cone penetration test (CPT), pressure-meter test, dilatometer
test, plate load test, and screw auger pulling tests (Edil, 2001). Termaat (1999)
concluded that both tools CPT and FVT are good instruments to determine the
mean value of the shear strength with a low variation. It is recommended for
CPT to use large cones with high resolution load cells since it is likely that the
tip resistance in organic soils will be extremely low (Sabatini et al., 2002; Edill,
2003). Also, Edil (2003) recommended large vanes of diameter 55 to 110 mm
and height to diameter ratio of 2 are for peat, and the rate of vane rotation has
to be faster than for clay, i.e. greater than 0.1 degree/s. Moreover, Hanzawa et
al (1994) recommended a combination of direct shear test (DST) and CPT's, to
improve the design quality. He prefers the CPT to the FVT because the
correlation between CPT and DST is more consistant (Termaat, 1999).
However, among them, the vane shear test is the most commonly used. On the
other hand, for organic silts and clays, their very low hydraulic conductivities
allow for the use of CPT, CPTu, and VST devices as a mean to correlate
undrained shear strengt
Moreover, according to McVay and Nugyen (2004) the shear behavior of peat
was studied by Hanrahan et al. (1967) whom found that the Coulomb-Terzaghi
97
failure criterion could be applied to peats with satisfactory results. The shear
strength τf of peat may be represented as:
Figure (3.4) reported the effective friction angle, compiled by Edil (2003) as a
function of organic content. In this figure, materials with an organic content
less than approximately 25% (organic silt and clay) are called "organic soils".
The average effective angle of friction is 53° for organic-rich and clearly above
the average angle of 41° for organic silt and clay. Therefore, it could be
concluded that the effective internal friction ø` of organic-rich soils is generally
higher than that of inorganic soil.
Also, Edil and Dhowian (1981) reported that ø` is 50° for amorphous granular
peat and in the range of 53°-57° for fibrous peat. Therefore, it could be
concluded that the angle of friction is generally higher for more fibrous (fabric)
peat, and decreases with increasing degrees of humification (less fiber content).
The trixial compression tests tends to yield higher angles of shearing resistance
than the direct shear and simple shear test, while trixial extension tests tends to
yield the lower values. Therefore, it could be concluded, also, that the effective
internal friction ø` of organic-rich soils vary according to the type of test used.
98
Fig. (3.4): Effective friction angle versus organic content (Edil, 2003)
Figure (3.5) presents the normalized nudrained shear strength data; compiled
by Edil (2001) for different types of organic soils in US. Organic-rich soils
99
show no evident differences between fibrous and amorphous soils, and give an
average normalized undrained strength of 0.59 with most of the data falling
between 0.5 and 0.7. Organic silt and clay (OC<20%) seem to have lower
normalized undrained strength compared to organic-rich soils. Also, it is
revealed that normalized nudrained shear strength data from laboratory tests is
lower and less scattered compared to field vane tests.
(a) (b)
Fig. (3.5): Normalized undrained strength versus organic content for US peats
from: (a) CIU triaxial tests and (b) field vane tests (Edil, 2001)
Also, Huat (2004) reported that the undrained shear strength of peat soil (Su)
obtained by vane shear test was in range of 3-15 kPa, which is much lower than
that of the mineral soils. Mesri and Ajlouni (2007) suggest that Su(FV)/σ`p=1.0.
Hartlen and Wolsky (1996) suggested a correction factor of 0.5 for field vane
test results on organic soil with a liquid limit of more than 200 %. The same
correction factor was suggested by Mesri and Ajlouni (2007) for peat.
On the other hand, Mesri and Ajlouni (2007) concluded that the fibrous
structure is strongly responsible for high frictional resistance and undrained
shear strength to consolidation pressure ratio of fibrous peats, and that any
biochemical degradation of the fiber structure can be expected to lead to a
reduction in both properties.
100
This could be observed from Figure (3.6), introduced by Termaat (1999), in
which the normalized test results for peaty soils from different locations around
the world, using different shearing test procedures (TC, TE, DST, and DSS),
had been collected, and plotted as function of the organic content.
Unfortunately, the test data for DST and DSS was restricted to three; therefore,
he concluded that the regression line, shown for these tests, is more or less an
assumption. However, it is simulating the undrained strength behavior of
different organic soils structures more reasonably than that of Edil (2001).
Fig. (3.6): Strength increment ratio versus organic content (Termaat, 1999)
101
material structure and material characteristics, permeability of organic soils
varies widely, depending on amount of mineral matter, degree of consolidation,
degree of decomposition, chemical composition, and the presence of gas.
However, some of these factors can change with time and result in a change in
hydraulic conductivity (Huat, 2004).
102
Also, most naturally occurring peats have relatively high initial permeability of
10-3 to 10-5 cm/s (Wyld, 1956). Studies on physical and hydraulic properties of
fibrous peat indicated that it is averagely porous, and this certifies the fact that
fibrous peat has a very high initial permeability (MacFarlane, 1969; Hobbs,
1986; Mesri and Ajlouni, 2007). In its natural state, the hydraulic conductivity
of fibrous peat may be as high as sand, i.e., 10-3 to 10-2 cm/s (Colleselli et. al.,
2000). On the other hand, it should be noted that many highly decomposed
organic soils are, in fact, relatively impermeable. This is evident by the fact that
organic soils have been used for the impermeable core of the rock dams in
Norway (Tveiten 1956, Silburn 1972). This extreme range in void ratios makes
it difficult to assess the mechanical behavior of organic soil (McVay and
Nugyen, 2004). Figures (3.7, 3.8) show the relationship between void ratio and
vertical permeability of undisturbed samples of peat compared with other
geomaterials, compiled by Hobbs (1986) and Mesri and Ajlouni (2007).
103
Fig. (3.8): Data on vertical coefficient of permeability of fibrous peats within
frame of reference of permeability data for sodium clay minerals, soft clay
deposits, including Mexico City clay, and clean sand (after Mesri and Ajlouni,
2007)
104
Furthermore, research on Portage fibrous peat shows that the soil initially has a
relatively high permeability comparable to fine or silty sand; however, as
compression proceeds, void ratio decreases rapidly and permeability is greatly
reduced to a value comparable to that of clay, i.e. about 10-10 to 10-11 cm/s
(Hillis and Browner, 1961; Lea and Browner, 1963; Dhowian and Edil, 1980).
It can be concluded that the change in permeability as a result of compression
is drastic for peat because of their very large compressibility.
According to Mesri and Ajlouni (2007), it is useful to plot side by side the
relationship between void ratio and log effective vertical stress and the relation
between void ratio and log permeability, kv, for interpreting the time rate of
primary consolidation. The advantage of such plot is that one can directly see
the decrease in permeability from kvo to kvf as effective vertical stress increases
from σ`vo to σ`vf and void ratio decreases from eo to ef. The slopes of e versus
log kv, that is, Ck = ∆e ⁄∆ log kv, measures the reduction in e required to produce
a tenfold decrease in kv. However, when Ck is large, then for a given decrease in
void ratio the decrease in permeability is small, whereas a small Ck means a
large decrease in permeability with a decrease in void ratio.
105
Fig. (3.9): Comparison of compressibility and permeability behavior of muck
soil compared to inorganic clay and fibrous peat: (a) compression curves; (b)
hydraulic conductivity versus void ratio (after Santagata et al., 2008).
The first, Boston Blue Clay (BBC), is inorganic illitic low plasticity marine
clay, with average LL and PL of 45 and 23, respectively (Force 1998). The
second geometrical, muck soil with 40-60% organic content, natural water
content in the 209–285% range, specific gravity between 1.90 and 2.00, and in-
situ void ratio in the 4.30–5.50 range, was investigated by Santagata et al.
(2008). The third geometrical, Middleton fibrous peat with 90–95% organic
content, natural water content in the 620–850% range, specific gravity between
1.53 and 1.65, and in-situ void ratio in the 10–14 range, was extensively
investigated by several researchers (Mesri et al., 1997; Fox et al., 1992,1999).
Its behavior is considered representative of that of natural highly fibrous peats.
It was found that the in-situ hydraulic conductivity for muck soil can be
estimated at around 10-6 cm/s by extrapolating the linear curves of kv versus
106
void ratio. This value lies just below the range reported for fibrous peats
[kvo=6x10-6 – 10-3 cm/s, (Mesri et. al., 1997)], and also, fall in between the data
for the fibrous peat and BBC. That is, kv increases with increasing organic
content as shown in Figure (3.9b).
According to Mesri et al. (1997), both the low value of Ck/eo and high values of
Ck for peats as compared to clays and silts suggest that only part of the pores in
peat – macropores in between particles – are serving as the flow channels. The
large initial permeability of peat results from flow mainly through large
macropores between fairly large peat particles. Therefore, the decrease in
permeability with compression results from the reduction in the size of the
macropores. However, Mesri and Ajlouni (2007) introduce Figure (3.10) to
compare Ck versus void ratio for five geotechnical materials, including the
Kozeny-Carmen "soil", to put the behavior of fibrous peat within a general
framework. They concluded that the pore-size distribution of fibrous peats is
very nonuniform compared with different geomaterials in the figure, which
leads to a dramatic decrease in permeability under compression.
107
Fig. (3.10): Explanation of magnitude of Ck/e or Ck/eo in terms of five materials
with different pore-size distribution (after Mesri and Ajlouni, 2007)
Berry and Poskitt (1972) stated that "It has long been recognized that the
consolidation of this material, peat, is extremely complex. This is because of
the highly compressible nature of natural deposits which under the action of
loads equivalent to only few feet of fill may undergo strains of the order of
50% and macropermeability reductions of hundredfold. In addition, the
consolidation process is complicated by the occurrence of secondary
compression which, for certain peats, shows an essentially linear relationship
108
with log time that appears to extend indefinitely, although it is realized that the
settlement must ultimately cease."
That is, for most organic deposits in the field, rapid dissipation of water
pressure are completed within a few weeks or months (Mesri et al., 1997). On
the other hand, long-term compression has no end within the time of
engineering interest. For instance, settlement of a peat layer in the field after 91
years has been reported by Van de Burght (1936).
Figure (3.11) shows settlement curve for an embankment built over organic-
rich deposits as illustrated by Landva and LaRochelle (1983). It was observed
that after the excess pore water pressure has dissipated, primary consolidation
has stopped and the secondary creep continues linearly with the logarithm of
time. They concluded that the secondary compression is of such a large
magnitude, that it masks the primary portion. This masking effect makes it
difficult to demarcate the end of primary consolidation, which leads to
difficulties in analyzing the settlements. They concluded also that the shape of
the settlement versus logarithm time relationship is a function of permeability
and the rate of creep (McVay &Nugyen, 2004).
Fig. (3.11): Typical field settlement curve for an embankment built over
organic deposit (after McVay &Nugyen, 2004)
109
Edil and den Haan (1994) stated that "A large group of organic soils exhibit a
one-dimensional compression behavior which is in general conformity with the
behavior of clays typically encountered in practice. There may be differences in
the magnitudes of various quantities measured but the general shapes of the
consolidation curves appear reasonably similar and the formulation developed
for clay compression can be used to predict the magnitude and rate of
settlement. In general, these formulations treat primary (hydrodynamic)
compression and secondary (creep) compression separately and decouple the
stress and time effects. Typically, laboratory multiple-stage-load (MSL)
oedometer tests are performed for a load-increment ratio (LIR) of unity and
load-increment duration (LID) of 24 hours. Alternatively, constant-rate-of-
strain (CRS) tests are conducted to obtain equivalent information as generated
by the MSL tests. There are however a certain class of peats, typically high
organic and fiber content materials with low degree of humification (fibrous
peat), that do not conform to the basic tenets of the conventional clay
compression behavior because of their highly different solid phase properties
and microstructure. The differences become particularly apparent especially at
low vertical stresses, i.e., for surficial peat deposits in early load increments in
the laboratory. The primary consolidation is very rapid and large secondary is
observed. The analysis of compression of such materials presents certain
difficulties when the conventional methods are applied because the curves
obtained from the conventional oedometer tests and the behavior exhibited by
them show little resemblance to the clay behavior."
110
magnitude and short duration of the initial stage and the continuous long-term
compression are the major departures from mineral soil behavior".
Kogure (1999) also stated that "In applying the conventional theory to the
consolidation of fibrous soils, there are two major deviations from the well-
known assumptions, namely, the compressibility of solids and the dramatic
decrease in permeability under applied load. These two anomalies are believed
to account for the significant differences in consolidation behavior between
them and mineral soils. The high initial porosity is believed to account for the
rapid and large initial compression; the compressibility of the solid organic
constituents is believed to account, at least in part, for the continuous long-term
compression (Adams 1965; Kogure, 1993)".
Finally, Mesri and Ajlouni (2007) concluded that in spite of the significantly
different engineering properties of fibrous peat from those of most inorganic
soils, the same fundamental mechanisms and factors control the behavior
of both inorganic soils and fibrous peats. The same was concluded by
Magnan (1994) based on French practice.
111
That is, predicting and dealing with settlements of organic soils has been a
problem for highway and foundation engineers. The prediction of field
settlement from laboratory test on undisturbed samples is essentially a direct
extrapolation of soil behavior. It is based on the assumption of linear rate of
settlement with the logarithm of time. However, the prediction of settlement
remains difficult owing to the heterogeneity of organic deposits, the effect of
the underlying mineral soil layers, shear strains, and gas content.
Most peat deposits are highly variable (Hanrhan 1954; Landva and La Rochelle
1983). This characteristic, related mainly to variable degree of decomposition
within a peat deposit, has been a serious impediment to accurate interpretation
of peat behavior from laboratory measurements and field observations [e.g.,
Magnan (1994)]. The other obstacle to laboratory testing of peats and
interpretation of laboratory measurements has been potential for biodegradation
of peat in laboratory environment (Mesri et al., 1997). Also, in many organic
deposits, the underlying soil may be more dangerous from the standard point of
stability and settlement than the organic soil. Seldom is the compressible soil
layer only peat. Generally it also contains organic clay, clay and/or marl, which
may not drain as quickly as peat (McVay &Nugyen, 2004). Also, the
submerged organic component of organic soil is not entirely inert but
undergoes very slow decomposition, accompanied by the production of
methane and less amount of nitrogen and carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide.
A gas content of 5 to 10% of the total volume of the soil is reported for peat
and organic soils (Muskeg Engineering Handbook, 1969).
Considering these factors and the empirical nature of the relations used, one
must realize that the predictions of field settlements will be extremely
approximate (Kogure, 1999). Nevertheless, Mesri and Ajlouni (2007)
concluded that compression parameters determined from laboratory oedometer
tests and from field settlement observations are comparable [e.g., Moran et al.,
112
1958; Adams 1963, 1965; MacFarlane, 1969; Samson and La Rochelle, 1972;
Jorgensen, 1987].
S = Si + Sc + Ss (3-2)
Where:
Si = immediate or distortion settlement,
Sc = consolidation or primary settlement, and
Ss = secondary compression settlement.
113
Fig. (3.13): Time-settlement curve showing total settlement components (Fox,
2003).
114
The time-settlement relationship, above mentioned, is conceptually valid for all
soil types. However, large differences exist in the magnitude of the components
and the rate at which they occur for different soils. For granular soils, such as
sand, the hydraulic conductivity is sufficiently large that consolidation occurs
nearly instantaneously with the applied load. In addition, although granular
soils do exhibit creep effects, secondary compression is generally insignificant.
On the other hand, for cohesive soils, such as clays, hydraulic conductivity is
very small and the consolidation of a thick deposit may require years or even
decades to complete. Also, secondary compression can be substantial for
cohesive soils. Different from both sands and clays, peats and organic soils
generally undergo rapid and large consolidation settlement and extensive long-
term secondary compression (Fox, 2003).
Fig. (3.14): Idealized relationship between void ratio e and logarithm of the
effective stress σ` (after Havel, 2004)
115
These consolidation parameters relate to primary settlement (coefficient of
axial compressibility, av, coefficient of volume compressibility, mv,
compression index, Cc, recompression index, Cr), secondary settlement
(secondary compression index, Cα), time rate of settlement (cv), and stress
history (σ`p). However, there may be differences in the magnitudes of various
quantities measured, for organic soils and peats, but the general shape of the
consolidation curves appear reasonably similar and the formulation developed
for clay compression can be used to predict the magnitude and rate of
settlement (Edil and den Haan, 1994, Edil, 1997; Mesri et al., 1997; Mesri and
Ajlouni, 2007).
116
8. Small strains.
Actually, the total amount of consolidation settlement and the rate at which this
settlement occurs is a coupled problem in which neither quantity can be
calculated independently from the other. In geotechnical engineering practice,
total consolidation settlement and rate of consolidation are almost always
computed independently for lack of widely accepted procedures to solve the
coupled problem (Fox, 2003).
Sc ∆e ∆H
= and ( = ∆ε , strain)
H 1 + eo H
∆e
S c = H (∆ε ) = H (3.3)
1 + eo
117
Once the in-situ compressibility curve e-log σ`v has been established for a given
sublayer, the change of void ratio can be calculated knowing ∆ σ`v
σ v′ o + ∆σ v′
∆e = Cc log (3.4)
σ vo′
Cc σ ′ + ∆σ v′
Sc = H log vo (3.5)
1 + eo σ vo′
σ vo′ + ∆σ v′
Sc = Cc′ H log (3.6)
σ vo′
Cr σ ′ + ∆σ v′
Sc = H log vo (3.7)
1 + eo σ vo′
Cr σ` C σ ` + ∆σ `v
Sc = H log p + c H log vo (3.8)
1 + eo σ `vo 1 + eo σ `p
The compression index, Cc, and recompression index, Cr, are index values
required for primary consolidation settlement predictions. These parameters
have been defined in Figure (2.10). Each of the compression indices can be
determined, from e-log σ`v curve, by the change in void ratio per log cycle of
stress (= ∆e/∆ log σ`v) for the respective ranges of recompression (Cr), virgin
118
compression (Cc), and swelling or rebound (Cs). In case of using a plot of
vertical strain, εv-log σ`v curve, the compression indices are reported as the
recompression ratio, C`r = Cr/(1+eo), and compression ratio, C`c = Cc/(1+eo).
Typically, values of Cr (or C`r) are 10 to 20 percent of the value of Cc (or C`c).
However, the standard procedure for consolidation test specified the load
increment ratio (LIR) of one and the load increment duration (LID) is 24 hour.
For some soft soils, especially organic soil and peat, the end of primary
consolidation can be reached at time much less than 24 hour. Thus, the
estimation of the compression index (Cc) for organic-rich soil, based on
standard consolidation test procedure, may not be accurate; since some creep or
secondary compression will took place before the application of the subsequent
pressure (Fox, 2003). Therefore, measurement of excess pore water pressure
119
during the consolidation test is very critical in the observation of the end of
primary consolidation (EOP).
The void ratio obtained from each load increment after 24 hour is plotted as
open points in Figure (3.16). The EOP consolidation can be determined from
the time-settlement curve by graphical procedures such as the Cassagrande
logarithmic of time or Taylor square root of time methods. Then difference
between the void ratio at the EOP consolidation (eop) and the void ratio at 24
hour is used as a correction applied to the original e- log σ`v curve. The
modified curve, EOP e-log σ` v, is plotted as solid line in Figure (3.16).
120
from the e(εv)-log σ`v relationship using the Casagrande (1936) graphical
technique.
Rate of Consolidation
At any time during the process of consolidation, the amount of settlement is
directly related to the proportion of excess pore pressure that has been
dissipated. Terzaghi's theory of consolidation is used to predict the progress of
excess pore pressure dissipation as a function of time, i.e., prediction of
consolidation settlement rate. Based on the above mentioned assumptions and
using an analogy between the theory of consolidation and the theory of heat
transfer, Terzaghi proposed the pore pressure based differential equation for
one-dimensional consolidation is:
∂u ∂ 2u
= cv 2 (3.9)
∂t ∂z
Where:
k (1 + eo ) k
cv = = = Coefficient of consolidation.
av γ w mv γ w
k = Hydraulic conductivity.
eo = Initial void ratio.
av = ∆e/ ∆σ` = Coefficient of compressibility.
γw = Unit weight of pore-water.
121
av
mv = = Coefficient of volume compressibility
1 + eo
It should be noted that cv is not a constant value for a test on a particular soil.
Values for cv depend on many factors including whether the preconsolidation
stress has been exceeded (Leonards and Girault, 1961). The typical trend for
most clayey soils is that cv values are higher in the overconsolidated range and
exhibit a relatively rapid decrease as the preconsolidation stress is approached.
Some of the inherent variability associated with evaluation of this parameter
can be minimized by concentrating the interpretation on values corresponding
to a reload cycle and to values associated with virgin compression.
122
0.197 H 2 dr
cv = (3.10)
t 50
Where Hdr is the drainage height (equal to one-half the average thickness of the
oedometer test specimen for each load increment for a double drained
specimen) and t50 is the time required to achieve 50 percent primary
consolidation.
For the square root of time method, the time for 90 percent primary
consolidation, t90, is used and cv is calculated according to:
0.848H 2 dr
cv = (3.11)
t 90
123
After the initial and boundary conditions are specified, a closed-form solution
can be obtained through separation of variables (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981):
∞ ⎡
2 ⎛ Z ⎞ − M 2Tv ⎤
u = ∆σ ∑ ⎢ sin ⎜⎜ M ⎟⎟e ⎥ (3.12)
⎢
N =0 ⎣ M ⎝ H dr ⎠ ⎦⎥
Where:
∆σ = Stress increment.
π
M = (2 N + 1) - an integer =1, 2, 3, etc.
2
Tv cvt - Dimensionless time factor.
= 2
H dr
This solution is in reasonable agreement with laboratory test results for a wide
range of soils. Therefore, it is widely used in engineering practice to forecast
compression rates and pore-water pressure in clays.
124
However, many researchers have tried to modify the Terzaghi's formulation
with some more realistic assumptions. Havel (2004) stated that "General theory
of the three-dimensional consolidation was proposed by Biot, in 1941. Biot
supposed that soil is a porous skeleton filled with pore fluid, where the porous
skeleton is assumed to be an isotropic elastic medium and pore fluid is
incompressible. According to the Terzaghi's classical theory, the strain-based
consolidation theory was developed by Janbu in 1960s ".
McVay and Nugyen (2004) stated that "Richart (1957) removed the small
strain assumption. Schiffman and Gibson (1964) took the variable permeability
and compressibility into account. Davis and Raymond (1965) derived an
equation based on the assumptions that the void ratio is linear with the
logarithm of effective stress and the decrease in permeability during the
consolidation process is proportional to the decrease in compressibility, that is,
coefficient of consolidation remains constant. Gibson, England and Hussey
(1967) derived an equation which allows finite strain with variable
permeability and compressibility".
125
Nugyen, 2004). Also, he himself preferred to distinguish between 'direct'
effects and 'secular' effects, where the latter refers to compression continuing
for a large number of years (Den Haan, 1996). However, a significant amount
of research has been done in order to correctly address and simulate creep
phenomenon for geomaterials, and to incorporate the intrinsic time effects into
the consolidation theory.
Havel (2004) stated that "In 1940, Taylor and Merchant re-examined the
classical theory and solved the problem of one-dimensional consolidation of
saturated clayey soils with the incorporation of the secondary consolidation, i.e.
prolonged deformation of the soil's skeleton. In 1942, Taylor introduced the so-
called hypothesis B. This theory assumed that, for the given load step,
secondary consolidation occurs due to plastic resistance and appears only after
the completion of primary consolidation, which is influenced by the continuing
effect of the previous load step. In 1953, Florin published his theory of the
consolidation of porous creeping saturated soils, which assumed a simultaneous
action of seepage and skeleton creep from the beginning of consolidation,
proceeding in accordance with the linear theory of hereditary creep for aging
materials. This theory was later confirmed by several experimental studies by
Gibson and Lo (1961), Lo (1961) etc".
126
Barden (1969) reported that the different mechanisms responsible for
secondary consolidation can be classified under three types:
1. Terzaghi (1941) and Taylor (1942) attributed secondary compression to the
readjustment of grains. The basic assumption for this mechanism is that
when a soil element is loaded, the total stress is shared by pressure in the
free pore-water, the plastic resistance in the highly viscous absorbed water
(film bond) and the solid to solid contacts between soil particles (grain
bonds). During secondary compression, since the excess pore-water
pressure is negligible, the total stress is share by film and grain bonds. The
pressure from the film is gradually transferred to the grain bond, and this
transferring process is associated with very slow viscous flow. When the
equilibrium state is reached, grain bonds support the applied load only.
2. Tan (1958) believed that the secondary compression is due to the jumping
of bonds formed by soil particles. Soil particles form a network, which can
be described as a "card house" with water in the voids, and contacts
between solids are treated as mechanical linkages. When the soil element is
loaded, the links are broken in certain locations, but due to the attractive
forces, they can be formed again in another stronger and more stable
structural arrangement. The process of breaking and reforming of bonds is
called "jumping bonds".
3. Adams (1965) and De Jong (1968) proposed a theory for secondary
compression specifically for peat. They recognized that there were two
levels of structure (macro and micro) in a peat element and that the
consolidation resulted from the expulsion of water from both the macro and
micro pores. The primary consolidation is due to the dissipation of macro-
pore water pressure, but the secondary compression is attributed to the
expelling of water from the micro-pores. Because of the permeability of the
micro-pores is much lower than that of the macro-pores, the process takes
much longer to finish.
127
Also, it is important to know that different definitions have been given to
describe the rate of secondary compression. The most popular are:
∆e
Cα = (3.13)
∆ log(t )
∆ε ver
and C `α = (3.14)
∆ log(t )
The first is called the secondary compression index (Mesri, 1973). The second
is secondary compression ratio (Ladd, 1971). The second is the expression of
the first normalized with respect to void ratio, which converts it to strain.
128
secondary consolidation, while Cα has been reported as independent of testing
temperature by Mesri (1973).
Raymond and Wahls (1976) based on the work of Ladd (1971) and others
concluded the following assumptions must hold true (Sobhan, 2007):
• Cα is independent of time (at least during the time of interest).
129
• Cα is independent of the thickness of soil layer.
• Cα is independent of LIR, as long as some primary consolidation
occurs.
• The ratio Cα/Cc is approximately constant for normally consolidated
clays over the normal ranges of engineering stresses.
130
Lee and Brawner (1963) supported hypothesis A with laboratory and field data.
This later was reconfirmed by Mesri and Choi (1985). However, Samson and
LaRochelle (1972) showed that the EOP void ratio in the field was smaller than
that in the laboratory sample which supported hypothesis B. Many researchers
(Leonards and Girault, 1961; Berry and Vickers, 1975; Hobbs, 1986; Kogure et
al., 1986; Olson, 1998; Robinson, 2003) have shown that both primary
consolidation and secondary compressions can take place simultaneously. So
far, no conclusive statement can be made about the validity of either A or
B (McVay and Nugyen, 2004).
Moreover, there are a lot of models that were used to simulate the consolidation
process for soils exhibiting secondary compression, as well as ones that have
been developed based on Rheological model specifically for peat (Gibson and
Lo, 1961; Barden, 1968; Berry and Poskitt, 1972). The most recent research on
modeling peat consolidation has been the work of Litus-Lan, (1992), Fox,
(1992), and den Haan, (1996).
That is, secondary compression index (Cα) can be obtained from the secondary
compression region of settlement versus log time curves. The settlement-time
curve for that sample loading closest to anticipated field loading should be used
for the secondary compression index. The secondary compression settlement in
an in-situ time increment ∆t for a stratum of thickness H is
131
Cα t
Ss = H log (3.15)
1 + eo tp
t
S s = C `α H log (3.16)
tp
132
t); Cα = ∂e ⁄ ∂logt; Cc= ∂e/∂ log σ`v; e = void ratio; t = time; and σ`v = effective
vertical stress. The graphical evaluation of Cα and Cc is described in detail by
Mesri and Castro (1987).
Fig. (3.18): e-log σ`-log t Plot showing relationship between Cα and Cc during
secondary compression (after Mesri and Goldlewski, 1977)
In a recent technical note, Mesri and Vardhanabhuti (2005) stated that reliable
laboratory and field observations of secondary compression of soils suggest
that:
• The secondary compression index Cα may remain constant over a long
period of time, such as the design life of most structure, and still result in
reasonable magnitudes of secondary settlement.
• In almost all cases of observed secondary compression behavior ∆e/∆t (and
therefore, ∆S/∆t) gradually decreases with time.
• There is no logical reason to expect Cα or ∆e/∆t to become zero. In other
words, under constant external conditions and constant soil composition,
there is no logical reason to expect a "final" or "ultimate" settlement.
• The values of Cα/Cc for each soil type are in a very narrow range (Table
3.2). The total range of values of Cα/Cc for all soils is in the range of 0.01 to
0.07.
133
Table (3.2): Values of Cα/Cc for Geotechnical Material:
Material Cα/Cc
Granular soils including rockfill 0.02 ± 0.01
Shale and mudstone 0.03 ± 0.01
Inorganic clays and silts 0.04 ± 0.01
Organic clays and silts 0.05 ± 0.01
Fibrous and amorphous peats 0.06 ± 0.01
134
According to Mesri and Ajlouni (2007), fibrous peat particles have a hollow
cellular structure largely full of water; one-third to two-thirds of water content
of fibrous peats is within the particles (Ohira, 1977; Landva and Pheeny, 1980).
The highly perforated peat particles are very permeable, very compressible, and
very bendable. Also, fibrous peat particles, which consist of fragments of long
stems, thin leaves, rootlets, cell walls, and fibers, often are quite large. Stem
diameters of 20 to 500 µm, leaf thicknesses of 10 to 15 µm, and width and
length of 100 to 1,200 µm are common ( Landva and Pheeney 1980; Landava
and La Rochelle 1983 ).
On the other hand, they concluded that the difference between the biochemical
composition of amorphous and fibrous peat particles is not a significant factor,
since the amorphous peats are the product of biochemical decomposition and
breakdown of fibrous peats and other plant remains, in addition to a significant
amount of inorganic matter. However, the organic grains of amorphous peats
are smaller and more or less equidimensional [e.g., Ng and Eischens (1983)].
As compared to fibrous peat deposits, the amorphous peat fabric is likely to
exist at lower void ratios and to display lower permeability anisotropy and
lower compressibility.
1. Texture:
The texture (amorphous-granular, fibrous) has a major effect on the
compressibility behavior of organic soil. Amorphous-granular soil compresses
in a different manner than fibrous soil. The compressibility behavior of
amorphous granular soil (amorphous peat and muck) is known to be similar
with clay soil, while the behavior of fibrous peat is different from mineral soil
because of different phase properties and microstructure (Edil, 2003). Berry
and Poskitt (1972) also realized a difference in compressibility between
135
amorphous granular and fibrous peat. In developing a theory of consolidation
for peat, they found it necessary to derive two separate models; one theory for
amorphous granular and a different one for fibrous peat. The two different
mechanism of compressibility behavior will be illustrated in the following
sections.
Taking into account the highly viscous water adsorbed around the soil particles,
amorphous granular peat exhibits a plastic structural resistance to compression,
and thus shows a similar rheological behavior to clay soils. It would seem
reasonable, therefore, to expect the Terzaghi (1941)-Taylor (1942) concept of
secondary compression of clays also to apply to amorphous granular peat. That
is, the nature of secondary compression is considered to be due to the gradual
readjustment of the soil grains into a more stable configuration following the
rupture of the soil structure that occurs during the primary stage. The rate at
which this process takes place is controlled by the highly viscous adsorbed
water surrounding each soil particle.
136
Fig. (3.19): Perry and Poskitt (1972) model for Fibrous peat based on the
concept of micro and macro pores.
It may be inferred, therefore, that fibrous peat has higher void ratio and
permeability, and consolidation proceeds more rapidly than that for humified
amorphous-granular soil (Karesniomi, 1972). Furthermore, the fine-fibrous
peat will show high compressibility than the coarse-fibrous peat (Kogure,
1999). On the other hand, as compared to fibrous peat deposits, the amorphous
peat will display lower compressibility (Mesri and Ajlouni, 2007) as shown in
Figure (3.20).
Fig. (3.20): Experimental void ratio-log effective pressure and void ratio-log
permeability for amorphous granular and fibrous peat (after Berry and Poskitt,
1972)
137
2. Permeability:
In its natural state, organic-rich soils have a high porosity and are therefore,
pervious. For this reason, the initial compression of organic-rich soils occurs
rapidly. The permeability of organic-rich soils is rapidly reduced as
compression proceeds. Even under moderate compressive loading, the
permeability reduction can be several orders of magnitude (see Fig. 3.20).
Thus, permeability is strongly influenced by compressibility, with permeability
dictating the rate at which water can be expelled from the peat (Wilson, 1963).
4. Organic content:
The organic content has a considerable effect on the compressibility. In
general, the greater the organic content the greater the water content, the void
ratio and the compressibility (Noto, 1991).
5. Ash content:
It has been found that mineral soil content is inversely proportional to
compressibility (Anderson and Hemstock, 1959). In addition, Rutledge and
Johnson (1958) found the rate of creep decreased with increasing mineral
content (McVay and Nugyen, 2004).
138
Fig. (3.21): Scanning Electron Microphotographs (SEM) of Middleton peat: (a)
Horizontal section x 40; (b) Horizontal section x 200; (c) Vertical section x
250; (d) Vertical section after compression under 766 KPa x 250; (e)
Transverse section of fiber x 800; (f) Longitudinal section of fiber x 1,700
(after Mesri et al., 1997)
139
6. Water content:
Water content is directly proportional to compressibility of organic soils and
peats as shown in Figure (3.22) introduced by Mesri et al., (1997). However,
the water content varies widely and may account for a range between 75% and
95% of volume (Kogure, 1999).
Fig (3.22): Values of natural water content and compression index for peats,
clays and silts (after Mesri et al., 1997).
7. Gas content:
Gas content affects the compressibility by reducing the area through which
water can flow. Thus, gas content varies inversely with compressibility
(McVay and Nugyen, 2004). In consolidation test, large initial compression and
an indistinct behavior of primary consolidation in time-compression relation
reflect the presence of gas. Most peats have about 5% to 10% gas (Moran et al.
1958, Lea and Brawner, 1963). This gas is a combination of entrapped air and
gas generated by organic decomposition.
140
3.7 Distinct Compressibility Characteristics of Organic Soils
Of interest is the distinct compressibility characteristics of organic soils; both
short term related to the dissipation of excess pore pressure, as well as long
term creep associated with either compression or rearrangement of the organic
particles. In the following, the distinct compressibility characteristics of organic
soils are outlined, in terms of one-dimensional oedometer testing, compression
curves, and compression parameters. Problems related to one-dimensional
consolidation testing of organic soils and analyzing compression curves will be
discussed in details.
Several test methods have been used to study the compressibility characteristics
of orgaic soils. The most popular one is the conventional incremental loading
(IL) oedometer test. Typically, laboratory multiple-stage-load (MSL)
oedometer tests are performed for a load-increment ratio (LIR) of unity and
load-increment duration (LID) of 24 hours. Among the advantages of
oedometer test is the relatively small size of specimen. The small specimen size
gives a reasonable consolidation time and the test can be extended to observe
the secondary compression. Many researchers reported that the test results
provide a reasonable estimate of the amount of settlement for structures or
embankments founded on organic deposits (Samson and La Rochelle, 1972;
Lefebvre et al., 1984).
141
Alternatively, constant-rate-of-strain (CRS) tests are conducted to obtain
equivalent information as generated by the MSL tests. In the constant rate of
strain (CRS) test, the loading applies, at fixed rate of strain έv, continuously
while measuring stress and pore pressures by transducers, thereby reducing
testing times from 1 to 2 weeks by IL oedometer to say 1 day by the CRS
consolidomter. While minimizing the testing time duration, information on the
creep behavior cannot be derived from the CRS tests. However, the CRS
consolidation test requires equipment that is not normally available in
laboratories. A discussion of the CRS and other consolidation test methods are
described in Head (1986).
Also, It is usually observed that the expulsion of water and gas occurs
relatively quickly compare to mineral soils; for highly organic materials,
primary consolidation may be completed in less than a minute in the early
increments (Samson and La Rochelle, 1972; Mesri et al., 1997, Santagata et al.,
2008). On the other hand, the final stages of compression may occur over long
period of time. This is because the permeability of organic soil decreases
drastically during compression due to large void ratio change as mentioned
above, and there is creep associated with particle realignment and compression.
However, the analysis of compression behavior of such materials presents
certain difficulties which will be discussed subsequently.
142
3.7.1.1 Problems Related to Conventional Test
Although more sophisticated consolidation tests are now available, oedometer
test is still recognized as the standard test for determining the consolidation
characteristics of soil. Advantages and disadvantages of oedometer test are
outlined by Head (1986). Some of the problems related to the conventional test
will be illustrated in the following:
• The rate of settlement is often underestimated, that is, the total settlement is
reached in a shorter time than that predicted from the test data. This is
largely due to the size of sample, which does not represent soil fabric and its
profound effect on drainage conditions (e.g. Lefebvre et al., 1984).
• The drainage in oedometer test is entirely vertical. As some soils are
strongly anisotropic, their properties, particularly drainage, are very
different in horizontal and vertical direction. Therefore, soil samples should
be tested in the vertical and horizontal directions to properly assess
anisotropy effects (e.g. Mesri et al, 1997).
• Besides the natural condition of the sample, sampling disturbance will have
a more pronounced effect on the results of the test done on small samples.
Therefore, specimen preparation should be executed with minimum
disturbance (e.g. Germaine, 2003).
• Drainage starts as soon as the load is applied. A uniform pore pressure may
not be developed throughout a sample, and the initial undrained
compression cannot be measured directly.
• There is no means of measuring excess pore water pressures, the dissipation
of which controls the consolidation process. Therefore the estimation of
compressibility is based solely on the change of height of the specimen.
• For standard test, the load is applied through a mechanical lever arm
system, thus measurement can be easily affected by sudden shock.
Excessive disturbance affects the e-log σ`v plot, gives low value of pre-
consolidation pressure and high coefficient of volume compressibility at
low stresses. Excessive disturbance also reduces the effect of secondary
compression which is a very important characteristic of soft soils.
143
• The boundary effect from the ring enhances the friction of the sample.
Friction reduces the compression during loading and reduces swelling
during unloading. Therefore, highly polished rings should be used with
suitable lubricant material.
• Highly organic soils (especially fibrous peats) are more prone to
decomposition during oedometer testing. Gas content and additional gas
generation also may complicate the interpretation of oedometer tests (Edil,
2003).
144
3.7.2 Compression Curves
As with mineral soils, silt and clay, the consolidation parameters of organic
soils are interpreted from the traditional compression curves; e(εv)-log t and
EOP e(εv)-log σ`v plots. However, there may be differences in the magnitudes of
various quantities measured but the general shape of the consolidation curves
appears reasonably similar (Edil, 1997).
Fig. (3.23): Types of compression versus logarithm of time curve derived from
consolidation test (Leonards and Girault, 1962).
145
While the separation of primary and secondary compression from type I curve
is relatively simple because it follows that the secondary compression occurs at
a slower constant rate after the dissipation of excess pore water pressure, it is
very difficult to identify the end of primary consolidation (EOP) of Type ІІ and
Type ІІІ curves based on conventional curve-fitting procedures. Also, Type ІІ
and Type ІІІ curves are characterized by the rapid primary consolidation, and
have no constant Cα value.
146
• A primary strain component εp, which occurs at relatively high rate and
continues for a short period of time to tp due to expulsion of water; and
generally accounts for 50% of the total settlement.
• Secondary strain component εs, which results from a linear increase of strain
with the logarithm of time for a number of log cycles of time until a time ts,
after which the time rate of compression increases significantly. Secondary
strain occurs under small to negligible excess pore water pressure.
• The term tertiary strain component εt, is introduced to designate the
increasing coefficient of secondary compression with time, which continues
indefinitely until the whole compression process ceases.
Fig. (3.24): Vertical strain versus logarithmic of time curve of fibrous peat for
one-dimensional consolidation (Dhowain and Edil, 1980)
That is, the curves obtained from the oedometer tests and the behavior
exhibited by such materials show some differences compared to the behavior of
silt and clay deposits. Therefore, the analysis of compression behavior of such
materials presents certain difficulties when the conventional methods are
applied. These difficulties are mainly concerned with:
147
• The end of primary (EOP), tp, is hard to detect due to the rapid and smooth
transition between primary and secondary compression (Dhowian and Edil,
1980; McVay and Nugyen, 2004). Typically Type ІІ curve could be
encountered in early load increments in the laboratory (Edil and den Haan,
1994; Mesri et al., 1997). Also, Type ІІI curve is expected for relatively
small pressure increments that follow sustained secondary compression
(Mesri et al., 1997).
• Consolidation tests indicated that the secondary compression rate is not
constant with time (Dhowian and Edil, 1980; Fox et al, 1992; Mesri et al.,
1997; Colleselli and Cortellazzo, 1998; McVay and Nugyen, 2004).
• There is possibility that secondary compression start before the dissipation
of excess PWP is completed (Leonards and Girault, 1961; Sridharan et al.,
1995; Robinson, 2003).
148
dissipation. The same was concluded by Colleselli and Cortellazzo (1998) for
Italian peaty soil.
Also, the existence of tertiary compression was questioned, did it really exist in
the field or was it a laboratory effect? Samson (1985) reported an increase in
secondary compression rate, for embankment built over peat soils, after 8 years
from the end of construction. According to McVay and Nugyen (2004), the
existence of tertiary compression was reported by Candler and Chartres (1988)
under three trial embankments underlain by peaty soils. To the opposite, many
researchers (Edil and Dhowian, 1979; Hansbo, 1991; Fox and Edil, 1994)
argued that this part of compression can be neglected because it generally
started after the design life of structure (Yulindasari, 2006).
Also, they stated that "The 'tertiary creep' concept should be reconsidered in
light of tests result, which suggests that the laboratory favor termed 'tertiary
creep' by Fox et al. (1992) may actually represent biodegradation of peat in
uncontrolled laboratory environment." They concluded that unless proper
control over ambient conditions is exercised during exploring long-term
behavior of peat, such measurements during the secondary consolidation stage
may result in misleading interpretations of secondary compression behavior.
Later on, Fox et al. (1999) confirmed experimentally this conclusion.
149
Moreover, Mesri et al. (1997) concluded that the secondary compression
behavior of peat is completely explained and predicted by Cα/Cc law of
compressibility, and this was confirmed experimentally and from field
measurements (Lefebvre et al., 1984; Samson, 1985; Mesri, 1986, Lefebvre,
1986, Mesri et al., 1994b). This means that Cα may remains constant, decreases
or increases with time, in the range of σ`v at which Cc remains constant,
decreases or increases with σ`v respectively. However, Fox et al. (1999)
confirmed experimentally this conclusion.
Furthermore, to stress this fact, Mesri and Ajlouni (2007) illustrated two εv-logt
curves for Meddleton fibrous peat as shown in Figure (3.25). One specimens
was loaded to a consolidation pressure near the preconsolidation pressure σ`p;
its primary consolidation is completed in 2 min due to large cv in
recompression range, and Cα increases with time since Cc rapidly increasing
with effective vertical stress. The other specimen was loaded to the
compression range; its primary consolidation is completed in 45min due to
significant decrease in cv. Also, at this stress range Cc is constant with effective
vertical stress, and Cα remains contant with time.
150
Fig. (3.25):Examples of secondary compression behavior of Middleton peat at
a consolidation pressure corresponding to (a) σ`v/ σ`p=1; (b) σ`v/ σ`p=3.2 (after
Mesri and Ajlouni, 2007)
151
3.7.3 Compression Parameters of Organic Soils
As with mineral soils, silts and clays, the settlement parameters of organic
soils, also, can be determined from one-dimensional consolidation tests on
undisturbed samples of these soils. The e(εv)-log t curves are used to obtain the
rate of primary and secondary consolidation; coefficient of consolidation (cv)
and coefficient of secondary compression (Cα). On the other hand, semi-log
plots of EOP e(εv)-log σ`v allow an estimation of preconsolidation pressure
(σ`p), and also to obtain compression indexes; compression index (Cc),
recompression index (Cr), and swelling index (Cs). However, the formulation
developed for clay compression can be used to predict the magnitude and rate
of settlement (Edil, 1997, Mesri and Ajlouni, 2007).
152
Preconsolidation Pressure σ`p:
Generally, desiccation, mechanical unloading, water table fluctuation, or aging
including secondary compression are all known to cause overconsolidation of
soil.
For surficial organic deposits, because of their typical locations, i.e., near the
surface, organic soils generally have small to medium maximum past pressures.
Landva and La Rochelle (1983) reported that a 2 m thick packed snow could
apply a pressure of 8 kPa. It is reported that the preconsolidation pressure, σ`p
of Quebec, Canada, is 0.03 to 0.08 kg/cm2, considerably smaller (Lefebvre et
al., 1984). Also, Kogure (1999) reported that σ`p obtained from the
consolidation tests, in Japan, is generally from 0.05 to 0.4 kg/cm2. Moreover,
sometimes cannot be detected from the results of consolidation test (Mesri et
al., 1997). On the other hand, buried organic deposits usually display slight to
moderate overconsolidation ratio (e.g. Mesri et al., 1997; Coutinho et al, 1998)
Kogure and Ohira (1977) developed an empirical correlation between σ`p and
in situ void ratio eo for surficial peat deposits. A correlation between σ`p and eo
for peats based on compression data of Middleton peat and James Bay peat
introduced by Mesri and Ajlouni, (2007), together with Kogure and Ohira
(1977) data, is shown in Figure (3.27).
153
Fig. (3.27): Relationship between preconsolidation pressure and in-situ void
ratio eo for peat deposit (Kogure and Ohira, 1977) as well as σ`v versus e
relationship resulting from compression of Meddleton and James Bay peats
(after Mesri and Ajlouni, 2007).
154
range from about 0.5 to 0.7 kg/cm2 of the applied consolidation pressure; in the
range from 2 to 4 times of the preconsolidation pressure, σ`p, measured. Also, it
will be seen that the variation of Cc with applied pressure is small for low
values of initial void ratio and most significant for large initial void ratios.
Therefore, the initial void ratio appears as the most significant factor such that
the compression index increasing regularly with the initial void ratio (Lefebvre
et al., 1984). However, Kogure concluded that if the e-log σ`v is not a straight-
line; the maximum slope of the curve is regarded Cc value of the organic soil.
Also, the e-log σ`v curves, for organic-rich soils, show a steep slope indicating a
high value of compression index Cc. Published data on Cc ranges from 2.5 to 15
for peat, 1 to 9 for muck, and 0.1 to 1.6 for organic silt and clay, compared with
that of clay of only 0.2-0.8. Lefebvre et al. (1984) concluded that the variation
reflects not only the nonhomogeneity of the material but also the difficulty of
defining Cc on the e-log σ`v curve.
155
structure of the soil. Composition and structure control both the in-situ void
ratio at which a soil comes to equilibrium and the compressibility after the soil
structure yields at the preconsolidation pressure (Hanrahan 1954; Landva and
La Rochelle 1983).
Figure (3.29) is a plot of Cc evaluated from EOP e versus log σ`v relationship in
the consolidation pressure range of σ`p to 2σ`p versus natural water content wo.
It includes Cc data for Middleton peat, James Bay peat, and peats from the
literature, including from Canada, Japan and the United States, as well as for
reference, for soft clay and silt deposits (Mesri and Ajlouni, 2007). It appears
that as organic content (OC) increases, void ratio, water content, and Cc
increases. Howevr, it should be noted that when Cc is estimated from an
empirical correlation, rather than from undisturbed sampling and laboratory
testing, the EOP settlement of a peat sub-layer is often computed assuming that
the peat deposit is normally consolidated and young and is setting on the EOP
compression curve.
Fig. (3.29): Empirical correlation between compression index, Cc, and natural
water content, wo , for peats, organic soils as well as soft clay and silt deposits
(after Mesri and Ajlouni, 2007)
156
Furthermore, reported values for Cr/Cc for fibrous peat are in the range of 0.1 to
0.3 (Mesri and Ajlouni, 2007), while for amorphous organic soils are in the
range of 0.1 to 0.2 similar to that of silt and clay deposits. Also, the swelling
index, Cs = ∆e ⁄ ∆log σ`v, increases with overconsolidation ratio [OCR = σ`v
(max) ⁄ σ`v], and increases slightly with the decrease in σ`v (max) from which
unloading takes place (Yamaguchi et al., 1985b; Mesri et al., 1997).
Based on the above mentioned empirical correlations [(Figure (3.27) & Figure
(3.29)], Mesri and Ajlouni (2007) suggest that an appropriate equation for EOP
settlement of organic soil is
Cc C σ `p σ `vf
Sc = H o [ r log ` + log ` ] (3.17)
1 + eo Cc σ vo σ p
Additionally, den Haan (1997) reported that the relationship between initial
void ratio (eo) and natural water content (wo) for organic soils could be
expressed by
0.116
⎧ w + 0.88 ⎫
eo = 30.65⎨ o ⎬ − 30 (3.18)
⎩ 1.12 ⎭
157
Compared with mineral soils, the duration of primary consolidation (tp) for
organic deposits is relatively short due to the high initial permeability. In most
field situations primary consolidation of peat is completed within a few weeks
or months. However, the coefficient of consolidation cv, for organic-rich soils,
varies as a function of stress level; it decreases with an increase in effective
stress above the apparent preconsolidation pressure (σ`p). Therefore, primary
consolidation of organic soils proceeds slower than is predicted using a
constant initial coefficient of consolidation (Mesri et al., 1997).
158
This can be observed in the tests on the intact natural soil, in which the duration
of primary consolidation tp varied from increment to increment: from less than
a minute in the early increments, to approximately a day at the maximum stress
(Santagata et al., 2008). Lea and Browner (1963) indicated a significant
decrease of coefficient of consolidation (cv) during application of pressure from
10 to 100 kPa. The significant reduction factor of 5-100 is attributed to the
reduction of permeability due to the appreciation of pressure. Also, Mesri and
Ajlouni, (2007) indicated that the values of cv at σ`p for fibrous peats are at 20
to 100 m²/year and decrease by a factor of 10 to 20 as consolidation pressure
increases to 5 σ`p. In the recompression range, the cv of fibrous peats can be as
high as 500 m²/year. However, this decrease is more marked in the soils which
have higher organic content (Farrell et al., 1994) as shown in Figure (3.31).
159
al., 2008) as compared to Ck/Cc =1.0 for a large number of soft clay and silt
deposits.
Furthermore, Mesri and Ajlouni, (2007) indicated that the dramatic decrease in
cv for organic-rich soil is expected due to the low values of Ck/Cc. This low
values mean that:
• A significant decrease in permeability (Mesri and Rokhsar, 1974) is
associated with any increase in effective stress in organic soil.
• During the consolidation process, the amount of water to be expelled
remains high (high Cc), while the flow channels that discharge the water
become rapidly constricted (low Ck).
According to Huat (2004), Oikawa and Igarashi (1997) propose the following
equations for calculating cv. The only input needed for these equations is the
natural water content, without having to do the consolidation test.
[
e f = 2.47 1 − 1 / exp(2.91 / p )
0.39
]w
o
[
0.85 1−1 / exp (1.85. p )0.45 ] (3.19)
⎡1.51 ⎤ ⎡ eo + e f ⎤ 1.12
log cv = ⎢ + 20⎥ ⎢ ⎥− + log( p − p o ) − 1.06 (3.20)
⎦ (wo − 0.21)
0.68
⎣ wo ⎦⎣ 2
Where ef and eo are final and initial void ratios, wo is the water content, and p is
the consolidation pressure in kg/cm2, cv is in cm2/sec. Figure (3.32) shows the
plot of water content and void ratio from Oikawa and Igarashi.
160
Fig. (3.32): Relationship between initial water content and void ratio (Oikawa
and Igarashi, 1997)
Also, Mesri et al. (1997) have identified that creep compression of peat
deposits is more significant than that of other geotechnical material due to the
following three reasons:
• Peat deposits exist at very high natural water contents and void ratios
because plant matters constitute peat particles are light and hold a
considerable amount of water. Peat grains, plates, fibers, or elements are
light because the specific gravity of organic matter is relatively small (1.5 -
1.6), and because peat particles are porous. Because of high in-situ void
161
ratios, peat deposits display high values of compression index Cc, and Cα is
directly related to Cc then peat deposits display high Cα (see Table 3.2).
• Among all geotechnical materials, peats have the highest value of Cα/Cc.
The most detailed measurements and existing reliable data suggest a range
of Cα/Cc = 0.06 ± 0.01 for peat deposits. It appears that the peat deposits
with highly deformable organic particles display the highest values of
Cα/Cc, compared with granular soils of least deformable silicate particles
which display the lowest values (Cα/Cc = 0.02 ± 0.01).
• Duration for primary consolidation for peats is relatively short due to the
high initial permeability. The initial permeability of peat is typically 100-
1,000 times the initial permeability of soft clay and silt deposits and the
initial coefficient of consolidation of peat, cv is 10-100 times larger. Hence,
secondary compression is significant in peat because it appears soon after
the completion of construction loading.
162
Fig. (3.33): Relationship between Cα and σ`v (after Kogure, 1999)
163
values may be used to assess actual values from laboratory tests or for
preliminary analyses.
Cc Cα t
Ss = H o log (3.21)
1 + eo Cc tp
In the general case where Cc is not constant with consolidation pressure and Cα
is not constant with time, a simple graphical construction is used to compute
secondary settlement using the EOP e versus log σ`v together with Cα/Cc. An
example was introduced by Mesri et al. (1997) for Middleton peat in terms of
vertical strain, εv and is shown in Figure (3.35). In Cα/Cc, Cc = ∆e ⁄ ∆logσ`v
denotes the slope of the e versus log σ`v curve in recompression as well as the
compression range. At a number of points on εv versus log σ`v curve
corresponding to t⁄tp = 1 (i.e. EOP εv versus log σ`v), the slope Cc ⁄ (1+eo) is
calculated and is used together with Cα/Cc to compute Cα ⁄ (1+eo), which is the
vertical strain increment for one log time cycle of secondary compression, ∆εv.
At t⁄tp=10, primary plus secondary vertical strains is [εv]t=[εv]tp+∆εv. The
resulting (εv, σ`v) points are connected to obtain εv versus logσ`v at t⁄tp=10,
which is in turn used together with Cα/Cc to construct the εv versus log σ`v at
164
t⁄tp= σ`v 100, and so on (Mesri and Shahien, 1993). It has to be noted that Cc
denotes slopes of the e versus log σ`v relationship throughout both the
recompression and compression ranges.
Near the preconsolidation pressure, the slope of εv versus log σ`v, i.e., Cc/(1+
eo), significantly increases with the increase in σ`v. According to the Cα/Cc
concept of compressibility, because Cα/Cc is a constant Cα/(1+ eo) is expected
to significantly increase with time. A similar increase in Cα with time is
expected for relatively small pressure increments that follow sustained
secondary compression. When a soil is subjected to secondary compression, it
develops a preconsolidation pressure, σ`p, in the sense that upon reloading it
displays a recompression to compression response (Leonards and Ramiah
1959; Bjerrum 1967; Mesri and Choi 1979; Mesri 1993) as shown in Figure
(3.36).
165
Fig. (3.36): Secondary compression behavior of Meddleton peat for pressure
increment that ends near preconsolidation pressure resulting from secondary
compression aging (after Mesri et al., 1997)
166
replaced prior to foundation construction. For embankments and foundations
that are constructed over organic soil or peat layer, primary settlement will
occur over a relatively short time (i.e., within a few days or months), and the
majority of the total settlements will result from the long-term secondary
compression of these soils. Therefore, secondary settlement will be the
dominant component of settlement during the design life of the structure and
should be evaluated as mentioned above.
In many organic deposits, the underlying soil may be more dangerous from the
standard point of stability and settlement than the organic soil. Seldom is the
compressible soil layer only organic soil. In general, organic deposits consist of
layers of peat, organic clays and soft normally consolidated materials with
different consolidation characteristics, which may not drain as quickly as
organic soil. These materials may develop high excess pore pressures, resulting
in loss of effective stress and instability. Consequently, correct estimation of
time versus settlement behavior necessitates simultaneous estimates of
consolidation and creep for different materials.
167
CHAPTER 4
RESEARCH PROGRAM
4.1 Introduction
Predicting and dealing with settlements of organic soil has been a problem for
highway and foundation engineers. Therefore, the main objectives set forth for
this research were: (i) To expand knowledge of the various types of organic
soils, their classification systems, and their distribution in Egypt and around the
world; (ii) To recommend a suitable classification system of organic soil to be
used in Egypt; (iii) To determine physical, index, chemical and engineering
properties of the various types of organic soils found in Egypt and compare the
results with those found around the world; (iv) To correlate various types of
organic soils and their index and engineering properties; (v) To focus the study
toward evaluating compressibility characteristics of the organic soils found in
Egypt in order to devise suitable design parameters for settlement analysis; and
(vi) To assess the extent of problematic nature of organic soils in Egypt, in
term of compressibility, compared with those highly compressible surficial
deposits typically encountered all over the world. This chapter describes the
methodology used to achieve these objectives.
168
properties. The distinct engineering behaviors of the various types of organic
soils, namely in terms of permeability, shear strength and compressibility
characteristics were demonstrated and the available published data were
compiled and categorized for comparisons.
The background was used to develop the hypothesis adopted for this research:
that is, in spite of physical, index, and engineering properties of the various
types of organic soils are highly variable and significantly different from those
of inorganic soils, however, the same fundamental mechanisms and factors
determine the behavior and properties of both inorganic soils and organic soils
(Samson and La Rochelle, 1972; Lefebvre et al., 1984; Mesri et al, 1997; Mesri
and Ajlouni, 2007; Santagata, et al, 2008).
169
structural arrangement of the organic soils encountered. The test results were
compared with published data and correlations between different indexes
properties were investigated (Chapter 6).
4.2 Sampling
Six boreholes were executed in Robaomaah primary school site and four
boreholes were executed in Ezbet El-Domyati primary school site, in order to
collect a sufficient number of undisturbed organic soil’s samples. All boreholes
were executed to a depth of 15.0 - 20.0 ms to explore the nature of upper and
lower clayey deposits.
170
junction of the shoe and sampler tube. The sampler, therefore, has a 31% area
ratio, outer clearance of 3.6%, and an inside clearance of 1.5%, which is
acceptable for a thick-walled open-drive sampler (ECP 202/5-2001). The
sampler head incorporates vents and a ball valve assembly to allow air or water
to leave the top of the tube as soil enters its base. The ball valve is also
intended to improve the sampler retention by preventing air or water re-
entering the top of the tube if the sample starts to slide out. The lengths of the
tube were 0.5 m and 0.9 m which dictates the length of sample recovered.
Drill rod
Water port
Sampler head
Pin
Ball valve
Threads
110
mm
Plastic tube
101
mm
Threads
Cutting shoe
99.5
mm
114
mm
171
The following is a summary of the sampling procedures implemented at each
borehole test location:
• The soil was excavated using Geomashina B-150 drilling rig and single
core-barrels 3.5-inch diameter, and disturbed soil samples were collected.
• The sampler needs a borehole of about 150 mm diameter. When the
sampling position was reached, the borehole was enlarged using 6-inch
flight auger, then flushed with bentonite mud and cleaned in order to
minimize the amount of disturbed material left in the base of the hole before
sampling.
• The sampler was lowered to the base of the hole and driven into the soil by
repeatedly lifting the SPT sliding hammer 10-15 cm and allowing it to fall.
The distance moved by the sampler head during the drive was recorded.
• The sampler was left in the soil for few minutes to increase the adhesion
between sample and plastic tube, then was rotated about 360° for 2 times in
order to shear the soil at its base, then pulled gently out of the soil.
• After extraction of the sampler, the cutting shoe and driving head were
carefully removed. A small quantity of soil was removed from either end of
the tube, and was kept as representative disturbed samples. The ends of the
sample were waxed, and the plastic tube was labeled as shown in Figure
(4.2a).
The three organic soil layers encountered were named after their specific
locations. The upper organic soil layer of Robaomaah-Mahmoudia was named
as “RU”, the lower one was named as “RL”, while the organic soil layer of
Ezbet El-Domyati-Motobes was named as “D”.
Thirty two undisturbed organic soils’ samples were collected from the two
sites. Nine undisturbed samples from the upper layer of Robaomaah primary
school site (RU), eight undisturbed samples from the lower layer (RL), and
fifteen undisturbed samples from Ezbet El-Domyati primary school site (D).
172
All samples were stored in wooden boxes (Figure 4.2b), separated from each
other by straw, and carefully transported to the laboratory. Storage of samples
was at room temperature, and the humidity was controlled by daily watering
the straw between samples. All tests involved in this study were done within
six months after sampling process in order to minimize the effect of
biodegradation. Also, twenty liters of groundwater were gathered from every
site for chemical analysis and to be used instead of distilled water in
consolidation test to keep up with the same environmental conditions as in
nature.
(a) (b)
Fig. (4.2): (a) Labeled samples, (b) Wooden boxes and groundwater sample.
173
4.3.1 Physical and Index Properties
The water content of all soil samples was obtained in accordance with ECP
202/2 (2/2/2). Measurements of the loss on ignition (LOI) were conducted
following ASTM D2974 – 00 on all soil samples using muffle furnace shown
in Figure (4.3). The specific gravity (Gs) of representative soil samples from
every layer was determined following ASTM D854-02. The initial void ratio
(eo) was calculated based on the height of solids method for each of the
specimens used for consolidation tests. The unit weights (γ) also, were
calculated based on measured weights of known volumes for each of the
specimens used for engineering tests. The value of Atterberg limits for the
various soil samples were determined following ECP 202/2 (2/3, 2/4, 2/5). The
particle size distribution, of representative organic soil samples from every
layer, was obtained through a combination of wet sieving and hydrometer test
following ASTM D422.
Fig. (4.3): Muffle furnace and porcelain crucibles used for LOI determination.
174
4.3.2 Chemical Properties
The acidity of almost all organic soil samples was determined by pH meter
following ECP 202-01 (2/12/3A). Chemical analysis was conducted to
determine the injurious chemical compounds of groundwater and organic soils
encountered (pH, sulfates content and chlorides content) following ECP 202-01
(2/12/1, 2/12/2, 2/12/3A & 1/12/8). Three representative organic soil samples
from every stratum and one groundwater sample for each site were chemically
analyzed.
175
Fig. (4.4): Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) used for micrograph
production.
176
4.4 Engineering Properties
Engineering characteristics evaluated in this research include undrained shear
strength, permeability, and compressibility. The test results were analyzed and
also compared with published data.
The undrained shear strength obtained by those two methods were compared
and correlated relative to each other. Also, the normalized undrained shear
strength relative to preconsolidation pressure (σ`p) was determined (Su/σ`p) for
both methods.
(a) (b)
177
4.4.2 Permeability
Six falling-head permeability measurements were carried out during the
secondary compression stage of IL oedometer tests (Tavenas et al, 1983; Mesri,
1997) using special consolidation cells as shown in Figure (4.6). The values of
the coefficient of permeability in the vertical direction, kv, were determined for
three samples that were cut with their axes parallel to the vertical direction. The
values of the coefficient of permeability in the horizontal direction, kh, were
determined, for the same three previous samples, for specimens that were cut
with their axes perpendicular to the vertical direction and from the following 10
cm of the previous specimen, in order to investigate an isotropy of
compressibility and permeability characteristics. The great advantage of such
tests lies in the ability of measuring, rapidly, the law of variation of k with the
void ratio (e) under increasing effective vertical stresses (Ck = ∆e/ log k).
Fig. (4.6): Schematic of the special consolidation cell used for consolidation
and permeability tests, through the falling-head permeability test.
178
4.4.3 Compressibility
A comprehensive laboratory testing protocol was developed and followed to
achieve the main objectives of this research which were: (i) To conduct
laboratory consolidation tests on undisturbed soil samples for evaluating the
primary and secondary compression behavior; (ii) To estimate compression
parameters under simulated loading scenarios usually encountered; (iii) To
investigate the effect of different loading scenarios on the long-term behavior
of organic soils; (iv) To establish the unique Cα /Cc relationship for organic
soils in Egypt, so that the short term data can be used to predict the secondary
compression index for the calculation of long-term settlement in an effort to
avoid expensive and time-consuming laboratory tests in the future when
dealing with similar subsurface conditions; (v) To correlate the compression
parameters with easily determined index properties, so that may be used for
settlement analysis at the planning stage before a detailed subsurface
investigation is carried out; (vi) To assess the extent of problematic nature of
organic soils in Egypt, in term of compressibility, regarding the usual loading
scenarios encountered; (vii) To compare the results with published data.
179
Table (4.1): Details of incremental loading scenarios of consolidation tests:
Test
Test description Designation Loading Scheme
No.
1 Sample was incrementally
loaded to the end of primary
(EOP) consolidation tp (IL+FS)V
0
3 Sample was incrementally
loaded to the end of primary 10
V ertical Strain, εv ( % )
the coefficient of permeability in
(IL+FS)V 30
compression stage
50
60
70
10 100 1000 10000
4 For the same previous sample, Vertical Effective Stress, σ'v ( kPa)
180
Table (4.1): Details of incremental loading scenarios of consolidation tests
(cont'd):
Test
Test description Designation Loading Scheme
No.
6 Sample was incrementally
loaded till σ`p then unloaded 0
V ertical Strain, εv ( % )
incrementally unloaded again. 30
swelling index
70
10 100 1000 10000
Vertical Effective Stress, σ'v ( kPa)
effect in recompression 60
70
10 100 1000 10000
Vertical Effective Stress, σ'v ( kPa)
181
4.4.3.2 Preparation of Samples
To prepare each specimen for consolidation test with minimum disturbance,
MIT procedure for obtaining test specimen from tube sample recommended by
Germaine (2003) was followed (Ladd and DeGroot, 2003), as illustrated in
Figure (4.7).
182
10. The specimen was separated from the top and bottom porous disks by
Whatman No. 54 filter paper, and then assembled with capping head in the
consolidometer.
Fig. (4.7): MIT procedure for obtaining test specimen from tube sample
(Germaine, 2003)
183
(a) (b)
Fig. (4.8): a) Tube sample cutting apparatus, b) The rotating trimming table.
Loads were then applied using the loading scheme detailed earlier. The test was
conducted with load increment ratio (LIR) of one. The applied pressures were
10, 25, 50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1600, and 3200 kPa. Deformations were
recorded at time intervals of approximately 0.1, 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 15, and 30
min, and 1, 2, 4, 8 and 24 h. For the 6 tests where one increment was allowed to
undergo secondary compression at constant stress for 1-week, the
incrementally loading sequence re-started with small suitable loads and also
184
with LIR = 1. Figure (4.9) shows the assembly of the six tabletop load devices
and consolidometers in use.
185
consolidation; coefficient of consolidation (cv) and coefficient of secondary
compression (Cα) were derived.
On the other hand, semi-log plots of ε-log σ` were used for estimation of
preconsolidation pressure (σ`p), over consolidation ratio (OCR) and also to
obtain compression parameters; compression ratio (Cc`), recompression ratio
(Cr`), and swelling ratio (Cs`). Also, coefficient of volume compressibility (mv)
and constrained modulus (D=1/mv) were computed.
Computation of the initial void ratio was dependent upon initial height, weight
of the solids and specific gravity of specimen using the height of solid method.
Computed initial void ratio (eo) was used also to obtain compression
coefficients; compression index (Cc), recompression index (Cr), and swelling
index (Cs).
186
CHAPTER 5
TEST RESULTS
5.1 Introduction
This chapter reports the results of the experimental program carried out on
organic soil’s samples obtained from two sites of pre-planned primary schools
located at West-Delta. One site, located at Robaomaah village – Mahmoudia -
Bohira governorate, has two stratums: shallow one (RU) at depth 4.0-6.5 m and
deep one (RL) at depth 10.0-14.0 m. The other, located at Ezbet El-Domyati –
Motoubes - Kafr -Elsheikh governorate, has a deep stratum (D) at depth 8.0-
12.0 m.
187
Table (5.1): Physical and index properties of organic soil samples of Robaomaah school-Mahmoudia
Bulk Dry
Mean Organic Moisture Specific Void Degree of Consistancy Limits (Oven
Sample BH Unit Unit pH Consistancy Limits
Site Location Depth (m) Depth Content Content Gravity Ratio Saturation Dried)
No. No. Weight Weight Level
RU-1 2 5.10 - 5.80 5.45 19.54 96.92 - - - 13.40 6.81 7.5 178.50 48.50 130.00
RU-2 4.70 - 5.50 5.10 11.86 89.00 2.46 2.513 100 14.70 7.78 - 140.00 51.00 89.00 55.00 29.00 26.00
3
RU-3 5.70 - 6.20 5.95 7.63 56.85 - 1.674 100 16.51 10.53 7.4 92.00 27.50 64.50
RU-8 4.60 - 5.30 4.95 12.52 81.83 2.6 1.88 100 15.57 8.56 7.1 154.50 34.20 120.30
4
RU-9 5.40 - 6.10 5.75 11.66 78.86 2.52 2.302 100 15.32 8.57 7.4 171.50 55.20 116.30
RU-13 4.00 - 4.80 4.40 11.60 87.99 - 2.729 100 14.50 7.71 7.4 145.00 35.20 109.80
5
188
RU-14 4.90 - 5.70 5.30 22.46 114.26 - - - 12.21 5.71 7.5 190.00 67.20 122.80
RU-15 4.50 - 5.30 4.90 15.83 91.72 2.36 2.51 100 14.73 7.69 7.4 159.00 40.20 118.80 73.00 33.00 40.00
6
Robaomaah -
Mahmoudia RU-16 5.30 - 6.10 5.70 29.10 137.60 - - - 12.92 5.44 7.5 173.50 44.20 129.30
RL-4 10.40 - 10.70 10.55 36.60 139.02 - - - 11.37 4.76 7.6 257.00 126.30 130.70
RL-5 3 11.00 - 11.30 11.15 66.37 251.68 - 4.484 95.3 10.85 3.09 7.6 342.00 114.20 227.80
RL-6 12.10 - 12.55 12.30 62.38 272.27 - 5.094 100 11.30 3.04 7.2 389.00 265.50 123.50
RL-10 11.00 - 11.45 11.20 56.23 209.43 - - - 11.48 3.71 7.1 293.00 86.20 206.80
RL-11 4 11.50 - 11.75 11.60 65.54 248.27 - 4.516 100 11.37 3.27 6.9 393.00 214.20 178.80
RL-12 12.50 - 13.25 12.85 54.33 213.14 1.6 5.311 98.4 11.18 3.57 7.2 324.00 150.00 174.00
RL-17 10.00 - 10.70 10.35 41.66 158.20 1.9 3.334 100 12.42 4.81 - 227.00 143.00 84.00 58.21 NP -
6
RL-18 12.40 - 12.70 12.55 68.76 283.76 - 4.306 98.5 11.14 2.90 7.5 381.00 225.00 156.00
Table (5.2): Physical and index properties of organic soil samples of Ezbet El-Domyati school-Motoubes
Bulk Dry
Mean Organic Moisture Specific Void Degree of Consistancy Limits (Oven
Sample BH Unit Unit pH Consistancy Limits
Site Location Depth (m) Depth Content Content Gravity Ratio Saturation Dried)
No. No. Weight Weight Level
D-1 8.75 - 9.55 9.15 51.04 247.70 - - - 11.50 3.31 5.8 262.00 95.60 166.40
D-2 9.65 - 10.30 9.95 76.45 352.85 1.69 5.668 100 10.88 2.40 6.2 510.00 312.00 189.00
1
D-3 10.30 - 10.90 10.60 75.48 340.55 - - - 10.01 2.29 6.4 469.00 288.80 180.20
D-4 11.00 - 11.90 11.45 28.47 173.10 - - - 12.42 4.55 5.6 416.00 268.40 147.60
D-5 8.45 - 9.25 8.85 48.80 245.99 1.86 4.555 100 11.29 3.26 6.3 413.00 256.00 157.00
189
D-6 9.30 - 10.20 9.75 67.10 309.30 - - - 10.60 2.59 5.6 418.00 260.80 157.20
D-7 10.25 - 11.15 10.70 77.42 352.25 1.69 6.238 100 11.00 2.43 - 400.00 270.00 130.00 94.13 NP
Ezbet El-
Domyati - D-8 8.05 - 8.90 8.45 64.76 294.26 1.54 6.171 100 11.22 2.85 5.4 352.00 146.00 206.00
Motoubes
D-9 8.90 - 9.80 9.35 56.29 288.33 - - - 11.11 2.86 6.1 455.00 235.70 219.30
3
D-10 9.85 - 10.75 10.30 65.15 337.05 - - - 10.40 2.38 6.3 492.00 333.30 158.70
D-11 10.75 - 11.65 11.20 55.54 294.70 - 5.837 100 11.55 2.93 6.6 224.50 66.50 157.90
D-12 8.15 - 9.05 8.60 66.81 302.17 - - - 10.49 2.61 5.7 221.00 80.00 141.00
D-13 9.05 - 9.95 9.50 70.13 340.12 1.71 5.631 98 10.79 2.45 6.2 449.00 233.30 215.70
4
D-14 9.95 - 10.45 10.20 74.59 355.97 - - - 10.14 2.22 5.8 547.00 322.70 224.30
D-15 10.45 - 11.05 10.75 62.84 329.68 - - - 10.13 2.36 6.3 484.00 277.20 206.80
5.2.1 Organic Soil’s Description
Data from the six boreholes drilled in the Robaomaah school site – Mahmoudia
- Bohira governorate indicate two stratums of organic soil; shallow stratum
(RU) extending between 4.0-6.5 m, and deep stratum (RL) extending between
10.0-14.0 m. The RU stratum is overlaid by dark brown, very stiff silty clay,
extending from ground surface to depth 3.0 m, followed by 1.0 m of dark grey,
soft to medium stiff silty clay extending to RU stratum. The RU stratum is
underlain by dark grey, soft to medium stiff silty clay with interlayers of grey
silty sand extending to the RL stratum. The RL stratum is underlain by dark
grey, medium stiff to stiff silty clay with interlayers of grey silty sand and grey
sandy silt extending to depth 19.0 m, followed by grey, coarse to medium sand
to the maximum depth explored (20.0 m). The groundwater table after drilling
the boreholes was found to be at depth 0.8 m.
Data from the four boreholes drilled in the Ezbet El-Domyati school site –
Motoubes - Kafr -Elsheikh governorate indicate one stratum of organic soil (D)
extending between 10.0-14.0 m. The D stratum is overlaid by dark brown to
dark grey, stiff silty clay, extending from ground surface to depth 2.5 m,
followed by 5.5 m of dark grey, soft to medium stiff silty clay, with interlayers
of grey medium to fine sand and grey silty sand extending to the D stratum.
The D stratum is underlain by pale blue, medium stiff silty clay with minute
fragments of white limestone extending to depth 15.5 m, followed by dark
brown, stiff silty clay with intercalations of yellowish brown silty sand to the
maximum depth explored (20.0 m). The groundwater table after drilling of the
boreholes was found to be at depth 1.1 m.
Visual inspection of organic soil’s samples indicated two distinct types of soils.
Soil samples obtained from RU stratum indicate grey to dark grey and dark
brown colors and an odor of decomposition. To the touch, it is highly plastic in
nature and is easily deformed. Upon deformation it exhibits a high degree of
cohesion. It is consist mainly of silty clay with spots of/or mixed with partly
190
decomposed plant material. On the other hand, soil samples obtained from RL
and D stratums indicate highly organic soils with their characteristic smell and
colors ranging from yellowish brown and reddish brown to black, with D
samples more light in color than RL. They are consisting mainly of partly
decomposed plant material of granular appearance with traces of partly
decomposed woody pieces and very fine fibers. They exhibit more compressive
strength than the RU stratum and are not easily deformed. Upon deformation,
the soil tends to crumble showing less cohesion than the RU stratum.
191
5.2.4 Void Ratio
Void ratios were determined for the 24 specimens used in consolidation tests, 8
specimens of every layer. The void ratio for RU samples ranged from 1.674 to
2.951 with an average of 2.356. The void ratio for RL samples ranged from
3.249 to 5.846 with an average of 4.461. The void ratio for D samples ranged
from 3.729 to 6.371 with an average of 5.612.
The dry unit weight for RU samples ranged from 5.4 kN/m3 to 10.5 kN/m3 with
an average of 7.6 kN/m3. The dry unit weight for RL samples ranged from 2.9
kN/m3 to 4.8 kN/m3 with an average of 3.6 kN/m3. The dry unit weight for D
samples ranged from 2.2 kN/m3 to 3.3 kN/m3 with an average of 2.8 kN/m3.
Figures (5.1 & 5.2) show the variation of loss on ignition (OC), moisture
content, void ratio, specific gravity, bulk unit weight, and dry unit weight with
depth.
192
Organic Content, % Water Content, % Specific Gravity, G s Bulk Unit Weight, t/m3 Dry Unit Weight, t/m3
Void Ratio, e o
2 2 2 2
2 2 2
Very Stiff Silty Clay, Dark Brown
3 3 3 3
3 3 3
4 4 4 4
4 Soft to Med. Stiff silty Clay, Dark Grey 4 4
5 5 5 5
5 5 5
Organic Silt & Clay, Grey to Black (RU)
6 6 6 6 6 6
6
7 7 7 7 7 7
7
10 10 10 10 10 10
10
D ep th , m s .
D ep th , m s.
D e p th , m s .
D e p th , m s.
D e p th , m s.
11
D ep th , m s.
11 11 11 11 11 11
E le v a t io n , m s
Highly Organic Soil, Dark Reddish Brown to
193
12 12 12 12 12 12 12
Black (RL)
13 13 13 13 13 13 13
14 14 14 14 14 14 14
15 15 15 15 15 15 15
18 18 18 18 18 18
18
19 19 19 19 19 19
19
Sand, Coarse to Med., Trace of Silt & Fine
20 Gravel, Very Dense, Grey 20 20 20 20
20 20
Fig. (5.1): Variation of organic content, moisture content, void ratio, specific gravity, bulk unit weight, and dry unit
weight with depth for Robaomaah school site– Mahmoudia.
Organic Content, % Water Content,
D
% Specific Gravity, G s
D D
Void Ratio, eo D Bulk UnitD Weight, t/m3 D
Dry Unit Weight, t/m3
1
GWT D D D D
D 1 D 1
1 1 1 1
3 3
3 3 3 3 3
4 4
4 4 4 4 4
7 7
7 7 7 7 7
8 8 8 8 8 8 8
9 9 9 9 9 9 9
D ep th , m s.
D ep th , m s.
D ep th , m s.
D ep th , m s.
11
D e p th , m s.
11 11 11 11 11 11
E le v a tio n , m s
194
12 12 12 12 12 12 12
13 13 13 13 13 13 13
Med. Stiff Silty Clay, Pale Blue, Minute
14 14 14
Fragments of White Limestone 14 14 14 14
15 15 15 15 15 15 15
16 16 16 16 16 16 16
17 17 17 17 17 17 17
Stiff Silty Clay, Dark Brown, intercalations of
18 18 18 18
Yellowish Brown Silty Sand 18 18 18
19 19 19 19 19 19 19
20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Fig. (5.2): Variation of organic content, moisture content, void ratio, specific gravity, bulk unit weight, and dry unit
weight with depth for Ezbet El-Domyati school site – Motoubes.
5.2.7 Atterberg Limits
The values of the Atterberg limits were determined for all samples. Figure (5.3)
shows the Atterberg limits plotted on Casagrande plasticity chart. For the RU
samples, the majority of data is plotted above the A-Line and could be
classified as CH. On the other hand, the majorities of RL and D data are plotted
below the A-Line and could be classified as OH. On two samples of RU, a
second determination of the liquid limit after oven drying the soils, the liquid
limit was decreased to 39-46 % of the liquid limit of the nondried soil. The
same treatment was followed for one sample of both RL and D; the liquid limit
was decreased to 30% and 28% of the liquid limit of the nondried soil
respectively.
Plasticty Chart
450
400
350
Plasticity Index,Ip
300
250
200
150
100 RU
RL
50
D
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
Liquid Limit, %
195
100
90
80
70
% Finer by Weight
60
50
RU-2
RU 40
RU-8
30
RU-9
20
RU-13
10 RU-15
0
10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001
Particle Size (mm)
100
90
80
70
% Finer by Weight
60
50
RL 40
30 RL-4
20 RL-12
10 RL-17
0
10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001
Particle Size (mm)
100
90
80
70
% Finer by Weight
60
50
D 40
D-5
30
D-7
20
D-8
10 D-11
0
10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001
Particle Siz e (mm)
196
The particle size distribution for RU samples indicates that >98% of the soil is
finer than 75 µm, with >80% in the clay size fraction (<5 µm). The particle size
distribution for RL samples indicates that >92% of the soil is finer than 75 µm,
with >50% in the silt size fraction (>5 µm), and 20-40% in the clay size
fraction (<5 µm). The particle size distribution for D samples indicates that
>82% of the soil is finer than 75 µm, with >60% in the silt size fraction (>5
µm), and 15-22% in the clay size fraction (<5 µm). This indicates that as the
average OC increases (D>RL>RU) the average size of the soil particles
increases.
197
RU-8
RU-8-H (Ignited)
RU-15
198
RL-6
RL-10
199
D-2
D-9
D-11
200
Table (5.3): Summary of the organic content and the constituent minerals abundances of the RU, RL, and D tested samples.
Organic
Clay minerals Non-clay minerals
Sample Content
Depth (m)
No
% Montmorillonite Illite Kaolinite Halite Calcite Quartz Gypsum Hematite Feldspars
RU-8 4.60 - 5.30 12.5 16.4 9.7 11.9 41.4 8.3 12.3 - - -
RU-15 4.50 - 5.30 15.8 18.4 - 15.7 29.7 10.2 16.8 - 9.2 -
RL-6 12.10 - 12.55 63.7 11.1 - 8.8 18.5 10.6 17.8 8.5 8.4 16.2
201
RL-10 11.00 - 11.45 56.2 6.2 - 6.2 47.0 7.3 10.0 7.2 7.5 8.6
Result (ppm)
Chemical Compound
Robaomaah school – Ezbet El-Domyati
Mahmoudia school – Motoubes
Total mineral soluble salts
74250 28000
(Ionized salts)
202
5.4 SEM
The Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) was used to observe the differences
in the fiber contents, the pore spaces, and the perforated plant structure of the
organic soil samples of RU, RL, and D stratums, in its initial state and after
compression under high stress (3200 kPa). It was also used in order to evaluate
the effect of fabric (microstructure) on the compressibility characteristics of
organic soil encountered.
It is evident, from the micrographs that the organic soil encountered is highly
decomposed such that even at higher magnifications only trace of fibers could
be recognized. It is evident, also, the sponge-like porous nature of the organic
soil encountered such that even at higher magnifications it is not possible to
recognize particles except that in Figure (5.9b) in which sand and silt particles
were recognized. Moreover, it is evident from the micrographs that the organic
soil encountered is highly porous in the vertical sections (horizontal directions)
compared with the porosity in the horizontal sections (vertical directions). In
addition, Figures (5.9, 5.11, & 5.13) show the thick relatively stiff mats formed
after consolidation under 3200 kPa in the horizontal and vertical sections.
203
RU-13 OC = 13.2%
(a) (b)
Fig. (5.8): The Scanning Electron Micrographs of RU sample at initial state (a)
horizontal section x 800 (b) vertical section x 500.
OC = 15.09% OC = 7.11%
(a) (b)
Fig. (5.9): The Scanning Electron Micrographs of RU sample under
consolidation pressure of 3200 kPa (a) horizontal section x 1600 (b) vertical
section x 700.
204
RL-12 OC = 52.52%
(a) (b)
Fig. (5.10): The Scanning Electron Micrographs of RL sample at initial state
(a) horizontal section x 500 (b) vertical section x 1000.
OC = 56.22% OC = 68.25%
(a) (b)
Fig. (5.11): The Scanning Electron Micrographs of RL sample under
consolidation pressure of 3200 kPa (a) horizontal section x 1067 (b) vertical
section x 800.
205
D-5 OC = 45.33%
(a) (b)
Fig. (5.12): The Scanning Electron Micrographs of D sample at initial state (a)
horizontal section x 800 (b) vertical section x 665.
OC = 64.10% OC = 26.74%
(a) (b)
Fig. (5.13): The Scanning Electron Micrographs of D sample under
consolidation pressure of 3200 kPa (a) horizontal section x 800 (b) vertical
section x 700.
206
5.5 Organic Soils' Classification
In this research, the recommended classification system to be used in Egypt;
“Tentative ASTM Standard” proposed by the ASTM Subcommittee D18.18 for
classifying organic soils and peat (see Table 2.8), was used to classify the
organic soils encountered. The average OCs of RU, RL, and D stratums are
16%, 57%, & 63% respectively. There is only a trace of fibers that could be
recognized from SEM. There is also trace to some sand and woody pieces as
indicated from the particle size distribution and visual inspection of the
samples. Therefore, organic soils encountered in this study could be classified
as peaty muck for RL & D, and as highly organic silty clay for RU based on
this classification system. Soil stratigraphy of the two sites is illustrated in
Figure (5.14).
0 G. S. 0 G. S.
GWT GWT
1 1
8 8
Soft to Med. Stiff Silty Clay, Dark
9 Grey, interlayers of Grey Silty Sand 9
Elevation, ms
Elevation, ms
(a) (b)
Fig. (5.14): Soil stratigraphy of the two sites; (a) Robaomaah school –
Mahmoudia, (b) Ezbet El-Domyati school – Motoubes.
207
5.6 Undrained Shear Strength
Undrained shear strength was determined via unconfined compression test by
two methods: in compression device and using pocket penetrometer. The test
results obtained through unconfined compression tests and pocket penetrometer
are presented in Tables (5.6 & 5.7). Figures (5.15, 5.16) show the variation of
undrained shear strength (Su) determined by both methods with depth.
208
Table (5.6): Undrained shear strength of RU & RL stratum determined by unconfined compressive strength and by pocket
penetrometer
Bulk
Mean Organic Moisture Dry Unit
Sample BH Unit S un P.P. S up
Site Location Depth (m) Depth Content Content Weight σ` vo σ` p q un
Weight S un /σ` p S up /σ` p
No. No.
3 3
(m) % % kN/m kN/m kPa kPa kPa kPa kPa kPa
RU-1 2 5.10 - 5.80 5.45 19.54 96.92 13.40 6.81 54.2 - 38.0 19.0 - 120.0 60.0 -
RU-2 4.70 - 5.50 5.10 11.86 89.00 14.70 7.78 51.9 130.0 9.0 4.5 0.03 60.0 30.0 0.23
3
RU-3 5.70 - 6.20 5.95 7.63 56.85 16.51 10.53 57.0 85.0 35.0 17.5 0.21 55.0 27.5 0.32
RU-8 4.60 - 5.30 4.95 12.52 81.83 15.57 8.56 51.9 132.0 30.0 15.0 0.11 55.0 27.5 0.21
4
RU-9 5.40 - 6.10 5.75 11.66 78.86 15.32 8.57 55.8 85.0 43.0 21.5 0.25 45.0 22.5 0.26
RU-13 4.00 - 4.80 4.40 11.60 87.99 14.50 7.71 49.0 96.0 33.0 16.5 0.17 40.0 20.0 0.21
5
209
RU-14 4.90 - 5.70 5.30 22.46 114.26 12.21 5.71 53.5 - 48.0 24.0 - 85.0 42.5 -
RU-15 4.50 - 5.30 4.90 15.83 91.72 14.73 7.69 52.0 132.0 26.0 13.0 0.10 55.0 27.5 0.21
6
Robaomaah -
Mahmoudia RU-16 5.30 - 6.10 5.70 29.10 137.60 12.92 5.44 55.8 - 18.0 9.0 - 60.0 30.0 -
RL-4 10.40 - 10.70 10.55 36.60 139.02 11.37 4.76 84.7 - 153.0 76.5 - 180.0 90.0 -
RL-5 3 11.00 - 11.30 11.15 66.37 251.68 10.85 3.09 85.5 190.0 128.0 64.0 0.34 225.0 112.5 0.59
RL-6 12.10 - 12.55 12.30 62.38 272.27 11.30 3.04 87.2 250.0 - - - 55.0 27.5 0.11
RL-10 11.00 - 11.45 11.20 56.23 209.43 11.48 3.71 85.6 - - - - 210.0 105.0 -
RL-11 4 11.50 - 11.75 11.60 65.54 248.27 11.37 3.27 86.2 270.0 - - - 325.0 162.5 0.60
RL-12 12.50 - 13.25 12.85 54.33 213.14 11.18 3.57 88.0 192.0 17.0 8.5 0.04 250.0 125.0 0.65
RL-17 10.00 - 10.70 10.35 41.66 158.20 12.42 4.81 84.4 252.0 8.0 4.0 0.02 200.0 100.0 0.40
6
RL-18 12.40 - 12.70 12.55 68.76 283.76 11.14 2.90 87.5 260.0 35.0 17.5 0.07 220.0 110.0 0.42
Table (5.7): Undrained shear strength of D stratum determined by unconfined compressive strength and by pocket
penetrometer
Bulk
Mean Organic Moisture Dry Unit
Sample BH Unit S un P.P. S up
Site Location Depth (m) Depth Content Content Weight σ` vo σ` p q un
No. No. Weight S un /σ` p S up /σ` p
(m) % % kN/m3 kN/m3 kPa kPa kPa kPa kPa kPa
D-1 8.75 - 9.55 9.15 51.04 247.70 11.50 3.31 71.1 - 53.0 26.5 - 165.0 82.5 -
D-2 9.65 - 10.30 9.95 76.45 352.85 10.88 2.40 72.0 190.0 86.0 43.0 0.23 200.0 100.0 0.53
1
D-3 10.30 - 10.90 10.60 75.48 340.55 10.01 2.29 72.6 - 184.0 92.0 - 210.0 105.0 -
D-4 11.00 - 11.90 11.45 28.47 173.10 12.42 4.55 73.0 - 45.0 22.5 - 75.0 37.5 -
D-5 8.45 - 9.25 8.85 48.80 245.99 11.29 3.26 70.7 140.0 111.0 55.5 0.40 140.0 70.0 0.50
D-6 2 9.30 - 10.20 9.75 67.10 309.30 10.60 2.59 71.7 - 115.0 57.5 - 175.0 87.5 -
210
D-7 10.25 - 11.15 10.70 77.42 352.25 11.00 2.43 72.7 162.0 23.0 11.5 0.07 115.0 57.5 0.35
Ezbet El-
Domyati - D-8 8.05 - 8.90 8.45 64.76 294.26 11.22 2.85 70.5 117.0 42.0 21.0 0.18 135.0 67.5 0.58
Motoubes
D-9 8.90 - 9.80 9.35 56.29 288.33 11.11 2.86 71.3 - 36.0 18.0 - 125.0 62.5 -
3
D-10 9.85 - 10.75 10.30 65.15 337.05 10.40 2.38 72.3 - 53.0 26.5 - 150.0 75.0 -
D-11 10.75 - 11.65 11.20 55.54 294.70 11.55 2.93 73.2 127.0 31.0 15.5 0.12 100.0 50.0 0.39
D-12 8.15 - 9.05 8.60 66.81 302.17 10.49 2.61 70.6 - 71.0 35.5 - 200.0 100.0 -
D-13 9.05 - 9.95 9.50 70.13 340.12 10.79 2.45 71.4 160.0 40.0 20.0 0.13 135.0 67.5 0.42
4
D-14 9.95 - 10.45 10.20 74.59 355.97 10.14 2.22 72.2 - 95.0 47.5 - 210.0 105.0 -
D-15 10.45 - 11.05 10.75 62.84 329.68 10.13 2.36 72.7 - 122.0 61.0 - 200.0 100.0 -
S u , (kPa)
3
Soft to Med. Stiff silty Clay, Dark Grey 0 50 100 150 200
4
4
5 RU-q
5
Organic Silty Clay, Grey to Black (RU) RL-q
6
6
RU-p
7
Elevation, ms
7 RL-p
8
Soft to Med. Stiff Silty Clay, Dark Grey, 8
Depth, ms.
9 interlayers of Grey Silty Sand
9
10
10
11
11
Silty Muck to Peaty Muck, Dark Reddish
12
Brown to Black (RL) 12
13
13
14
3
S u , (kPa)
4
0 50 100 150 200
5 Soft to Med. Stiff Silty Clay, Dark Grey, 5
interlayers of Grey Med. To Fine Sand &
6 Grey Silty Sand 6
7 7
8 8
Elevation, ms
9 9
Depth, ms.
12 12
13 13
Med. Stiff Silty Clay, Pale Blue, Minute
14 14
Fragments of White Limestone D-q D-p
15 15
211
5.7 Permeability
Permeability measurements of RU, RL, and D stratum were determined
through falling-head flow measurements during the secondary compression
stage of IL oedometer tests (Tavenas et al, 1983; Mesri, 1997) as effective
vertical stress increases from σ`vo to σ`vf. The values of the coefficient of
permeability in the vertical direction, kv, were determined for three samples,
one sample from each stratum, that were cut with their axes parallel to the
vertical direction. The values of the coefficient of permeability in the horizontal
direction, kh, were determined, for the same three previous samples, for
specimens that were cut with their axes perpendicular to the vertical direction
and from the following 10 cm to the previous specimens. Data on vertical
permeability kv and horizontal permeability kh of these three samples as
effective vertical stress increases from σ`vo to σ`vf and void ratio decreases from
eo to ef are shown in Figure (5.17). Table (5.8) presents the summary of the
permeability test results.
The in-situ coefficients of permeability in the vertical direction, kvo, and in the
horizontal direction, kho, were estimated by extrapolating the linear initial
portions of the e-log k curves to initial void ratios eo. The obtained initial
coefficients of permeability in the vertical direction, kvo, are 4x10-8, 1x10-5, and
7x10-7 cm/sec for RU, RL, and D samples respectively. The obtained initial
coefficients of permeability in the horizontal direction, kho, are 5x10-8, 8x10-5,
and 8x10-8 cm/sec for RU, RL, and D samples respectively.
212
6.0
5.0
4.0
Void ratio, e
3.0
RU
2.0
1.0
RU-13-(IL+FS+Perm)H
RU-13-(IL+FS+Perm)V
0.0
1.E-10 1.E-09 1.E-08 1.E-07 1.E-06 1.E-05 1.E-04
Permeability, k (cm/sec)
6.0
5.0
4.0
Void ratio, e
3.0
RL
2.0
1.0
RL-12-(IL+FS+Perm)H
RL-12-(IL+FS+Perm)V
0.0
1.E-10 1.E-09 1.E-08 1.E-07 1.E-06 1.E-05 1.E-04
Permeability, k (cm/sec)
6.0
5.0
4.0
Void ratio, e
3.0
D 2.0
1.0 D-5-(IL+FS+Perm)H
D-5-(IL+FS+Perm)V
0.0
1.E-10 1.E-09 1.E-08 1.E-07 1.E-06 1.E-05 1.E-04
Permeability, k (cm/sec)
213
Table (5.8): Results of permeability tests for RU, RL, and D.
214
68.25 217.52 5.846 0.875 Horizontal
215
RU- 8 Depth= 4.6-5.3 m OC= 12.5% Highly Organic Silty Clay Test No. [5]
10.6500
10.9800
10.6000
10.9700
10.5500
10.9600
10.5000
10.9500
10.4500
10.9400
10.4000
10.9300 10.3500
10.9200 10.3000
10.9100 10.2500
10.2000
10.9000
10.1500
10.8900 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Time (minutes)
Time (minutes)
9.6000
7.8000
9.5000 7.7000
9.4000 7.6000
7.5000
9.3000
7.4000
9.2000 7.3000
9.1000 7.2000
7.1000
9.0000
7.0000
8.9000 6.9000
8.8000 6.8000
6.7000
8.7000 6.6000
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Time (minutes) Time (minutes)
8.6000 6.9000
8.5000 6.8000
Dial Reading, mm
D ia l Rea ding , m m
8.4000
6.7000
8.3000
8.2000 6.6000
8.1000 6.5000
8.0000
6.4000
7.9000
7.8000 6.3000
7.7000 6.2000
7.6000 6.1000
7.5000
6.0000
7.4000
7.3000 5.9000
7.2000 5.8000
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Time (minutes) Time (minutes)
216
RL- 5 Depth= 11.0-11.3 m OC=66.6% Peaty Muck Test No. [5]
Dial Reading, mm
9.4100
9.3900
9.9000
9.3700
9.3500
9.3300
9.8900
9.3100
9.2900
9.8800 9.2700
9.2500
9.2300
9.8700 9.2100
9.1900
9.1700
9.8600 9.1500
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Time (minutes)
Time (minutes)
6.9000
6.8000
8.6000
6.7000
6.6000
8.5000 6.5000
6.4000
6.3000
8.4000
6.2000
6.1000
8.3000 6.0000
5.9000
5.8000
8.2000
5.7000
5.6000
8.1000 5.5000
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Time (minutes) Time (minutes)
7.8000
Dial Reading, mm
4.8000
7.6000 4.7000
7.4000
4.6000
4.5000
7.2000
4.4000
7.0000 4.3000
4.2000
6.8000
4.1000
6.6000 4.0000
6.4000 3.9000
3.8000
6.2000
3.7000
6.0000 3.6000
5.8000
3.5000
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Time (minutes) Time (minutes)
217
D- 11 Depth= 10.8-11.7 m OC = 55.9% Peaty Muck Test No. [5]
10.1500
9.5000
10.1400
9.4000
10.1300
10.1200 9.3000
Dia l Rea ding , m m
Dial Reading, mm
10.1100
9.2000
10.1000
10.0900 9.1000
10.0800
9.0000
10.0700
10.0600 8.9000
10.0500
8.8000
10.0400
8.7000
10.0300
10.0200 8.6000
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Time (minutes) Time (minutes)
7.700 4.800
7.500 4.600
Dial Reading, mm
Dial Reading, mm
7.300 4.400
4.200
7.100
4.000
6.900
3.800
6.700
3.600
6.500
3.400
6.300
3.200
6.100 3.000
5.900 2.800
5.700 2.600
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Time (minutes) Time (minutes)
9.1000
4.8000
8.9000
8.7000 4.6000
8.5000
4.4000
8.3000
Dial Reading, mm
Dial Reading, mm
8.1000 4.2000
7.9000
4.0000
7.7000
7.5000
3.8000
7.3000
7.1000 3.6000
6.9000
3.4000
6.7000
6.5000 3.2000
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Time (minutes) Time (minutes)
218
Table (5.9): One-dimensional consolidation test results for RU & RL stratums
RU-3 5.70 - 6.20 5.95 7.63 56.85 1.674 3.000 57.0 85.0 1.50 4.75E-04 3.65E-04 0.091 0.243 0.245 0.655 0.371 0.006 0.015 0.033 IL+Late Long Sec
RU-8 4.60 - 5.30 4.95 12.52 81.83 1.880 2.000 51.9 132.0 2.54 5.75E-04 1.69E-04 0.055 0.158 0.323 0.930 0.170 0.012 0.034 0.037 IL+ Sec
4
RU-9 5.40 - 6.10 5.75 11.66 78.86 2.302 4.200 55.8 85.0 1.52 6.00E-04 3.15E-04 0.050 0.165 0.384 1.268 0.130 0.016 0.053 0.046 IL+FS+Loop
RU-13 4.00 - 4.80 4.40 15.09 95.79 2.951 3.100 96.0 1.96 3.25E-04 1.39E-04 0.096 0.379 0.361 1.426 0.266 0.014 0.056 0.040 (IL+FS+Perm)V
5 49.0
219
RU-13 4.00 - 4.80 4.40 7.11 75.09 2.506 5.650 67.0 1.37 2.10E-04 1.30E-04 0.129 0.452 0.250 0.877 0.516 0.011 0.037 0.043 (IL+FS+Perm)H
RU-15 6 4.50 - 5.30 4.90 15.83 91.72 2.510 1.300 52.0 132.0 2.54 1.03E-03 1.69E-04 0.044 0.154 0.320 1.123 0.138 0.016 0.055 0.039 IL+Long Sec
Robaomaah -
Mahmoudia
RL-5 11.00 - 11.30 11.15 66.56 251.68 4.484 3.200 85.5 190.0 2.22 8.25E-03 8.15E-04 0.094 0.515 0.444 2.435 0.212 0.026 0.141 0.066 IL+ Sec
3
RL-6 12.10 - 12.55 12.30 63.73 272.27 5.094 11.600 87.2 250.0 2.87 5.50E-03 2.68E-03 0.235 1.432 0.425 2.590 0.553 0.026 0.156 0.058 IL+Long Sec
RL-11 11.50 - 11.75 11.60 69.01 248.27 4.516 2.000 86.2 270.0 3.13 8.00E-03 2.12E-03 0.083 0.458 0.576 3.177 0.144 0.032 0.175 0.050 IL+FS+Loop
RL-12 12.50 - 13.25 12.85 56.22 208.76 4.776 3.300 192.0 2.18 8.00E-03 2.15E-03 0.087 0.503 0.555 3.206 0.157 0.031 0.177 0.046 (IL+FS+Perm)V
88.0
RL-12 12.50 - 13.25 12.85 68.25 217.52 5.846 7.000 186.0 2.11 1.75E-02 6.60E-03 0.159 1.089 0.550 3.765 0.289 0.021 0.142 0.038 (IL+FS+Perm)H
RL-17 10.00 - 10.70 10.35 41.88 158.20 3.249 2.250 252.0 2.99 3.30E-03 3.50E-04 0.047 0.200 0.501 2.129 0.094 0.022 0.095 0.038 (IL+FS)V
84.4
RL-17 6 10.00 - 10.70 10.35 41.43 164.78 3.419 2.900 230.0 2.73 1.20E-02 1.15E-03 0.061 0.270 0.489 2.161 0.125 0.021 0.094 0.038 (IL+FS)H
RL-18 12.40 - 12.70 12.55 68.55 283.76 4.306 2.250 87.5 280.0 3.20 5.15E-03 1.15E-03 0.046 0.244 0.656 3.481 0.070 0.023 0.120 0.044 IL+Late Long Sec
Table (5.10): One-dimensional consolidation test results for D stratum
D-2 1 9.65 - 10.30 9.95 77.42 352.85 5.668 2.700 72.0 190.0 2.64 1.90E-03 2.23E-04 0.066 0.440 0.557 3.714 0.118 0.030 0.198 0.049 IL+Long Sec
D-5 8.45 - 9.25 8.85 64.10 245.99 5.381 2.300 142.0 2.00 1.75E-03 3.80E-04 0.077 0.491 0.568 3.621 0.136 0.037 0.234 0.066 (IL+FS+Perm)V
70.7
D-5 8.45 - 9.25 8.85 26.74 172.64 3.729 2.000 148.0 2.09 1.75E-03 2.95E-04 0.073 0.345 0.431 2.038 0.169 0.019 0.089 0.051 (IL+FS+Perm)H
2
Ezbet El- D-7 10.25 - 11.15 10.70 81.53 352.25 6.105 3.400 162.0 2.22 2.35E-03 6.80E-04 0.060 0.426 0.625 4.441 0.096 0.026 0.183 0.042 (IL+FS)V
Domyati - 72.7
Motoubes
D-7 10.25 - 11.15 10.70 76.36 319.49 6.371 2.950 168.0 2.31 5.50E-03 1.38E-03 0.067 0.494 0.600 4.423 0.112 0.030 0.223 0.045 (IL+FS)H
220
D-8 8.05 - 8.90 8.45 74.85 294.26 6.171 4.300 70.5 117.0 1.66 1.10E-02 5.10E-03 0.080 0.574 0.404 2.897 0.198 0.030 0.217 0.057 IL+FS+Loop
3
D-11 10.75 - 11.65 11.20 55.89 294.70 5.837 4.000 73.2 127.0 1.73 2.95E-03 9.85E-04 0.137 0.933 0.641 4.383 0.213 0.032 0.219 0.046 IL+ Sec
D-13 4 9.05 - 9.95 9.50 69.00 340.12 5.631 3.100 71.4 160.0 2.24 6.00E-03 1.74E-03 0.081 0.537 0.533 3.531 0.152 0.018 0.122 0.045 IL+Late Long Sec
5.8.1 Primary Consolidation Behavior
Figures (5.21, 5.22, & 5.23) show the typical ε-log σ` EOP compression curves
for RU, RL, and D Stratums. The compression curves are characterized by the
S-shape and clear break at the preconsolidation pressure (σ`p). Preconsolidation
pressure σ`p was obtained using Casagrande’s graphical method. Values of σ`p
are in the range of 67-132 kPa, 190-280 kPa, and 117-190 kPa for RU, RL, and
D stratum respectively. This implies that the in-situ over consolidation ratio
(OCR) are in the ranges 1.4-2.5, 2.2-3.4, and 1.7-2.6 for RU, RL, and D
respectively, given that the mean overburden pressure (σ`vo) for the tested
samples are 49-57 kPa, 84-88 kPa, and 70-73 kPa respectively. The mean
overburden pressure (σ`vo) and the ranges of preconsolidation pressure (σ`p) are
indicated with arrows on the plots. Figures (5.24 & 5.25) show the variation of
σ`vo, σ`p, OCR, and εvo with depth.
For six samples, two of each stratum, one load increment was allowed to
undergo secondary compression for one week to assess aging effect on
preconsolidation pressure (σ`p). This was followed for three samples, one of
each stratum, in recompression range, and three samples, one of each stratum,
in compression range, between σ`p and 2σ`p. The preconsolidation pressure
(σ`p) due to aging in recompression range was 132.0 kPa, 250.0 kPa, and 190.0
kPa, and due to aging in compression range was 200.0 kPa, 670.0 kPa, and
300.0 kPa for RU, RL, and D respectively.
The quality of the samples obtained using the sampling technique described
earlier and the procedures followed for specimen preparation, were evaluated
based on the SQD method suggested by Andresen and Closeted (1979). In this
characterization, the magnitude of volumetric strain (εvo) caused by
reconsolidation to the in-situ vertical stress σ`vo in an oedometer test is
determined and compared to the scale shown in Table (2.11). The specimens’
qualities were designated as very good for 3 specimens, good for 13 specimens,
fair for 4 specimens, and disturbed for 1 specimen according to this scale.
221
σ’vo σ’p
0
RU-15-(IL+Long S)
RU-3-(IL+Late LS)
RU-13-(IL+FS)V+Perm
10
RU-13-(IL+FS)H+Perm
RU-9-(IL+FS+Loop)
RU-8-(IL+Sec)
20
Vertical Strain, εv ( % )
30
40
50
60
70
10 100 1000 10000
Vertical Effective Stress, σ'v ( kPa)
222
σ’vo σ’p
0 RL-5-(IL+Sec)
RL-17-(IL+FS)V
10 RL-17-(IL+FS)H
RL-6-(IL+Long S)
RL-18-(IL+Late LS)
20
V ertical Strain, εv ( % )
RL-12-(IL+FS)V+Perm
RL-12-(IL+FS)H+Perm
RL-11-(IL+FS+Loop)
30
40
50
60
70
10 100 1000 10000
Vertical Effective Stress, σ'v ( kPa)
223
σ’vo σ’p
0 D-7-(IL+FS)V
D-7-(IL+FS)H
D-2-(IL+Long S)
10 D-13-(IL+Late LS)
D-5-(IL+FS)V+Perm
D-5-(IL+FS)H+Perm
20 D-8-(IL+FS+Loop)
Vertica l Stra in, εv ( % )
D-11-(IL+Sec)
30
40
50
60
70
10 100 1000 10000
224
σ'v , (kPa) σ'p, (kPa) OCR Volumetric Strain, εvo %
2 2 2 2 2
Very Stiff Silty Clay, Dark Brown
3 3 3 3 3
5 5 5 5 5
Organic Silty Clay, Grey to Black (RU)
6 6 6 6 6
7 7 7 7 7
10 10 10 10 10
225
Depth, ms.
Depth, ms.
Depth, ms.
Depth, ms.
11 11 11 11 11
Elevation, ms
Silty Muck to Peaty Muck, Dark Reddish
12 12 12 12 12
Brown to Black (RL)
13 13 13 13
13
14 14 14 14 14
15 15 15 15 15
18
18 18 18 18
19
19 19 19 19
Sand, Coarse to Med., Trace of Silt & Fine
20
A B C D
Gravel, Very Dense, Grey 20 20 20 20
Fig. (5. 24): The variation of σ`vo, σ`p, OCR, and εvo with depth for RU & RL stratums
σ'p , (kPa) OCR Volumetric Strain, εvo %
σ'v , (kPa)
9 9
9 9 9
226
Brown (D)
Depth, ms.
Depth, ms.
Depth, ms.
Depth, ms.
11 11
11 11 11
Elevation, ms
12 12
12 12 12
13 13
13 13 13
Med. Stiff Silty Clay, Pale Blue, Minute
14 14
Fragments of White Limestone 14 14 14
15 15
15 15 15
16 16
16 16 16
17 17
17 17 17
Stiff Silty Clay, Dark Brown, intercalations of
18 18
Yellowish Brown Silty Sand 18 18 18
19 19
19 19 19
A B C D
20 20
20 20 20
Fig. (5.25 ): The variation of σ`vo, σ`p, OCR, and εvo with depth for D stratum
Due to the S-shape of the compression curve, the compression index (Cc) of the
soil changes significantly over the stress range investigated. It was found that
Cc values for RU stratum vary within the range 0.66-1.43 with mean value of
1.05, for RL stratum Cc vary within the range 2.1-3.77 with mean value of 2.86,
and for D stratum Cc vary within the range 2.0-4.4 with mean value of 3.631.
In this research, one sample of every stratum RU, RL, and D was unloaded near
σ`p incrementally to less than σ`vo then subsequently reloaded incrementally to
the desired effective stress. Values of recompression index Cr for RU, RL, and
D stratums, measured from the developed loops, are 0.165, 0.458, and 0.574
respectively. On the other hand, the slope of the tangent at σ`vo for the other ε-
log σ` curves were measured, in a trial to estimate an approximate value of
recompression index Cr Tables (5.9 & 5.10). For the above three samples, at
the end of the scheduled load sequence, samples were then incrementally
unloaded again to estimate the swelling index (Cs). The values of swelling
index (Cs) were 0.25, 0.35, and 0.43 for RU, RL, and D respectively.
227
1.5x10-2 cm2/sec, and 3.6x10-3 cm2/sec for RU, RL, and D stratums
respectively. The average horizontal coefficient of consolidation in the
compression (σ`p - 3 σ`p) are 1.3x10-4 cm2/sec, 3.9x10-3 cm2/sec, and 8.4x10-4
cm2/sec for RU, RL, and D stratums respectively. As horizontal effective stress
increases permeability decreases and necessarily ch decreases continuously,
especially once the soil is loaded well into NC region in the range from σ`p to
2 σ`p.
228
1.E+00
2
RU-3-(IL+Late LS)
1.E-01 RU-13-(IL+FS)V+Perm
RU-9-(IL+FS+Loop)
RU-8-(IL+Sec)
1.E-02
RU 1.E-03
1.E-04
1.E-05
10 100 1000 10000
1.E+00
Coeffcient of Consolidation, cv ( cm /sec
RL-5-(IL+Sec)
2
RL-17-(IL+FS)V
1.E-01 RL-6-(IL+Long S)
RL-18-(IL+Late LS)
RL-12-(IL+FS)V+Perm
1.E-02
RL-11-(IL+FS+Loop)
RL 1.E-03
1.E-04
1.E-05
10 100 1000 10000
1.E+00 D-11-(IL+Sec)
2
D-7-(IL+FS)V
1.E-01 D-2-(IL+Long S)
D-18-(IL+Late LS)
D-5-(IL+FS)V+Perm
1.E-02
D-8-(IL+FS+Loop)
D 1.E-03
1.E-04
1.E-05
10 100 1000 10000
229
1.E+00
2
1.E-01
1.E-02
RU 1.E-03
1.E-04
1.E-05
10 100 1000 10000
1.E+00
Coeffcient of Consolidation, ch ( cm /sec
RL-17-(IL+FS)H
RL-12-(IL+FS)H+Perm
2
1.E-01
1.E-02
RL 1.E-03
1.E-04
1.E-05
10 100 1000 10000
1.E+00
D-7-(IL+FS)H
Coeffcient of Consolidation, ch ( cm /sec
D-5-(IL+FS)H+Perm
2
1.E-01
1.E-02
D 1.E-03
1.E-04
1.E-05
10 100 1000 10000
230
1000
100
tp (minutes)
10
RU
RU-15-(IL+Long S)
RU-3-(IL+Late LS)
1
RU-13-(IL+FS)V+Perm
RU-9-(IL+FS+Loop)
RU-8-(IL+Sec)
RU-13-(IL+FS+Perm )H
0.1
10 100 1000 10000
1000
100
tp (minutes)
10
RL-5-(IL+Sec)
RL RL-17-(IL+FS)V
RL-6-(IL+Long S)
RL-18-(IL+Late LS)
1
RL-12-(IL+FS)V+Perm
RL-11-(IL+FS+Loop)
RL-12-(IL+FS+Perm)H
RL-17-(IL+FS)H
0.1
10 100 1000 10000
1000
100
tp (minutes)
10
D-11-(IL+Sec)
D D-7-(IL+FS)V
D-2-(IL+Long S)
D-18-(IL+Late LS)
1 D-5-(IL+FS)V+Perm
D-8-(IL+FS+Loop)
D-5-(IL+FS+Perm )H
D-7-(IL+FS)H
0.1
10 100 1000 10000
Fig. (5.28): The variation of variation of time to the EOP (tp) with effective
stress for RU, RL, and D stratums.
231
CHAPTER 6
6.1 Introduction
An organic soil is an accumulation of partially decomposed and disintegrated
plant remains, in various stages of decomposition or preservation, recently
derived by physico-chemical and biochemical processes, and retains a
distinctive texture, color and odor. Organic soils commonly occur as extremely
soft, wet, unconsolidated surficial deposits normally as an integral part of
wetland systems. They may also occur as strata beneath other surficial deposits.
Also, organic soils are well known for their high variability in soil properties,
especially in organic contents. Therefore, physical and geotechnical properties
of organic soils show a great variation both spatially and with depth, such that
samples obtained within a few feet of each other may exhibit vastly different
mechanical behavior, depending on the type and amount of organic matter.
232
However, in spite of physical, index, and engineering properties of the various
types of organic soils are highly variable and significantly different from those
of inorganic soils, it has been established that the same fundamental
mechanisms and factors determine the behavior and properties of both
inorganic soils and organic soils (Samson and La Rochelle, 1972; Lefebvre et
al., 1984; Mesri et al, 1997; Mesri and Ajlouni, 2007; Santagata, et al, 2008).
The main objective of this study is to characterize the general and engineering
properties of the organic soils found in Egypt. The study is focused toward
evaluating compressibility characteristics in order to devise suitable design
parameters for settlement analysis and to assess the extent of problematic
nature of buried organic deposits found in Egypt, in term of compressibility,
regarding the usual loading scenarios and, also, compared with those highly
compressible surficial deposits typically encountered all over the world.
233
Edil (1994) emphasizes the importance of characterizing peat and organic soils
by certain index parameters, to provide a basis for comparison of results of
mechanical tests. Huat (2004) concluded that there has been virtually no
research to correlate different structural types of peat and organic soils and
their index and engineering properties. Hobbs (1986) suggests that it is
convenient to relate the basic geotechnical properties of organic soils to some
of the easily determined index parameters such as water content and organic
content. In this chapter, the available published data on index, chemical and
engineering properties of various organic soils were compiled and categorized,
based on the recommended classification system, to correlate various types of
organic soils and their index, chemical and engineering properties, and to
provide a basis for comparison of the results. The test results, of the current
study, were discussed, compared with the compiled data and correlations
between various index and engineering properties were investigated.
234
mineral soils. Summary of index, and chemical properties of the organic soils
encountered (RU, RL, and D stratums) are presented in Table (6.2). In the
following sections, the general characteristics of the organic soils encountered
will be discussed and compared to the compiled data.
The three stratums encountered in this study RU, RL, and D is buried at depths
4.0 m, 10.0 m, an 8.0 m respectively. C14 dating for Holocene organic
sediments nearby Rosetta branch – West-Delta at depth ranging from 6 to 8
meters below ground surface, gave (4.595 + 55) to (5.870 + 70) B.P range of
age for this organic soil (Zayed, 1989). This is interpreting the disappearance of
fibrous structure as observed from SEM images (Figures 5.8 – 5.13) and that
detritus gradually becomes finer as indicated from particle size distribution
(Fig. 5.4). The material encountered consisting mainly of partly decomposed
plant material has an amorphous granular appearance, a sponge-like fabric, and
dark in color as evident from visual inspection.
The mean OCs for RU, RL, and D stratums are 16%, 57%, & 63% respectively.
The organic soils encountered were classified as peaty muck for RL & D, and
as highly organic silty clay for RU based on “Tentative ASTM Standard
classification system” previously described. On the other hand, specimens
obtained from the same tube within a 10 cm of each other exhibited vastly
different organic contents (Tables 5.7, 5.8, & 5.9) which confirm the high
variability of organic soil within each deposit.
235
Table (6.1): Comparison of some index and chemical properties, for different
types of soil, from literature.
% (wo %) kN/m3 Gs pH
Fibrous peat >75 200-1590 8.4-12.2 1.1-1.9 3.3-8.8
Table (6.2): Summary of index and chemical properties of RU, RL, and D
stratums
Property RU RL D
Organic content (%) 7-29 37-69 29-77
Natural moisture content (%) 57-138 139-284 173-356
Specific gravity of solids 2.36-2.60 1.60-1.90 1.54-1.86
In situ void ratio 1.67-2.95 3.25-5.85 3.73-6.37
Degree of saturation (%) 100 95-100 98-100
3
Bulk Unit Weight (kN/m ) 12.21-16.51 10.85-12.42 10.13-12.42
3
Dry Unit Weight (kN/m ) 5.44-10.53 2.90-4.81 2.22-4.55
Liquid Limit (%) 92-179 196-393 221-510
After Drying (% of initial LL) 32-46 30 28
Plastic Limit (%) 28-67 86-266 67-333
Plasticity Index (%) 65-130 84-227 141-224
pH Level 7.1-7.5 6.9-7.6 5.4-6.6
236
According to Hobbs (1986), there is a good correlation between pH value and
organic content (Fig. 2.18). The more acid the organic soil, the better the plant
remains are preserved. This is because decomposition generally tends to be
most active in neutral to weakly alkaline conditions pH value (7 - 7.5). In this
study, pH value was determined for almost all samples. The lowest values were
recorded for D stratum, ranging between 5.4 and 6.6 with an average of 6.0,
which reported the highest average organic content of 63%. To the opposite
side, RU and RL average pH values were 7.4 and 7.3, yielding organic content
of 16% and 57% respectively. Moreover, D samples were lighter in color than
RU and RL samples, which means that they are less decomposed.
The particle size distribution for RU samples indicates that >98% of the soil is
finer than 75 µm, with >70% in the clay size fraction (<2 µm). The particle size
distribution for RL samples indicates that >92% of the soil is finer than 75 µm,
with >60% in the silt size fraction (>2 µm), and 10-30% in the clay size
fraction (<2 µm). The particle size distribution for D samples indicates that
>82% of the soil is finer than 75 µm, with >65% in the silt size fraction (>2
µm), and 10-15% in the clay size fraction (<2 µm). It is evident that the average
particles size of D samples is greater than that of RL samples which confirms
that are less decomposed.
The X-Ray diffraction analysis indicates that the inorganic portion of the
organic soils consists of clay and non-clay minerals (Table 5.3). The clay
minerals include montmorillonite [(Al167 Mg33) Si4 O10 (OH)2], illite [Ky (Al
Fe4 Mg6) Si8 Aly O20 (OH)4], and kaolinite [Al4 Si4 (OH)]. The non-clay
minerals include halite [NaCl], calcite [CaCo3], quartz [SiO2], gypsum
[CaSO4], hematite [Fe2O3], and feldspars [K or Na or Ca Al Si3 O8]. The
analysis indicates that RU samples are richer in clay minerals than RL samples
while often missed in D samples. It also indicates the existence of different
percentage of non-clay minerals with predominant existence of halite and
calcite minerals in all samples with D samples have the highest concentration.
237
Organic contents of the undisturbed samples were measured using loss on
ignition method. Specimens were ignited at temperature 440° C for 12-18 h till
organic matter was completely fired (ASTM D2974 – 00). Five hours was not
enough for complete firing as concluded by Arman (1971). Moreover, the
increase in loss on ignition was only 0.5-1.0% when seven samples of highly
organic soils (D samples) were re-fired at temperature 550° C according to
ECP 202-01, hence not significant for practical considerations. Therefore,
igniting at temperature 440° C could be specified in ECP instead of 550° C.
One sample (RU-8) classified as highly organic silty clay was analyzed using
X-ray diffraction analysis in its initial state and after it has been ignited. The
clay minerals encountered in its initial state were missed after it has been
ignited (Table 5.3), which indicates that clay minerals were destructed through
ignition process. This confirms the fact that errors in loss on ignition method
increase with increasing mineral content (Hartlėn and Wolski, 1996). Also,
specified time required for complete firing needs to be more investigated.
The type and amount of organic matter (OC) has a considerable effect on the
physical and index properties of organic soil. Soil organic matter may be
responsible for high water holding capacity, high plasticity, and high shrinkage.
In general the greater the OC the greater the water content, void ratio, liquid
limit, plasticity index, and the lower the specific gravity.
The void ratio of organic soils is generally higher than that of mineral soils.
The average void ratio for RU, RL, and D stratums are 2.356, 4.461, & 5.612
respectively, which is generally higher than that of mineral soils. It is evident
that as OC increases and degree of decomposition decreases void ratio
increases. Figure (6.1) illustrates the correlation between OC and initial void
ratio.
238
8
5
Void Ratio, eo
2
RU
RL
1
D
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Loss on Ignition, %
The average natural moisture content for RU, RL, and D stratums are 93%,
222%, & 304% respectively. It is evident that as OC increases natural moisture
content increases, which indicates the high water-holding capacity of soil
organic matter. Table (6.3) illustrates the data of moisture content determined
compared with categorized compiled data which indicates that the data is
comparable.
Figure (2.20) shows the plot of water content versus loss on ignition complied
by O′Loughlin & Lehane (2003) for peat and organic soils from all around the
world. The relationship shown is linear up to OC = 80%. Figure (6.2) illustrates
the correlation between OC and natural moisture content of current study
within an envelope diagram drawn for the data compiled by O’Loughlin and
Lehane (2003). The relationship is linear, except that the majority of the data is
lying to the left of curve drawn by O’Loughlin and Lehane (2003), i.e.
somewhat lower than expected, indicating that some drying occurred during
storage.
239
Table (6.3): Summary of Moisture Content of RU, RL, and D Samples
240
Peaty Muck 50-75 - - 6 209-294 10 248-356 125-971
Amorphous Peat >75 - - - - 3 341-353 200-875
100
90
80
Loss on Ignition (%)
70
60
50 RU
RL
40
D
30 O'Loughlin & Lehane, 2003
Fig. (6.2): Correlation between loss on ignition and natural moisture content
compared with the data compiled by O’Loughlin and Lehane (2003)
The specific gravity of organic soil is highly variable compared with that of
mineral soils. Limited number of tests conducted in this study to confirm the
ranges reported in literature. The average specific gravity for RU, RL, and D
stratums are 2.49, 1.75, & 1.7 respectively, which is less than that of mineral
soils (2.6-2.8) and higher than that of peat (1.5). It is evident that as OC
increases specific gravity decreases. Table (6.4) illustrates the data of specific
gravity determined compared with categorized compiled data which indicates
that the data is comparable. Figure (6.3) illustrates the correlation between OC
and the specific gravity of current study compared with the data compiled by
O’Loughlin and Lehane (2003) and den Hann (1997). It is evident that the
specific gravity values of current study are within the envelope diagram drawn
for the compiled data.
241
Table (6.4): Summary of Specific Gravity of RU, RL, and D Samples
242
Peaty Muck 50-75 - - 1 1.6 2 1.54-1.71 1.48-1.89
Amorphous Peat >75 - - - - 2 1.69 1.59-1.73
3.5
RU
RL
3.0 D
2.0
1.5
1.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Loss on Ignition (% )
Fig. (6.3): Correlation between loss on ignition and specific gravity compared
with the data compiled by O’Loughlin and Lehane (2003)
The unit weight (γ) of organic soil samples were calculated based on measured
weights of known volumes for each of the specimens used for engineering
tests. The average bulk unit weights for RU, RL, and D stratums are 14.4
kN/m3, 11.4 kN/m3 & 10.9 kN/m3 respectively. That is, as OC and natural
moisture content increases and specific gravity decreases bulk unit weight
decreases. Table (6.5) illustrates the data of bulk unit weight determined
compared with compiled data which indicates that the data is comparable.
Figure (6.4) shows the correlation between bulk unit weight and the loss on
ignition (OC) which confirms this fact.
The average dry unit weights for RU, RL, and D stratums are 7.6 kN/m3, 3.6
kN/m3 & 2.8 kN/m3 respectively. That is, as OC and natural moisture content
increases and specific gravity decreases dry unit weight decreases. Figure (6.5)
shows that, the dry unit weight decreases as the loss on ignition (OC) increases
which confirms this fact.
243
Table (6.5): Summary of Bulk Unit Weight of RU, RL, and D Samples
244
10.0-12.3
Amorphous Peat >75 - - - - 3 10.0-11.0 09.2-12.3
1.8
RU
RL
1.6
3
D
Bulk Unit Weight, t/m
1.4
1.2
0.8
0 20 40 60 80 10 0
Loss on Ignition, (% )
Fig. (6.4): Correlation between bulk unit weight and the loss on ignition (OC)
1.2
RU
RL
1.0
D
Dry Unit Weighty, t/m3
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 20 40 60 80 1 00
Loss on Ignition, (%)
Fig. (6.5): Correlation between dry unit weight and the loss on ignition (OC)
245
For an organic particle, the rigidity and thickness of the zone of adsorbed water
is governed by the cation exchange capacity of the tissue and the chemistry of
the water; the higher the cation exchange capacity, the stronger the adsorbtion
complex, and the greater the interparticle adherence. Because the specific
gravity of the cell walls of plants is half that of clay minerals, the adsorption
complex in organic-rich soils is approximately twice as effective as that in clay.
This explains why organic-rich soils possess very high liquid limits as
compared with clays of similar cation exchange capacity. Also, the liquid limit
declines as the degree of humification increases, in other words as the
adsorption complex is weakened due to the destruction of plant material.
Organic fine substances are negatively charged and display a substantial cation
exchange capacity which increases with degree of humification and strongly
influenced by the hydrogen concentration in the pore water. Cations such as
Ca, Mg, K, Na and also Fe and Al, replace hydrogen at the exchange sites of
the organic polymolecules. The cation exchange capacity of very fine humic
substances may be as high as 1.5 - 5.0 meq/g (Terzaghi et al, 1996). In the less
organic soil most of the cation exchange ability is saturated by metallic cations
from mineral matter in the soil. As the organic content raises the quantity of
exchangeable hydrogen ions slowly increase as shown in Figure (2.18b).
246
600
500
Liquid Limit, (%)
400
300
200
RU
100
RL
D
0
0 20 40 60 80 10 0
Loss on Ignition, (%)
Fig. (6.6): Correlation between liquid limit with the loss on ignition
250
200
Plasticity Index,Ip
150
100 RU
RL
D
50
0 20 40 60 80 10 0
loss on Ignition, (% )
Fig. (6.7): Correlation between plasticity index with the loss on ignition
247
On four samples, a second determination of the liquid limit after oven drying
the soils, the liquid limit was decreased to 39-46 %, 30%, and 28% of the liquid
limit of the nondried soil for RU, RL, and D samples respectively, which is
lower than the criteria (75 %) recommended by USCS to identify organic soil.
Also, RU samples were classified as CH, while RL and D samples were
classified as OH when plotted on Casagrande plasticity chart (Fig. 5.3).
On the other hand, the most distinctive characteristic of organic soils in Egypt
is occurring as buried deposits thousands of years ago. The main objective of
this study is to characterize the engineering properties of the organic soils
found in Egypt in terms of undrained shear strength, permeability, and
compressibility with focusing the study toward evaluating compressibility
characteristics. Also, to assess the difference in mechanical behavior between
248
these buried deposits and those of severely problematic surficial deposits all
around the world.
Property RU RL D
Organic content (%) 7-29 37-69 29-77
Overburden pressure (kPa) 49-57 84-88 70-73
Preconsolidation pressure (kPa) 67-132 190-280 117-190
OCR 1.4-2.5 2.1-3.2 1.7-2.6
S un (kPa) 4-24 4-77 12-92
S up (kPa) 20-60 28-162 38-105
S un /σ` p 0.03-0.25 0.01-0.34 0.07-0.40
S up /σ` p 0.21-0.32 0.11-0.65 0.35-0.58
249
Table (6.7): Strength parameters of peat soils from literature*
ø
LOI wo
or
Peat Tests Su/σ`p Su/σ`v Authors
% (%) ø`
(°)
Antioch, Moran et al
TC >75 230-1,000 - - 0.48-0.6
Algiers (1958)
Lea &
Burnaby TC >75 400-1,200 - - 0.47-0.58 Brawner
(1959)
Adams
Muskeg ICU 77-88 375-430 50-60 - 0.38
(1961)
Moose Adams
ICU - 330-600 48 0.68 0.37
River (1965)
MacFarlane
Ottawa TC >75 900-1,200 - - - & Forrest
(1969)
Ozden &
Muskeg ICU 96 800 46 - 0.36 Wilson
(1970)
Yasuhara
&
Omono TC - - - 0.54 -
Takenaka
(1977)
20 (1) 50 0.38 Edil &
Middleton KoCU 31 (1) 500-600 54 - 0.41 Dhowain
64 (1) 57 0.42 (1981)
Landva &
TC 40-50
Escminac >75 1,240-1,380 - - LaRochelle
RS 32-40
(1983)
San Marachi et
TC >75 200-500 44 - -
Joaquin al (1983)
Yamaguchi
Ohmia >75 960-1,190 51-55 0.55
TC - et al
Urawa >75 980-1,260 53 0.52
(1985a,c,d)
KoCU (2) 0.42 Termmat et
Haastrecht 79 669 -
KoCU (3) 0.42 al (1994)
ICU 55
ICD -
Farrel &
Raheenmo- ICE 18-39
79-80 800-900 - 0.5-0.6 Hebib
re Bog DST 38
(1998)
DSS 31
RS + 38
Ajlouni
Middleton TC 90-95 510-850 60 - 0.53a
(2000)
* See next page (1) Fiber content (2)Biaxial test compression (3) Biaxial test extention
250
Table (6.8): Strength parameters from present study and from literature* for
muck and organic silt and clay soils
ø
Soil Type
LOI wo Or
Authors Tests Su/σ`p Su/σ`v
% (%) ø`
(°)
ICU 52 0.54 0.40
KoCU 60 0.52 0.43
Tsushima et al (1977) 57-58 -
ICD 52
KoCD 52
Oikawa & Miyakawa
ICU 56-67 - 78 0.63 0.50
(1980)
KoCU 0.47
Woliski et al (1989) 50 - - -
DSS 0.38
KoCU 67
Kanmuri et al (1998) 58 507 - 0.54
KoCE 28
Tsushima & Mitachi
KoCU (1) 60-70 560-680 - - 0.54
(1998)
Yamaguchi et al
Organic Silt & Clay
ICU 10 - - - 0.33
(1985c)
251
The mean undrained shear strength (Sun) for RU, RL, and D stratums is 16, 33,
and 37 kPa respectively. The mean undrained shear strength (Sup) for RU, RL,
and D stratums is 32, 104, and 78 kPa respectively. It is evident that the mean
undrained shear strength values obtained through pocket penetrometer tests
(Sup) are twice or more the mean undrained shear strength values obtained
through unconfined compression tests (Sun). However, like all soils, the shear
strength of organic soils is directly related to the effective stress in the ground
and stress history of the deposit. It can be concluded that Sup values are more
represtative than Sun values, since they increase with depth (mean depth is 5.25,
12.0, and 10.0 m for RU, RL, and D respectively) and OCR ratio (mean OCR
ratio is 1.91, 2.68, and 2.19 for RU, RL, and D respectively). Also this
confirms that undrained shear strength values obtained through unconfined
compressive tests are usually scattered due to inevitable change of effective
stress and mechanical disturbances during the process from sampling to
laboratory testing as concluded by Tsushima and Mitachi (1998). Figure (6-8)
shows the relationship between Sun relative to Sup.
120
RU
110
RL
100 D
Sun (Unconfined compressive strength), kPa
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
252
Data on undrained shear strength to consolidation pressure for organic-rich
soils from Tables (6.7 & 6.8) suggest that Su/σ`p or Su/σ`v are in the range of
0.36 to 0.68 for different shear testing procedures, which are high compared to
the Su(TC)/σ`p = 0.32 and Su(DSS)/σ`p = 0.22 to 0.28 for inorganic soft clay and
silt deposits (Terzaghi et al., 1996). Also, Magnan (1994) suggests value for
highly organic soils close to 0.5, while Farrel (1997) suggests value of 0.45.
Moreover, according to Mesri and Ajlouni (2007) the normalized undrained
shear strength Su/σ`p in the compression mode of shear for fibrous peat is
almost twice that of inorganic soft clay and silt deposits. They also concluded
that the fibrous structure is strongly responsible for high ratio of Su/σ`p for
fibrous peats, and that any biochemical degradation of the fiber structure can be
expected to lead to a reduction in property.
Figure (6.9) shows the variation of normalized undrained shear strength (Su/σ`p)
with OC. The mean normalized undrained shear strength (Sun/σ`p) for RU, RL,
and D stratums is 0.15, 0.12, and 0.19 respectively. The mean normalized
undrained shear strength (Sup/σ`p) for RU, RL, and D stratums is 0.25, 0.45, and
0.46 respectively. Again, the mean normalized undrained shear strength
(Sup/σ`p) values is more reasonable and comparable to that reported in literature,
since (Sup/σ`p) value for RU is comparable to Su(DSS)/σ`p of inorganic soft clay
and silt deposits, and (Sup/σ`p) values for RL and D is comparable to that of
highly organic soils taking into account the disappearing of fibrous structure of
encountered soils (Mesri and Ajlouni, 2007). Also the variation of Sup/σ`p data
with OC is comparable to that suggested by Termaat (1999) in Figure (3.6).
Figure (6.10) shows the variation of undrained shear strength (Su) determined
by both methods and normalized undrained shear strength (Su/σ`p) with depth.
It could be concluded that Sup and Sup/σ`p increases with depth (effective stress)
for RU and RL samples, while this criteria is not valid for Sun and Sun/σ`p. On
the other hand, for D samples, Su and Su/σ`p are more or less constant with
depth for both methods.
253
1.0
RU
Normalized undrained shear strength,Sun/σ`p
RL
0.8 D
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
(a)
1.0
RU
Normalized undrained shear strength,Sup /σ`p
RL
0.8
D
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Loss on Ignition (% )
(b)
Fig. (6.9): The variation of normalized undrained shear strength (Su/σ`p) with
loss on ignition (OC); (a) Sun/σ`p, and (b) Sup/σ`p
254
Su , (kPa) σ` p , (kPa) S u /σ` p
0 50 100 150 200
0 100 200 300 400 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
0 G. S. 0
0 0
GWT 1
1 1 1
Very 2
2 2 2
3
3 3 3
4
Soft to Med. Stiff silty Clay, Dark Grey 4
4 4
5 5
5 5
Organic Silty Clay, Grey to Black (RU)
6 6
6 6
7 7
7
Elevation, ms
8 8
Soft to Med. Stiff Silty Clay, Dark Grey, 8 8
9
interlayers of Grey Silty Sand 9
9 9
Depth, ms.
Depth, ms.
Depth, ms.
10 10 10 10
11 11 11 11
Silty Muck to Peaty Muck, Dark Reddish
12 12 12
Brown to Black (RL) 12
13 13 13 13
14 14 14 14
15 15 15 15
16 16 16 16
Med. Stiff to Stiff Silty Clay, Dark Grey,
17 17 17 17
interlayers of Grey Silty Sand & Grey Sandy
18 Silt
18 18 18
RU-un RL-un RU-un RL-un
19 19 19 19
Sand, Coarse to Med., Trace of Silt & Fine RU-p RL-p RU RL RU-p RL-p
20 Gravel, Very Dense, Grey 20 20 20
3 3 3 3.00
4 4 4 4.00
7 7 7 7.00
8 8 8 8.00
Elevation, ms
9 9 9 9.00
Depth, ms.
Depth, ms.
Depth, ms.
12 12 12 12.00
13 13 13 13.00
Med. Stiff Silty Clay, Pale Blue, Minute
14
Fragments of White Limestone 14 14 14.00
15
15 15 15.00
16
16 16 16.00
17
17 17 17.00
Stiff Silty Clay, Dark Brown, intercalations of
18
Yellowish Brown Silty Sand 18 18 18.00
19
19 19 19.00
D-un D-p D D-un D-p
20
20 20 20.00
Fig. (6.10): The variation of undrained shear strength (Su) determined by both
methods and normalized undrained shear strength (Su/σ`p) with depth.
255
6.3.2 Permeability Characteristics
Permeability of organic soils is one of the most important properties because it
controls the rate of both; consolidation and increase in the shear strength of the
soil (Hobbs, 1986). The physical structure and arrangement of constituent, i.e.,
fibers and granules, of organic soil greatly affect the void ratio and the size and
continuity of pores, resulting in a wide range of hydraulic conductivities. In
addition to the material structure, permeability of organic soils varies widely,
depending on amount of mineral matter, degree of consolidation, degree of
decomposition, chemical composition, and the presence of gas.
256
The work performed demonstrates the highly variable nature of organic soils
especially in organic content. The OCs were varied over a fairly wide range for
samples obtained in close proximity to each other, accompanied by a varied
initial void ratios (porosity) and initial coefficients of permeability, especially
for highly organic soils (RL & D samples). Therefore, it was not possible to
evaluate the permeability anisotropy due to varied OCs. Even though, it can be
observed from the SEM images that the organic soil encountered is highly
porous in both vertical and horizontal directions.
Figure (6.11) shows the correlation between initial void ratios, eo, and initial
permeability, ko. Figure (6.12) shows the correlation between initial
permeability ko and loss on ignition (OC). It is evident that initial void ratios,
eo, and coefficients of permeability, k, increase as organic content (OC)
increase.
Figure (6.13) shows the data on initial vertical permeability kvo and horizontal
permeability kho of these three samples together with permeability data from the
literature on fibrous peat (Mesri and Ajlouni, 2007) and amorphous peat
deposits and peaty muck (Hobbs, 1986; Santagata et. al., 2008) within a frame
of reference permeability data on pure clay minerals montmorillonite, illite, and
kaolinite, as well as data on a large number of soft clay and silt deposits and
clean sand (Mesri and Ajlouni, 2007). Figure (6.14) shows the data on vertical
permeability kv and horizontal permeability kh of these three samples within the
same frame of reference permeability data.
It was revealed that RL & D stratums classified as peaty muck (highly organic
soil) possess medium initial permeability (ko); just below the range reported for
peats and around 100 to 1000 times the initial permeability of soft clay and silt
deposits. This is because highly colloidal (Figure 5.4), mostly decomposed
(Figures 5.10, 5.12), amorphous-granular soils tend to be less permeable than
well preserved fibrous soils. On the other hand, initial permeability (ko) for
257
highly organic silty clay soil (RU stratum) exists just at the upper limit of soft
clays and silts deposits, which indicates that organic matter encountered in soil
matrix promotes loose and open fabric (Figure 5.8).
6
Void ratio, eo
RU-13-V
RU-13-H
2
RL-12-V
RL-12-H
D-5-V
D-5-H
0
1.E-10 1.E-09 1.E-08 1.E-07 1.E-06 1.E-05 1.E-04 1.E-03 1.E-02
Permeability, k (cm/sec)
Fig. (6.11): Correlation between initial void ratios, eo, and initial permeability,
ko.
1.E-03
1.E-04
Permeability,k (cm/sec)
1.E-05
1.E-06
RU-V
1.E-07
RU-H
RL-V
RL-H
1.E-08
D-V
D-H
1.E-09
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
258
32
PeatEnv.
Montmorillonite
Iilite
28 Soft clay
Kaolinite Montmorillonite
Sand
RU-13-V
24
RU-13-H
RL-12-V
RL-12-H
20 D-5-V Peat Envelope
D-5-H
Void ratio, e
Santagata,2008
Lieszkowsky, 1977
16 Lee & Brawner, 1963
12 Iilite
Fig. (6.13): Data on initial permeability ko of RU, RL, and D stratums within a
frame of reference permeability data from the literature on fibrous and
amorphous peat deposits, peaty muck, pure clay minerals montmorillonite,
illite, and kaolinite, soft clay and silt deposits and clean sand.
D-H
28 D-V
Peat Env.
Montmorillonite
24
Iilite Montmorillonite
Soft clay
Kaolinite
20
Sand
Peat
RU-V
RU-H
Envelope
Void ratio, e
RL-V
16 RL-H
Santagata, 2008
12 Lieszkowsky (1977)
Iilite
4 Sand
Soft Clays
Kaolinite
0
1.E-12 1.E-11 1.E-10 1.E-09 1.E-08 1.E-07 1.E-06 1.E-05 1.E-04 1.E-03 1.E-02 1.E-01 1.E+00
Permeability, k (cm/sec)
259
Upon compression, the permeability of the organic soils decreases dramatically
as they compress under loads because of their high compressibility. The slope
of the initial portion of the e versus log k, that is, Ck = ∆e ⁄∆ log k, which
measures the reduction in e required to produce a tenfold decrease in k, is
commonly used in empirical correlations as Ck /eo. It was estimated as 0.30,
0.14, and 0.24 for RU, RL, and D stratums respectively compared to 0.25 for
fibrous peat and 0.5 for clay and silt deposits. Figure (6.15a) shows the
relationship between Ck and in-situ void ratio (eo) for the three stratum
compared with peaty muck soil from Indiana – USA (Santagata et. al., 2008).
Figure (6.15b) shows the same relationship for fibrous peats and soft clay and
silt deposits (Mesri and Ajlouni, 2007).
3
RU RL D Santagata, 2008
Ck = 0.24 eo
Ck
Ck = 0.3 eo Ck = 0.18 eo
1
Ck = 0.14 eo
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
(a) (b)
Fig. (6.15): (a) Relationship between Ck and in-situ void ratio (eo) for the three
stratums compared with muck soil (Santagata et. al., 2008) (b) The same
relationship for fibrous peats and soft clay and silt deposits (Mesri and Ajlouni,
2007.
It is evident now that highly organic soils (RL, & D stratums) and highly
organic silty clay (RU stratum), encountered in this study, can be considered as
transitional material between soft inorganic silts and clays deposits and fibrous
peats with regarding to permeability characteristics.
260
6.3.3 Compressibility Characteristics
Compression of soils under a laterally constrained condition may be
conventionally divided into primary compression observed during the increase
in effective vertical stress, and secondary compression that follows at constant
effective vertical stress. Both primary and secondary compression is time-
dependant and result from a reduction of void ratio and concurrent expulsion of
water from the voids of the soil skeleton.
261
Different from both sands and clays, organic-rich soils generally undergo rapid
and large consolidation settlement and extensive long-term secondary
compression (Fox, 2003). The high compressibility of organic-rich soils may
be attributed to their loose structure and high water content. As a result of their
loose state, they have high permeability. Consequently when load is applied,
water quickly flows out causing large volumetric deformations in the near term,
as well as large creep deformations in the long-term (McVay and Nugyen,
2004). On the other hand, organic silts and/or clays present similar engineering
challenges as soft silts and clays, including low hydraulic conductivity, high
compressibility and significant creep deformations.
This study was focused toward evaluating and outlining the distinct
compressibility behaviors of the organic soils found in Egypt. The organic soils
encountered in this study were classified as peaty muck for RL & D stratums,
and as highly organic silty clay for RU stratum. The RL & D stratums are
consisting mainly of partly decomposed plant material, have an amorphous
granular appearance with traces of partly decomposed woody pieces and very
fine fibers, and have a sponge-like fabric. Upon deformation, the soil tends to
crumble showing less cohesion than the RU stratum. On the other hand, RU
stratum is consisting mainly of silty clay with spots of/or mixed with partly
decomposed plant material. It is highly plastic in nature and is easily deformed.
Upon deformation it exhibits a high degree of cohesion.
262
Table (6.10): Summary of the compressibility characteristics of RU, RL, and D stratums
Property RU RL D
Organic content (%) 7-16 41-69 27-82
Natural moisture content (%) 70-139 158-338 178-353
In situ void ratio 1.67-2.95 3.25-5.85 3.73-6.37
Overburden pressure (kPa) 49-57 84-88 70-73
Preconsolidation pressure (kPa) 67-132 186-280 117-190
Overconsolidation ratio, OCR 1.4-2.5 2.1-3.2 1.7-2.6
Ave. Ver. coeff. of cons. in recomp., cv (m2/year) 1.0-3.3 10.4-26.0 5.5-34.7
Ave. Hor. coeff. of cons. in recomp, ch (m2/year) 0.7 37.9-55.2 5.5-17.4
263
Ave. Ver. coeff. of cons. in comp., cv (m2/year) 0.4-1.2 1.1-8.5 0.7-16.1
Ave. Hor. coeff. of cons. in comp, ch (m2/year) 0.4 3.6-20.8 0.9-4.4
Compression index C c 0.6-1.4 2.1-3.8 2.0-4.4
Recompression index C r 0.17 0.46 0.57
Coefficient of secondary compression C α 0.015-0.056 0.094-0.177 0.089-0.234
Swelling index C s 0.25 0.35 0.43
C a /C c 0.041 0.049 0.050
C r /C c 0.130 0.144 0.198
C k /C c -V 0.66 0.18 0.36
C k /C c -H 0.80 0.23 0.45
Table (6.11): Compressibility characteristics of some peat deposit from
laterature (based on Ajlouni, 2000)
wo
(%) kvo cvo Ratio
Peat Cc Reference
or (m/s) 2
(m /year) Cα/Cc
eo
Fibrous peat 850
-6
- 10 0.06-0.1 Hanrahan 1954
4x10
Peat 520 - - - 0.061-0.078 Lewis 1956
Peat 400-750
-5
- - 0.075-0.085 Weber 1969
10
Amorphous eo=7 -7
Berry and
4x10 64 2.6 0.05
granular peat Poskitt
-7 1972
Fibrous peat e =11 8x10 16.1 4.4 0.05
o
-6 Samson and
Fibrous peat 605-1290 10 - - 0.052-0.072 La Rochelle 1972
Peat 419
-8
>6.4 - - Jones et al. 1986
3x10
Fibrous peat -8 -6
510-850 3x10 -10 20-150 6-9 0.053
(Middleton)
Ajlouni 2000
Fibrous peat -7 -6
1000-1340 4x10 - 7x10 30-300 10-12 0.059
James Bay
Fibrous peat 608 1.2x10-4 4.9 3.1 Yulindasari 2006
264
Table (6.12): Compressibility characteristics of some muck deposits from
present study and from laterature
wo kvo cvo Ratio
Muck Cc Reference
(%) (m/s) 2
(m /year) Cα/Cc
-6 -5
Fibrous peaty 660-1060 10 -5x10 - 4.5-9.1 0.06 Lefebvre et al. 1984
muck
Italian peaty 250-400 -9 -8
- 2.7-3.5 0.05-0.07 Colleselli and
10 -10 Cortellazzo 1998
muck
Kanagawa 350-550 - 7.3-29.2 1.5-8 - Matsuda et al. 1998
muck
Iwamizawa - - - - 0.065 Kogure 1999
peaty muck
McVay and Nugyen
Florida muck 105-183 - - 0.73-2.53 - 2004
Florida sity 162-328 - 53-126 1.0-2.6 0.51 Sobhan 2007
muck
-8
Indiana muck 210-285 10 - 2.62 0.95 Santagata et al., 2008
-7
Mahmoudia 158-338 1.2x10 10.4-26.0 2.1-3.8 0.49 Present study 2010
peaty muck
-9
Motoubes 178-353 7x10 5.5-34.7 2-4.4 0.5 Present study 2010
peaty muck
265
6.3.3.1 Primary Compression
Natural void ratio of organic soils is generally higher than that of inorganic
soils; with fibrous peat having the greater void ratios. Extreme ranges in void
ratio for organic soils have been reported from 2 to 25 (Hanrahan, 1954), with
void ratio of peat ranges between 9, for dense amorphous granular peat, up to
25, for fibrous types with high contents of sphagnum. It usually tends to
decrease with depth within a peat deposit. Such high void ratios give rise to
phenomenally high water contents. The latter is the most distinctive
characteristic of organic soils (Bell, 2000). The average void ratio for RU, RL,
and D samples is 2.356, 4.461, and 5.612 respectively which is comparable
taking into account that the encountered soil is ranging between organic silty
clay and peaty muck, and of buried nature.
Compared with surficial organic deposits, the three stratums encountered in this
study RU, RL, and D are buried at depths 4.0 m, 10.0 m, an 8.0 m respectively.
They have range of age about 5000 year B.P. A profile of σ`vo, σ`p, OCR, and
εvo with depth was developed for every stratum as shown in Figures (5.24,
5.25). It was noted that preconsolidation pressure σ`p was easily determined
from EOP εv -log σ`v compression curves which are characterized by the S-
shape and clear break at the preconsolidation pressure. Also, the mean in-situ
overconsolidation ratio (OCR) was computed as 1.91, 2.68, and 2.19 for RU,
RL, and D respectively. Furthermore, the majority of the specimens’ qualities
were considered as good according to Sample Quality Designation scale (εvo =
2-4 %). From the data verification, it could be concluded that the higher values
of σ`p and OCR are corresponding to the lower values of εvo and vise versa.
266
For six samples, two of each stratum, one load increment was allowed to
undergo secondary compression for one week to assess aging effect on
preconsolidation pressure (σ`p). This was followed for three samples, one of
each stratum, in recompression range, and three samples, one of each stratum,
in compression range, between σ`p and 2 σ`p. The measured OCR for these
samples after aging in recompression range was 2.5, 2.9, and 2.6 and after
aging in compression range was 3.5, 7.7, and 4.2 for RU, RL, and D
respectively. The computed OCR = (t/tp)(Cα/Cc / (1-Cr/Cc))
due to aging in
recompression range is 1.43, 1.58, and 1.54, and due to aging in compression
range is 1.25, 1.30, and 1.51 for RU, RL, and D respectively. It could be
concluded that the measured OCR after aging is higher than that computed due
to aging which indicates that aging is not the only reason for overconsolidation.
Figure (6.16) shows the relationship between the measured OCR after aging
relative to that computed due to aging.
6
Measured OCR after aging
RU-Recomp
3
RL-Recomp
D-Recomp
2 RU-Comp
RL-Comp
1 D-Comp
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Computed OCR due to aging
Fig. (6.16): Relationship between the measured OCR after aging relative to that
computed due to aging.
267
According to Mesri and Ajlouni (2007), amorphous peat fabric is likely to exist
at lower void ratios and to display lower permeability anisotropy and lower
compressibility [e.g., Edil and Wang, 2000] as compared to fibrous peat
deposits. Also, Matsuda et al. (1998) concluded that no difference in Cc and σ`p
were observed for the vertical and horizontal specimens of muck soil samples
have loss on ignition in the range of 30-70% with natural water content in the
range 350-550%. The values of preconsolidation pressure σ`p from EOP εv -log
σ`v compression curves for specimens that were cut with their axes
perpendicular or parallel to the vertical direction were more or less equal which
indicate that the fabric of encountered organic soils is isotropic. This was
confirmed by SEM images which indicated that there are no significant
differences in the fabric of the organic soil encountered, and it is highly porous
in both vertical and horizontal directions.
Due to the S-shape of the compression curve, the compression index Cc and
similarly compression ratio of the soil Cc` = Cc /(1+eo) changes significantly
over the stress range investigated. Figure (6.18) shows the variation of Cc` with
normalized effective applied pressures (σ`v/σ`p). Cc` increases gradually within
the recompression range till approximately 0.4σ`p for RU, RL, and D stratum,
then increases sharply till 2σ`p (in the normally consolidation region), then
decrease continuously with increasing vertical effective stress for RL and D
stratums, while be almost constant for RU stratum then beyond approximately
5σ`p-10σ`p decrease continuously with increasing vertical effective stress.
268
1000
RU 10
RU-15-(IL+Long S)
RU-3-(IL+Late LS)
RU-13-(IL+FS)V+Perm
RU-9-(IL+FS+Loop)
RU-8-(IL+Sec)
RU-13-(IL+FS+Perm )H
1
10 100 1000 10000
1000
Constrained Modulus D=1/mv (kPa
100
RL-5-(IL+Sec)-m od
RL 10
RL-6-(IL+Long Sec.)
RL-18-(IL+Late LS)
RL-17-(IL+FS)V
RL-17-(IL+FS)H
RL-11-(IL+FS+Loop)
RL-12-(IL+FS+Perm )V
RL-12-(IL+FS+Perm )H
1
10 100 1000 10000
1000
Constrained Modulus D=1/mv (kPa
100
D-7-(IL+FS)V
D 10
D-7-(IL+FS)H
D-2-(IL+Long S)
D-13-(IL+Late LS)
D-5-(IL+FS)V+Perm
D-5-(IL+FS)H+Perm
D-8-(IL+FS+Loop)
D-11-(IL+Sec)
1
10 100 1000 10000
269
0.7
RU-15-(IL+Long S)
RU-3-(IL+Late LS)
0.6
RU-13-(IL+FS)V+P erm
0.5 RU-9-(IL+FS+Loop)
RU-8-(IL+Sec)
Cc/(1+eo)
0.4 RU-9-(IL+FS+P erm)H
0.3
RU
0.2
0.1
0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Normalized Applied Pressure, (σ'v/σ'p)
0.1
0.0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Normalized Applied Pressure, (σ'v/σ'p)
0.7
D-11-(IL+Sec)
D-7-(IL+FS)V
0.6
D-2-(IL+Long S)
D-18-(IL+Late LS)
0.5
D-5-(IL+FS)V+P erm
Cc/(1+eo)
0.4 D-8-(IL+FS+Loop)
D-7-(IL+FS)H
0.2
0.1
0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Normalized Applied Pressure, (σ' v/σ' p)
Fig. (6.18): The variation of Cc` with normalized effective applied pressures
(σ'v/σ'p) for RU, RL, and D stratums.
270
It was found that mean value of Cc for RU, RL, and D stratums is 1.05, 2.86,
and 3.631 respectively. That is, Cc increases as mean organic content increases.
On the other hand, it is evident that Cc for RU stratum, classified as highly
organic silty clay, is slightly higher than that reported for soft clay and silt
deposits, while Cc for RL and D stratums, classified as peaty muck, is
comparable to that reported by Santagata et al., (2008) for peaty muck (Ave.
OC = 59.5%) of 2.62 and still in the lower limits reported for peat 2-15
(Lefebvre, et al, 1984).
In this research, one sample of every stratum RU, RL, and D was unloaded just
after σ`p incrementally to less than σ`vo then subsequently reloaded
incrementally to the desired effective stress. Values of recompression index Cr
for RU, RL, and D stratums, measured from the developed loops, are 0.165,
0.458, and 0.574 respectively. Corresponding values of Cr /Cc ratio are 0.13,
0.144, and 0.198 respectively and comparable to that reported for inorganic silt
and clay of 0.1-0.2 and is still in the lower limits reported for fibrous peat of
0.1-0.3 (Mesri and Ajlouni, 2007). On the other hand, for the other samples Cr`
was measured as the slope of the tangent at σ`vo of EOP εv -log σ`v curves, and
Cr = Cr`(1+eo) was computed in a trial to estimate an approximate value of
recompression index Cr and illustrated in Figure (6.19). This method
overestimated Cr for RU samples, while underestimated Cr values for D
samples.
For the above three samples, two rebound cycles were performed in every test.
The first cycle was at pressure 200 kPa, 400 kPa, and 200 kPa for RU, RL, and
D samples respectively. The swelling index, Cs = ∆e/∆ log σ`v, with mean
values of 0.16, 0.51, and 0.7 for RU, RL, and D samples respectively, increases
with overconsolidation ratio [OCR = σ`v(max)/ σ`v]. The second cycle was at
the end of the scheduled load sequence, 3200 kPa. The swelling index, Cs, with
mean values of 0.22, 0.35, and 0.49 for RU, RL, and D samples respectively,
decreases with overconsolidation ratio [OCR = σ`v(max)/ σ`v].
271
0.14
Cr = 0.130Cc
0.12
0.10
Cr/(1+eo)
0.08
RU 0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Cc/(1+e o )
0.16
0.14
Cr = 0.144Cc
0.12
0.10
Cr/(1+eo)
0.08
RL 0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Cc/(1+e o)
0.16
0.14
0.12
Cr = 0.198Cc
0.10
Cr/(1+eo)
0.08
D 0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Cc/(1+e o )
Fig. (6.19): Relationship between Cr` and Cc` for RU, RL, and D stratums.
272
It is evident that the swelling index, Cs, increases as organic content increases.
Also, it increases slightly with the decrease in σ`v(max) from which unloading
takes place for the highly organic samples (RL & D), as concluded by Mesri et
al., (1997), while decreases for lower organic sample (RU). Furthermore, the
swelling index values for RL, and D samples (highly organic samples) are
within the range of 0.3-0.9 reported by Mesri et al., (1997) for Middleton
fibrous peat, while that for RU (organic silt and clay) is lower than that range.
Moreover, the values of Cs/Cc increases from 0.13, 0.20, and 0.27 at low
pressure rebound to 0.24, 0.34, and 0.47 at high pressure rebound for RU, RL,
and D samples respectively mainly because of significant decrease in Cc with
σ`v.
273
1.E+00
RU-15-(IL+Long S)
2
1.E-01 RU-13-(IL+FS)V+Perm
RU-9-(IL+FS+Loop)
1.E-02 RU-8-(IL+Sec)
RU 1.E-03
1.E-04
1.E-05
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Normalized Applied Pressure, (σ' v/σ'p)
1.E+00
RL-5-(IL+Sec)
Coeffcient of Consolidation, cv cm /sec
RL-17-(IL+FS)V
2
1.E-01 RL-6-(IL+Long S)
RL-18-(IL+Late LS)
RL-12-(IL+FS)V+Perm
1.E-02 RL-11-(IL+FS+Loop)
RL 1.E-03
1.E-04
1.E-05
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Normalized Applied Pressure, (σ' v/σ'p)
1.E+00
D-11-(IL+Sec)
D-7-(IL+FS)V
Coeffcient of Consolidation, cv cm /sec)
1.E-01 D-2-(IL+Long S)
2
D-18-(IL+Late LS)
D-5-(IL+FS)V+Perm
1.E-02 D-8-(IL+FS+Loop)
D 1.E-03
1.E-04
1.E-05
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Normalized Applied Pressure, (σ' v/σ'p)
274
1.E+00
2
1.E-01
1.E-02
RU 1.E-03
1.E-04
1.E-05
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
1.E+00
Coeffcient of Consolidation, c v cm /sec
RL-17-(IL+FS)H
2
RL-12-(IL+FS)H+Perm
1.E-01
1.E-02
RL 1.E-03
1.E-04
1.E-05
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
1.E+00
D-7-(IL+FS)H
Coeffcient of Consolidation, cv cm /sec)
2
D-5-(IL+FS)H+Perm
1.E-01
1.E-02
D 1.E-03
1.E-04
1.E-05
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
275
Figure (6.20) shows the variation of the coefficient of consolidation in the
vertical direction (cv) with normalized effective vertical stress for the
encountered organic soils. The average vertical coefficients of consolidation in
the recompression range (σ`vo- σ`p) are in the ranges 1.0 to 3.3 m²/year, 10.4 to
26.0 m²/year, and 5.5 – 34.7 m²/year for RU, RL, and D stratums respectively.
The average vertical coefficients of consolidation in the compression range (σ`p
- 3 σ`p) are in the ranges 0.4 to 1.2 m²/year, 1.1 to 8.5 m²/year, and 0.7 to 16.1
m²/year which decreases by a factor of 3, 3 to 10, and 2 to 8 for RU, RL, and D
stratums respectively.
It is evident that the data of RU stratum is comparable to that of soft clay and
silt deposits, while the data of RL and D stratums (muck) lies in between that
of fibrous peat and that of organic silt and clay (RU). Also, as effective stress
increases permeability decreases as shown in Figure (5.17) and necessarily
coefficient of consolidation decreases continuously, especially once the soil is
loaded well into NC region, both in the vertical direction and in horizontal
direction. Furthermore, the data for the three stratums are consistent except
that, as concluded by Farrell et al., (1994), for RU stratum (Organic silty clay)
of lower organic content the decrease in coefficient of consolidation is less in
magnitude than that for RL and D stratums (peaty muck) by one order of
magnitude. Moreover, the variability of organic content and fabric (constituent
arrangement) of the different specimens explains the scatter of data.
276
Figure (3.30) illustrates a comparison of the coefficient of consolidation data
for three soils; Boston blue soft inorganic clay, peaty muck from West
Lafayette (Indiana), and Middleton fibrous peat (Wisconsin), by plotting cv
versus σ`v ⁄σ`p. It is revealed that the key difference between the inorganic clay
and the organic soils is the change in cv in the NC region, which reflects both
changes in compressibility and in permeability. Figure (6.22) shows the
envelope diagrams drawn for the coefficient of consolidation data of peaty
muck from West Lafayette (Santagata et al., 2008), and Middleton fibrous peat
(Ajlouni, 2000).
1.E+00
Ajlouni Env., 2000
Coeffcient of Consolidation, cv cm /sec
1.E-01
1.E-02
1.E-03
1.E-04
1.E-05
0.1 1 10 100
Normalized Applied Pressure, (σ'v/σ'p)
Fig. (6.22): The envelope diagrams drawn for the coefficient of consolidation data of
peaty muck from West Lafayette (Santagata et al., 2008), and Middleton fibrous peat
(Ajlouni, 2000).
277
1.E+00
RU-15-(IL+Long S)
RU-13-(IL+FS)V+Perm
2
1.E-01
RU-9-(IL+FS+Loop)
RU-8-(IL+Sec)
Aj louni Env.
1.E-02
Santagata, 2008
RU 1.E-03
1.E-04
1.E-05
0.1 1 10 100
Normalized Applied Pressure, (σ' v/σ' p)
1.E+00
RL-5-(IL+Sec)
Coeffcient of Consolidation, cv ( cm /sec)
RL-17-(IL+FS)V
RL-6-(IL+Long S)
2
RL-12-(IL+FS)V+Perm
RL-11-(IL+FS+Loop)
1.E-02 Aj louni Env.
Santagata, 2008
RL 1.E-03
1.E-04
1.E-05
0.1 1 10 100
1.E+00 D-11-(IL+Sec)
D-7-(IL+FS)V
Coeffcient of Consolidation, cv ( cm /sec)
D-2-(IL+Long S)
2
D 1.E-03
1.E-04
1.E-05
0.1 1 10 100
278
The Ck /Cc ratio measures the decrease in k deriving from the increase in the
effective stress. According to Mesri and Ajlouni (2007), the dramatic decrease
in the coefficient of consolidation of highly organic soils, which severely affect
the rate of primary consolidation, is expected due to small value of Ck /Cc = 0.3-
0.4 compared with Ck /Cc = 1.0 for a large number of soft clay and silt deposits,
which means that a significant decrease in permeability is associated with any
increase in effective stress.
For the highly organic soil investigated in this study, RL and D stratums, Ck /Cc
is 0.18 and 0.36 respectively in the vertical direction and 0.23 and 0.45
respectively in the horizontal direction which is comparable to that of fibrous
peat, while slightly lower than that reported for peaty muck (0.4-0.6) by
Santagata et al., (2008) . For organic silty clay, RU stratum, Ck /Cc is 0.66 in the
vertical direction and equals 0.8 in the horizontal direction which is
intermediate between that of fibrous peat and muck and that of soft clay and silt
deposits. That is, as organic content increase the natural water content wo and
compression index Cc increase and Ck /Cc decrease.
The low Ck /Cc value during consolidation of organic soil occurs because the
amount of water to be expelled remains high (high Cc), while the flow channels
that discharge the water become rapidly constrained (low Ck). This was
revealed from Figures (5.9, 5.11, & 5.13) which show the thick relatively stiff
mats formed after consolidation under 3200 kPa in the horizontal and vertical
sections.
279
At the planning stage before a detailed subsurface investigation is carried out,
preconsolidation pressure σ`p and compression index Cc may be estimated from
empirical correlations. Mesri and Ajlouni (2007) concluded that a direct
relationship between the compression index and natural water content should
exist for saturated soils because both are controlled by the composition and the
structure of the soil. Composition and structure control both the in-situ void
ratio at which a soil comes to equilibrium and the compressibility after the soil
structure yields at the preconsolidation pressure (Hanrahan 1954; Landva and
La Rochelle 1983).
Mesri and Ajlouni (2007), introduced a plot of Cc evaluated from EOP e versus
log σ`v relationship in the consolidation pressure range of σ`p to 2σ`p versus
natural water content wo (Figure 3.29). It includes Cc data for Middleton peat,
James Bay peat, and peats from the literature, including from Canada, Japan
and the United States, as well as for reference, for soft clay and silt deposits.
The plot suggests that preliminary estimate of compression index may be
obtained using Cc = wo/100. Figure (6.24) shows the data of the current study,
within an envelope diagram, drawn for the above described data which
compiled by Mesri and Ajlouni (2007) for organic soils and peats. The figure
indicates that the data is comparable, taking into account that samples suffered
some drying during storage as mentioned earlier.
Kogure and Ohira (1977) developed an empirical correlation between σ`p and
in situ void ratio eo for surficial peat deposits. Mesri and Ajlouni (2007)
introduced a correlation between σ`p and eo for peats based on compression data
of Middleton peat and James Bay peat, together with Kogure and Ohira (1977)
data for surficial peat deposits (Figure 3.27). Figure (6.25) shows a correlation
between σ`p and eo for the encountered buried organic soils. In the absence of
undisturbed sampling and oedometer testing, σ`p may be estimated from this
empirical correlation or correlations with undrained shear strength described
earlier.
280
100
Compression Index, Cc
10
Cc = wo /100
RU
1
RL
0.1
10 100 1000 10000
Natural Water Content, w o (% )
Fig. (6.24): Correlation between Cc and wo for RU, RL, and D samples
1000 σ'p =
1 40 0
/ eo
σ'p =
7 00/
e
o
σ'p, kPa
100
σ'p=
3 00 /
eo
σ' p=
1 50 /
e
RU o
RL
D
10
1 10
Void Ratio, eo
Fig. (6.25): Correlation between σ`p and eo for RU, RL, and D samples
281
6.3.3.2 Secondary Compression
As can be seen from above, the primary consolidation of highly organic soil
(RL & D stratums) is very rapid and relatively rapid for organic silt and clay
(RU Stratum) in laboratory compared to inorganic silt and clay. This was
confirmed in the field; for most organic-rich deposits rapid dissipation of water
pressure are completed within a few weeks or months (Mesri et al., 1997). This
suggests that significant settlement occurs due to secondary compression under
a constant effective stress. On the other hand, this long-term compression has
no end within the time of engineering interest i.e. design life of structures
(Berry and Poskitt, 1972, Mesri et al. 1997, Mesri and Vardhanabhuti, 2005).
282
10.03
10.02
tp = 8 min
10.01
10.00
Deformation, mm 9.99
RU
9.98
9.97
9.96
9.95
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
Time (minutes)
8.60
8.40 tp = 4 min
8.20
8.00
Deformation, mm
7.80
RL 7.60
7.40
7.20
7.00
6.80
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
Time (minutes)
10.10
tp = 0.5 min
10.00
Deformation, mm
9.90
9.80
D
9.70
9.60
9.50
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
Time (minutes)
283
8.80
8.70
8.60
8.50
tp = 90 min
Deformation, mm
8.40
8.30
8.20
RU 8.10
8.00
7.90
7.80
7.70
7.60
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
Time (minutes)
8.60
8.40
8.20
8.00
7.80
tp = 100 min
7.60
Deformation, mm
7.40
7.20
7.00
6.80
RL 6.60
6.40
6.20
6.00
5.80
5.60
5.40
5.20
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
Time (minutes)
9.00
8.80
8.60
tp = 16 min
8.40
8.20
Deformation, mm
8.00
7.80
D 7.60
7.40
7.20
7.00
6.80
6.60
6.40
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
Time (minutes)
284
8.6000
8.4000
8.2000 tp = 4 min
8.0000
Deformation (mm
7.8000
7.6000
7.4000
7.2000
7.0000
6.8000
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
Time (minutes)
Figure (6.29) illustrates the variation of Cα`= Cα/(1+eo) with normalized applied
pressure for RU, RL, and D samples of different organic content. The values of
the secondary compression ratio Cα` derived from the IL tests varied
considerably as a function of organic content of the soil and the stress level. Cα`
increases gradually within the recompression range till approximately 0.4σ`p for
RU, RL, and D stratum, then increases sharply till 2σ`p (in the normally
consolidation region), then decrease continuously with increasing vertical
effective stress for RL and D stratums, while be almost constant for RU stratum
then beyond approximately 5σ`p-10σ`p decrease continuously with increasing
vertical effective stress. As can be seen, it is typically the same behavior as Cc`.
285
0.05
RU-15-(IL+Long S)
RU-3-(IL+Late LS)
0.04 RU-13-(IL+FS)V+Perm
RU-9-(IL+FS+Loop)
RU-8-(IL+Sec)
0.03
Cα /(1+eo )
RU-9-(IL+FS+Perm)H
0.02
RU
0.01
0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
0.05
RL-12-(IL+FS)V+ Perm
RL-5-(IL+Sec)
0.04 RL-17-(IL+FS)V
RL-17-(IL+FS)H
RL-11-(IL+FS+Loop)
0.03
Cα /(1+eo )
RL-6-(IL+Long Sec)
RL-12-(IL+FS+Perm)H
RL 0.02
0.01
0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
0.05 D-11-(IL+Sec)
D-7-(IL+FS)V
D-2-(IL+Long S)
0.04
D-18-(IL+Late LS)
D-5-(IL+FS)V+Perm
0.03 D-8-(IL+FS+Loop)
Cα /(1+eo )
D-7-(IL+FS)H
D-5-(IL+FS+Perm)-H
0.02
D
0.01
0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Fig. (6.29): The variation of Cα` with normalized effective applied pressures
(σ'v/σ'p) for RU, RL, and D stratums.
286
However, Mesri and Godlewski (1977) concluded that for any given soil a
unique relationship exists between Cα = ∆e/∆ log t and Cc = ∆e/∆ log σ`v
throughout the secondary compression stage, and for all pressures in the
recompression and compression range. According to recommendations made
by Mesri and Castro (1987), at any given effective stress, the value of Cα from
the first log cycle of secondary compression and the corresponding Cc value
computed from the EOP e-log σ`v curve are used to define the relationship
between Cα and Cc. Moreover, the values of Cα /Cc for all geotechnical
materials are in the narrow range of 0.01 to 0.07. For organic clays and silts,
Cα/Cc = 0.05±0.01, while for fibrous peat deposits Cα/Cc = 0.06±0.01, which
display the highest values of Cα /Cc.
The procedure outlined above to develop the unique Cα /Cc was successfully
employed for organic soils encountered RU, RL, and D stratums, and the
results are illustrated in Figure (6.30). The values of Cα /Cc ratio are 0.041,
0.049, and 0.05 for RU, RL, and D stratums respectively. Again, as organic
content increase Cα /Cc ratio increase, but still in the lower range of peat and
coincide the range reported for organic silt and clay of 0.04-0.06.
287
0.05
0.04
Cα/(1+eo)
0.03
RU 0.02
Cα /Cc = 0.041
0.01
0.00
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Cc/(1+eo )
0.05
0.04
Cα/(1+eo)
0.03
Cα /Cc = 0.049
RL 0.02
0.01
0.00
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Cc/(1+eo )
0.05
0.04
Cα /Cc = 0.05
Cα /(1+eo)
0.03
0.02
D
0.01
0.00
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Cc/(1+eo )
Fig. (6.30): The variation of Cα` with normalized effective applied pressures
(σ'v/σ'p) for RU, RL, and D stratums.
288
CHAPTER 7
7.1 Summary
A comprehensive laboratory testing program was carried out on undisturbed
organic soil samples obtained from two sites located at West-Delta, the thickest
and most extensive organic deposits found in Egypt, for evaluating and
outlining the distinct compressibility behaviors of the organic soils
encountered. One site, located at Robaomaah village- Mahmoudia - Bohira
governorate, has two stratums: shallow one (RU) at depth 4.0-6.5 m and deep
one (RL) at depth 10.0-14.0 m. The other, located at Ezbet El-Domyati -
Motoubes - Kafr -Elsheikh governorate, has a deep stratum (D) at depth 8.0-
12.0 m. In addition, a comprehensive literature review was conducted to
provide rationale of the research, and to gather sufficient background
information on the general and engineering characteristics of organic soils. The
background was used to develop the concept adopted for this research, i.e. the
behavior and properties of both inorganic soils and organic soils follow the
same fundamental mechanisms and factors determine.
289
compared with published data and correlations between different index
properties were investigated.
Predicting and dealing with settlements of organic soils has been a problem for
highway and foundation engineers. Therefore, the study focused on evaluating
the distinct compressibility characteristics in order to devise suitable design
compression parameters for settlement analysis. The test results were analyzed
and also compared with published data.
7.2 Conclusions
The following are the conclusions derived based on the results obtained from
the current study to characterize the general and engineering properties of
organic soils obtained from West-Delta, and the data compiled from literature:
Genaral Characteristics
1. The sampler developed during this research was successful in retrieving
samples with "good to very good" quality according to Sample Quality
Designation (SQD) scale (εvo = 1- 4%). This technique could be
recommended for organic soils sampling in Egypt.
2. Organic soils in Egypt are occurring as deposits buried under alluvial soils
thousands of years ago (Geotechnical Encyclopedia of Egypt, 2002). Thus
the organic soils encountered are subject to moderate degree of
290
decomposition and preservation processes long time ago, which explains
the disappearance of fibrous structure as observed from SEM images (Figs.
5.8 – 5.13) and that detritus gradually becomes finer as indicated from
particle size distribution (Fig. 5.4). Therefore, the organic soils encountered
consist mainly of partly decomposed plant material has an amorphous
granular appearance, a sponge-like fabric, and dark in color.
3. The "Tentative ASTM Standard classification system" for organic soils and
peat was recommended, in this research, to be used in Egypt as a standard
definition (Tables 2.8 & 2.10). This classification system distinguishes
between various types of organic soils based on their organic content, and
differentiates between various types of peats based on their physical, index
and chemical properties. It correlates well different types of organic soils
and peats and their index and engineering properties (Tables 6.1, 6.7, 6.8 &
6.11-6.13) so that the described behavior can be related to the proper
material. In addition, it could be integrated with the USCS to bridge the
gap between peat as purely vegetable matter, and purely inorganic silts and
clays.
4. The three stratums examined in this study were classified as peaty muck for
RL & D and as highly organic silty clay for RU. On the other hand, the
organic soil samples ranged from slightly organic silty clay to amorphous
peat, with some specimens obtained from the same tube, within 10 cm of
each other, exhibited vastly different organic contents with index properties
varying over a fairly wide range, (Tables 5-7, 5-8, & 5-9) which confirm the
high variability of organic soil within each deposit and that the
characteristics of the organic soils are the product of morphology of peat
land.
291
the plant types constituted the organic soil. These differences extended to
structure, fabric, degree of decomposition, and proportion of mineral
material, which had a considerable influence on the plasticity, permeability,
compressibility and strength of organic soils encountered and so on
different engineering behavior.
Engineering Characteristics
7. The study confirmed that although the engineering properties of the organic
soils are significantly different from those of inorganic soils, the same
fundamental mechanisms and factors determine the behavior and properties
of both inorganic and organic soils. In this study, the engineering properties
were measured using the same methods used for inorganic silt and clay.
Compressibililty Characteristics
9. Because of their buried nature, the preconsolidation pressure σ`p of the three
stratums encountered in this study was easily determined from EOP εv -log
σ`v compression curves which were characterized by the S-shape and clear
break at the preconsolidation pressure, compared with surficial organic
deposits, which generally have small to medium past pressures because of
their typical locations, i.e., near the surface. The mean in-situ
292
overconsolidation ratio (OCR) was computed as 1.91, 2.68, and 2.19 for
RU, RL, and D, respectively. However, aging is not the only reason for the
overconsolidation of the encountered organic soils.
10. Organic soils encountered display high compressibility; the mean value of
Cc right after the preconsolidation pressure is 1.05, 2.86, and 3.631 for RU,
RL, and D stratums, respectively. The value of Cc increases as mean
organic content increases. These values of Cc for organic silt and clay
encountered (RU stratum) is equal 2 to 3 times the corresponding
compressibility of typical Egyptian soft clay and silt deposits, while that for
highly organic soils encountered (RL & D stratums) are as high as 4 to 10
times of those soils. On the other hand, it is evident that Cc for RL and D
stratums, classified as peaty muck, are comparable to that reported for peaty
muck and still in the lower limits reported for peat. Also, due to the S-shape
of the compression curve, the compression index Cc changes significantly
over the stress range investigated.
11. Values of recompression index Cr for RU, RL, and D stratums are 0.165,
0.458, and 0.574, respectively. Corresponding values of Cr /Cc ratio are
0.13, 0.144, and 0.198, respectively. These ratios, for the three stratums, are
comparable to that reported for inorganic silt and clay of 0.1-0.2 and are
still in the lower limits reported for fibrous peat of 0.1-0.3.
12. Considering the buried nature of the highly organic soils encountered (RL
& D stratums), and the high OCR measured, when construction has to take
place on such deposits, the expected stresses from surface loads will be in
the recompression range (Cr = 0.4-0.6), which is comparable to Cc values of
typical Egyptian soft clay and silt deposits. This indicates that highly
organic soils encountered is as problematic as typical Egyptian soft clay and
silt deposits regarding the usually loading scenarios
293
13. The coefficient of consolidation data for RU stratum (organic silty clay) is
comparable to that of soft clay and silt deposits, while that of RL and D
stratums (peaty muck) is lying in between that of fibrous peat and that of
organic silt and clay (RU). In addition, the decrease in coefficient of
consolidation for RU stratum of lower organic content is less in magnitude
than that for RL and D stratums of high organic content typically as
reported in literature.
14. Secondary compression is significant for organic soils because they display
high values of Cc and Ca/Cc and low values of tp. The values of Cα /Cc ratio
are 0.041, 0.049, and 0.05 for RU, RL, and D stratums, respectively, but
still in the lower range of fibrous peat deposits (Cα/Cc = 0.06±0.01) and
coincide the range reported for organic silt and clay (Cα/Cc = 0.05±0.01).
Permeability Characteristics
15. The peaty muck deposits encountered (RL & D) possess medium initial
permeability (ko); just below the range reported for peats and around 100 to
1000 times the initial permeability of soft clay and silt deposits. This is
because highly colloidal, mostly decomposed, and amorphous-granular soils
tend to be less permeable than well preserved fibrous soils. On the other
hand, initial permeability (ko) for highly organic silty clay soil (RU stratum)
exists just at the upper limit of soft clays and silts deposits, which indicates
that organic matter encountered in soil matrix promotes loose and open
fabric.
294
and D stratums respectively compared to 0.25 for fibrous peat and 0.5 for
soft clays and silts deposits.
18. The friable nature and less cohesion of highly organic soils, encountered in
this study (RL & D), severly underestimated the undrained shear strength of
this soil, obtained through unconfined compression tests, due to inevitable
change of effective stress and mechanical disturbances during the process
from sampling to laboratory testing. Therefore, it is not preferable, for
highly organic soils, to determine the undrained shear strength based on the
result of uconfined compression tests only.
295
1. The use of Piezocone Penetration test (CPTu) need to be evaluated, as
reliable and efficient tool, for on-site estimation of organic soil engineering
properties. The undrained shear strength (Su), the undrained deformation
modulus (Eu), constrained modulus ((D = 1/mv)) and compression index
(Cc) can be determined based on interpretation of Piezocone Penetration test
results, and coefficient of consolidation (ch then cv) can be determined from
concurrent porewater dissipation experiments data, derived from Piezocone
Penetration test (CPTu), based on the work introduced by Lunne et al.,
(1997) and Abu-Farsakh et al., (2005).
296
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321
APPENDIX - A
322
Table (A.1): Important index and chemical properties for some fibrous peat
deposits
Ash Natural Bulk Specific
Peat content water Density Gravity Acidity
Reference
type content pH
3
% (ωo, %) Mg/m Gs
Fibrous-
17 484-909 - - - Colley, 1950
woody
Fibrous - 850 0.95-1.03 1.1-1.8 - Hanrahan 1954
Peat - 520 - - - Lewis 1956
Amorphous Lea and Browner
- 500-1500 0.88-1.22 1.5-1.6 -
and fibrous 1963
Adams
Fibrous 12.2-22.5 200-600 - 1.62 4.8-6.3
1965
Amorphous Keene and
14 850 - 1.5 -
To fibrous Zawodniak 1968
Olson
Fibrous Peat - 660-890 0.94-1.15 - -
1970
17.5 -25 311-392 - 1.53-1.59 -
Skempton &Petly
Fine fibrous 1.25 560-890 - 1.41-1.47 -
1970
12.1 530 - - -
Samson and
Fibrous 4.6-15.8 605-1290 0.87-1.04 1.41-1.7 -
LaRochell 1972
Coarse Berry and Vickers
9.4 613-886 1.04 1.5 4.1
Fibrous 1975
Fibrous sedge 4.8 350 - - 4.3
Levesque et al.
Fibrous 1980
1 778 - - 3.3
Sphagnum
Coarse
14.3 202-1159 1.05 1.5 4.17 Berry 1983
Fibrous
Fine Fibrous 23.9 660 1.05 1.58 6.9 NG and Eischen
Fine Fibrous 9.4 418 1.05 1.73 6.9 1983
Peat Portage 19.5 600 0.96 1.72 7.3
Peat Waupaca 15 460 0.96 1.68 6.2
Fibrous Peat Edil and Mochtar
12 510 0.91 1.41 7 1984
Middleton
Fibrous Peat
6.9-8.4 173-757 0.84 1.56 6.4
Noblesville
Fibrous 0.1-32.0 660-1590 - 1.53-1.68 - Lefebvre et al. 1984
Peat 21- 25 858-1186 - 1.56-1.67 5-7 Yamaguchi 1985
Peat 5-15 400-1100 0.99-1.1 1.47 4.2 Yamaguchi 1990
Fibrous - 700-800 ~1.00 - - Hansbo 1991
Peat Termatt and
20.8 669 0.97 1.52 -
(Netherlands) Topolnicki 1994
Nichol & Farmer,
Bog peat 13.8-24.4 662-965 1.01-1.14 1.51-1.59 3.8-4.4
1998
Fibrous 20 - 21 800-900 1.1 -1.2 1.9 - Farrell & Hebib 1998
Fibrous
5-7 510-850 0.99-1.1 1.47-1.64 4.2
(Middleton)
Ajlouni, 2000
Fibrous 4.1 1000-1340 0.85-1.02 1.37-1.55 5.3
(James Bay)
Fibrous MacVay & Nagyen
8.5-19.9 420-582 0.97-1.06 1.1-1.39 6.7-8.8
(Florida) 2004
Fibrous
7.7-24 370-652 1.0-1.12 Sobhan, 2007
(Florida)
323
Table (A.2): Important index and chemical properties for some amorphous
peat deposits
Amorphous
- 200-875 1.04-1.23 - - Olson 1970
Peat
King's Lynn - Skempton &Petly
21.7 317 - 1.59 -
UK 1970
Amorphous NG and Eischen
19.5 336 1.05 1.72 7.3
Granular 1983
Colleselli &
Italy 20-30 250-400 0.92-1.12 - 4.1-6
Cortellazzo, 1998
324
Table (A.3): Important index and chemical properties for some Peaty muck
deposits
Organic Natural Bulk Specific
content water Density Gravity Acidity
Location Reference
content pH
3
% (ωo, %) Mg/m Gs
Skempton
Avonmouth -
53-75 335-391 - 1.62-1.83 - &Petly
UK
1970
Franklin et al.,
Chicago - USA 71.6 692 - 1.69 -
1973
Fond du Lac
Edil &
County, Wisc- 60.2 240 1.04 1.94 6.24
Dhowian 1981
USA
Jones et al.
Peat 55-78 419 1.0 1.61 -
1986
Dakahlia -
51-72 312-625 1.04-1.13 1.48-1.75 6-7.15 Zayed, 1989
Egypt
Plovdiv -
58.1 154 1.23 1.87 - Kirov, 1998
Bulgaria
Sherman Island
Boulanger et
– California - 56-65 152-240 1.13-1.2 - -
al., 1998
USA
North Wales - Nichol &
61.5-69 561-971 1.03-1.18 1.65-1.73 3.8-4.4
UK Farmer, 1998
Kamedago - Kanmuri et al,
57.5 506 - 1.764 -
Japan 1998
Mitachi et al.,
Akita - Japan 60-70 560-680 - 1.69-1.75 -
2001
MacVay &
Florida - USA 67.6 300 1.15 1.55 - Nagyen
2004
325
Table (A.4): Important index and chemical properties for some Silty and/or
Clayey muck deposits
40 414 - 2.04 -
Franklin et al.,
Chicago - USA
1973
43.6 150 - 2.17 -
Yamaguchi et
Ohmiya - Japan 30 - 45 315 - 524 - 2.0 - 2.26 -
al. 1985
Dakahlia -
25 -42.2 108-374 1.09-1.31 1.62-2.07 7-7.35 Zayed, 1989
Egypt
Sherman Island
Boulanger et
– California - 44-46 180-200 1.15-1.17 - -
al., 1998
USA
Kamao &
Japan 45.9 197-217 - 2.15 2.8
Yamada 1998
MacVay &
Florida - USA 27.8-47.1 105-233 1.07-1.29 1.43-2.13 - Nagyen
2004
326
Table (A.5): Important index and chemical properties for some organic silt
and/or clay deposits
Ohmiya - Yamaguchi et
10 102 2.56
Japan al. 1985
Dakahlia -
16-22.5 82-120 1.35-1.46 2.0-2.24 7-7.9 Zayed, 1989
Egypt
Plovdiv -
17.2 29 1.94 2.67 - Kirov, 1998
Bulgaria
327
اﻟﺨﻮاص اﻹﻧﻀﻐﺎﻃﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﺮﺑﺔ اﻟﻌﻀﻮﻳﺔ ﻓﻰ ﻣﺼﺮ
اﻋﺪاد
ﻣﻬﻨﺪس /ﺣﺴﺎم إﺑﺮاهﻴﻢ ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻘﺎدر
ﺑﻜﺎﻟﻮرﻳﻮس اﻟﻬﻨﺪﺳﺔ اﻟﻤﺪﻧﻴﺔ ١٩٨٥
دﺑﻠﻮم ﻣﻴﻜﺎﻧﻴﻜﺎ اﻟﺘﺮﺑﺔ و هﻨﺪﺳﺔ اﻷﺳﺎﺳﺎت ١٩٩٠
دﺑﻠﻮم إدارة و هﻨﺪﺳﺔ اﻟﺘﺸﻴﻴﺪ ٢٠٠٢
اﻋﺪاد
ﻣﻬﻨﺪس /ﺣﺴﺎم إﺑﺮاهﻴﻢ ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻘﺎدر
ﺑﻜﺎﻟﻮرﻳﻮس اﻟﻬﻨﺪﺳﺔ اﻟﻤﺪﻧﻴﺔ ١٩٨٥
دﺑﻠﻮم ﻣﻴﻜﺎﻧﻴﻜﺎ اﻟﺘﺮﺑﺔ و هﻨﺪﺳﺔ اﻷﺳﺎﺳﺎت ١٩٩٠
دﺑﻠﻮم إدارة و هﻨﺪﺳﺔ اﻟﺘﺸﻴﻴﺪ ٢٠٠٢
ﺗﺤﺖ إﺷﺮاف
اﻋﺪاد
ﻣﻬﻨﺪس /ﺣﺴﺎم إﺑﺮاهﻴﻢ ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻘﺎدر
ﺑﻜﺎﻟﻮرﻳﻮس اﻟﻬﻨﺪﺳﺔ اﻟﻤﺪﻧﻴﺔ ١٩٨٥
دﺑﻠﻮم ﻣﻴﻜﺎﻧﻴﻜﺎ اﻟﺘﺮﺑﺔ و هﻨﺪﺳﺔ اﻷﺳﺎﺳﺎت ١٩٩٠
دﺑﻠﻮم إدارة و هﻨﺪﺳﺔ اﻟﺘﺸﻴﻴﺪ ٢٠٠٢
ﺗﺘﻮاﺟﺪ اﻟﺘﺮﺑﺔ اﻟﻌﻀﻮﻳﺔ ﺑﻤﺼﺮ ﻓﻰ ﻣﺴﺎﺣﺎت آﺒﻴﺮة ﻣﻦ ﺷﻤﺎل اﻟﺪﻟﺘﺎ ،ﻓﻰ ﺻﻮرة ﺣﺰام ﺗﺤﺖ ﺳﻄﺤﻰ ﻳﻤﺘﺪ ﻣﻦ
اﻟ ﺸﺮق اﻟ ﻰ اﻟﻐ ﺮب ،ﺣ ﻮل و ﺑ ﻴﻦ ﻓﺮﻋ ﻰ ﻧﻬ ﺮ اﻟﻨﻴ ﻞ رﺷ ﻴﺪ و دﻣﻴ ﺎط .ه ﺬا و ﺗﺘﺒ ﺎﻳﻦ اﻟﺨ ﻮاص اﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺋﻴ ﺔ و
اﻟﻬﻨﺪﺳﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﺮﺑﺔ اﻟﻌﻀﻮﻳﺔ ﺗﺒﻌﺎ ﻟﻜﻤﻴﺔ و ﻧﻮﻋﻴﺔ و درﺟﺔ ﺗﺤﻠﻞ اﻟﻤﺎدة اﻟﻌﻀﻮﻳﺔ اﻟﻤﺤﺘﻮاﻩ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺮﺑﺔ )ﻧ ﻮع اﻟﺘﺮﺑ ﺔ(
و آﺬﻟﻚ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﺔ اﻹﺟﻬﺎدات اﻟﻤﺆﺛﺮة ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ .و ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ ذﻟﻚ ﻓﺈن هﺬﻩ اﻟﻨﻮﻋﻴﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺘﺮﺑﺔ ﻓ ﻰ ﻣ ﺼﺮ ﻟ ﻢ
ﺗﺤﻈﻰ ﺑﺎﻟﻘﺪر اﻟﻜﺎﻓﻰ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺪراﺳﺔ و هﻮ ﻣﺎ ﻳﺘﻀﺢ ﻣﻦ ﻧﺪرة اﻟﺒﺤﻮث و اﻟﺪراﺳﺎت اﻟﺘﻰ ﺗﻢ ﻧﺸﺮهﺎ ﻓﻴﻤ ﺎ ﻳﺨ ﺺ
اﻟﺨﻮاص اﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ و اﻟﺨﻮاص اﻟﻬﻨﺪﺳﻴﺔ ﻟﻬﺬﻩ اﻟﺘﺮﺑﺔ ،آﻤﺎ اﻧﻌﻜﺲ ذﻟﻚ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻄﺮﻳﻘ ﺔ اﻟﺘ ﻰ ﻳ ﺘﻢ ﺑﻬ ﺎ ﺗﻌﺮﻳ ﻒ ه ﺬﻩ
اﻟﻨﻮﻋﻴﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺘﺮﺑﺔ ﻓﻰ اﻟﻜﻮد اﻟﻤﺼﺮى ﻟﻸﺳﺎﺳﺎت آﺄﺣﺪ أﻧﻮاع اﻟﺘﺮﺑﺔ اﻟﻄﻴﻨﻴﺔ اﻟﻠﻴﻨﺔ ذات اﻟﻤﺸﺎآﻞ )!(.
ﻓﻰ هﺬا اﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﺗﻢ دراﺳﺔ اﻟﺨﻮاص اﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺋﻴﺔ و اﻟﻜﻴﻤﻴﺎﺋﻴ ﺔ و اﻟﻤﻮرﻓﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴ ﺔ و اﻟﻬﻨﺪﺳ ﻴﺔ ﻟﻸﻧ ﻮاع اﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔ ﺔ ﻣ ﻦ
اﻟﺘﺮﺑﺔ اﻟﻌﻀﻮﻳﺔ ﻓﻰ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﻏﺮب اﻟﺪﻟﺘﺎ ،اﻟﺘﻰ ﺗﺘﻤﻴﺰ ﺑﻮﺟﻮد اﻟﻄﺒﻘﺎت اﻷآﺒﺮ ﺳﻤﻜﺎ ﻟﻠﺘﺮﺑﺔ اﻟﻌﻀﻮﻳﺔ ﻓﻰ ﻣﺼﺮ
آﻤ ﺎ ﺗﺘﻤﻴ ﺰ ﺑﺎﻣﻜﺎﻧﻴ ﺔ ﻇﻬ ﻮر أآﺜ ﺮ ﻣ ﻦ ﻃﺒﻘ ﺔ ﻣﻨﻬ ﺎ ،ﻟﻌﻴﻨ ﺎت ﺗ ﻢ اﺳﺘﺨﻼﺻ ﻬﺎ ﺑﺤﺎﻟﺘﻬ ﺎ اﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻴ ﺔ ﻏﻴ ﺮ اﻟﻤﻘﻠﻘﻠ ﺔ
ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ ﺟﻬﺎز ﺧﺎص ﺗﻢ ﺗﺼﻤﻴﻤﻪ و ﺗﺼﻨﻴﻌﻪ ﺧﺼﻴﺼﺎ ﻟﻬﺬا اﻟﻐﺮض ،ﻣ ﻦ ﻣ ﻮﻗﻌﻴﻦ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔ ﻴﻦ ﺑﻤﺤ ﺎﻓﻈﺘﻰ آﻔ ﺮ
اﻟﺸﻴﺦ و اﻟﺒﺤﻴﺮة .ﻳﺮآﺰاﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﻋﻠﻰ دراﺳﺔ اﻟﺨﻮاص اﻹﻧﻀﻐﺎﻃﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﺮﺑ ﺔ اﻟﻌ ﻀﻮﻳﺔ ﻓ ﻰ ﻣﺮﺣﻠﺘ ﻰ اﻹﻧ ﻀﻐﺎط
اﻷﺳﺎﺳﻰ و اﻹﻧﻀﻐﺎط اﻟﺜﺎﻧﻮى ،ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗ ﻢ ﺗﺤﺪﻳ ﺪ ﻣﻌ ﺎﻣﻼت اﻹﻧ ﻀﻐﺎط اﻷﺳﺎﺳ ﻰ و اﻹﻧ ﻀﻐﺎط اﻟﺜ ﺎﻧﻮى ﻟﻬ ﺬﻩ
اﻟﺘﺮﺑﺔ -ﻓ ﻰ ﺻ ﻮرهﺎ اﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔ ﺔ -و ذﻟ ﻚ ﻓ ﻰ اﻹﺗﺠ ﺎهﻴﻦ اﻟﺮأﺳ ﻰ و اﻷﻓﻘ ﻰ ودراﺳ ﺔ ﻣ ﺪى ﺗﻐﻴﺮه ﺎ ﺗﺤ ﺖ ﺗ ﺄﺛﻴﺮ
ﺣﺎﻻت اﻟﺘﺤﻤﻴﻞ اﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ و اﻹﺟﻬﺎدات اﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ و ﻣﻊ اﻟﺰﻣﻦ .آﺬﻟﻚ ﺗﻢ ﺗﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻌﺎﻣﻞ اﻟﻨﻔﺎدﻳﺔ ﻟﻬ ﺬﻩ اﻟﺘﺮﺑ ﺔ ﻓ ﻰ
اﻹﺗﺠﺎهﻴﻦ اﻟﺮأﺳﻰ و اﻷﻓﻘﻰ ﻓﻰ ﺣﺎﻟﺘﻬﺎ اﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ و رﺻﺪ اﻟﺘﻐﻴ ﺮ ﻓ ﻰ ﻣﻌﺎﻣ ﻞ اﻟﻨﻔﺎدﻳ ﺔ ﺗﺤ ﺖ ﺗ ﺄﺛﻴﺮ اﻹﺟﻬ ﺎدات
اﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ .آﺬﻟﻚ ﺗﻢ ﺗﻌﻴﻴﻦ ﻣﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻘﺎوﻣﺔ اﻟﻘﺺ ﺑﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ اﻟﻀﻐﻂ اﻟﻤﺤ ﻮرى ﻏﻴ ﺮ اﻟﻤﺤ ﺎط ،و أﻳ ﻀﺎ ﺑﺎﺳ ﺘﺨﺪام
ﺟﻬﺎز اﻟﻐﺰ اﻟﺠﻴﺒﻰ .آﻤﺎ ﺗﻢ رﺻﺪ اﻟﺘﻐﻴﺮ اﻟﺤﺎدث ﻓ ﻰ ﻧ ﺴﻴﺞ و ﻣ ﺴﺎﻣﻴﺔ اﻟﺘﺮﺑ ﺔ ﻧﺘﻴﺠ ﺔ ﻹﻧ ﻀﻐﺎﻃﻬﺎ ﻣ ﻦ دراﺳ ﺔ
ﺻﻮر اﻟﻤﻴﻜﺮوﺳﻜﻮب اﻹﻟﻴﻜﺘﺮوﻧﻰ ﻟﻌﻴﻨﺎت اﻟﺘﺮﺑﺔ ﻓﻰ اﻹﺗﺠﺎهﻴﻦ اﻟﺮأﺳﻰ و اﻷﻓﻘﻰ ﻓﻰ ﺣﺎﻟﺘﻬﺎ اﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ و ﺑﻌ ﺪ
اﻧﻀﻐﺎﻃﻬﺎ ،و ﻗﺪ ﺗﻢ ﻣﻘﺎرﻧ ﺔ اﻟﻨﺘ ﺎﺋﺞ اﻟﻤ ﺴﺘﺨﺮﺟﺔ ﻣ ﻦ اﻟﺒﺤ ﺚ ﻣ ﻊ ﻧﻈﺎﺋﺮه ﺎ اﻟﻤﻨ ﺸﻮرة ﺑ ﺎﻟﻤﺮاﺟﻊ و اﻟ ﺪورﻳﺎت
اﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ .آﺬﻟﻚ ﺗﻢ اﻗﺘﺮاح ﻧﻈﺎم ﻟﺘﻌﺮﻳﻒ و ﺗﺼﻨﻴﻒ اﻷﻧﻮاع اﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﺮﺑﺔ اﻟﻌﻀﻮﻳﺔ ﻓﻰ ﻣﺼﺮ.
و ﻗﺪ أﻇﻬﺮت اﻟﺪراﺳﺔ أن ﻗﻴﻢ اﻟﺨﻮاص اﻟﻬﻨﺪﺳﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﺮﺑﺔ اﻟﻌﻀﻮﻳﺔ اﻟﺘ ﻰ ﺗ ﻢ دراﺳ ﺘﻬﺎ ﻓ ﻰ ه ﺬا اﻟﺒﺤ ﺚ و ﺗ ﺸﻤﻞ
اﻟﻨﻔﺎذﻳﺔ و ﻣﻘﺎوﻣ ﺔ اﻟﻘ ﺺ ﺑﻄﺮﻳﻘ ﺔ اﻟ ﻀﻐﻂ اﻟﻤﺤ ﻮرى ﻏﻴ ﺮ اﻟﻤﺤ ﺎط و اﻟﺨ ﻮاص اﻹﻧ ﻀﻐﺎﻃﻴﺔ ﺗﻘ ﻊ ﺑ ﻴﻦ ﺗﻠ ﻚ
اﻟﻤﻤﻴﺰة ﻟﻠﺘﺮﺑﺔ اﻟﻠﻴﻔﻴﺔ اﻟﻌﻀﻮﻳﺔ ﺷﺪﻳﺪة اﻟﻤ ﺸﺎآﻞ و اﻟﺘﺮﺑ ﺔ اﻟﻄﻴﻨﻴ ﺔ اﻟﻄﻤﻴﻴ ﺔ اﻟﻠﻴﻨ ﺔ .آﻤ ﺎ أوﺿ ﺤﺖ اﻟﺪراﺳ ﺔ أن
إﺷﻜﺎﻟﻴﺔ اﻟﺘﺄﺳﻴﺲ ﻓﻮﻗﻬﺎ ،ﺗﺤﺖ ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ اﻹﺟﻬ ﺎدات اﻟﻤﻌﺘ ﺎدة ،ﻣﻨ ﺎﻇﺮة ﻹﺷ ﻜﺎﻟﻴﺔ اﻟﺘﺄﺳ ﻴﺲ ﻋﻠ ﻰ اﻟﻄ ﻴﻦ اﻟﻠ ﻴﻦ ﻓ ﻰ
ﻣﺼﺮ ،ﻣﻦ ﻧﺎﺣﻴﺔ ﻗﺎﺑﻠﻴﺘﻬﺎ ﻟﻺﻧﻀﻐﺎط ،ﻧﻈﺮا ﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﺘﻬﺎ اﻟﺘﺤﺖ ﺳﻄﺤﻴﺔ و ارﺗﻔﺎع ﻗﻴﻢ ﻧﺴﺒﺔ ﺳﺒﻖ اﻟﺘﺪﻋﻴﻢ ﻟﻬﺎ.
و ﻳﺸﺘﻤﻞ اﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﺒﻌﺔ ﻓﺼﻮل ﺑﻴﺎﻧﻬﺎ آﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻰ
ﻳﺘﻨ ﺎول ﻣﻘﺪﻣ ﺔ ﻋﺎﻣ ﺔ ﻋ ﻦ اﻟﺒﺤ ﺚ و اﻷه ﺪاف اﻟﻤﺘﻮﺧ ﺎﻩ ﻣﻨ ﻪ و اﻟﻤ ﻨﻬﺞ اﻟﻤﺘﺒ ﻊ ﻟﺘﺤﻘﻴ ﻖ ه ﺬﻩ اﻟﻔﺼﻞ اﻷول
اﻷهﺪاف ﻣﻊ ﻋﺮض ﻟﻤﺤﺘﻮﻳﺎت ﻓﺼﻮل اﻟﺮﺳﺎﻟﺔ.
ﻳﻌﺮض هﺬا اﻟﻔﺼﻞ ﻣﻠﺨﺺ ﻟﻤﺎ ﺳﺒﻖ ﻧﺸﺮﻩ ﻋﻦ أﻣﺎآﻦ ﺗﻮاﺟﺪ اﻟﺘﺮﺑﺔ اﻟﻌﻀﻮﻳﺔ ﻓﻰ ﻣﺼﺮ و اﻟﻔﺼﻞ اﻟﺜﺎﻧﻰ
ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣ ﺴﺘﻮى اﻟﻌ ﺎﻟﻢ و اﻟﺨ ﻮاص اﻟﻌﺎﻣ ﺔ ﻟﻬ ﺎ و اﻟﺘ ﻰ ﺗﺘ ﻀﻤﻦ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﺘﻬ ﺎ و ﻃﺮﻳﻘ ﺔ ﺗﻜﻮﻧﻬ ﺎ و
اﻟﻤﺮاﺣ ﻞ اﻟﺘ ﻰ ﺗﻤ ﺮ ﺑﻬ ﺎ ﻋﻤﻠﻴ ﺔ اﻟﺘﻜ ﻮﻳﻦ و اﻟﺨ ﻮاص اﻟﻤﻮرﻓﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴ ﺔ ﻟﻬ ﺎ و اﻟﺘﻐﻴ ﺮات اﻟﺘ ﻰ
ﺗﺠ ﺮى ﻋﻠﻴﻬ ﺎ ﺑﻤ ﺮور اﻟ ﺰﻣﻦ و ﺑﻔﻌ ﻞ اﻟﻌﻮاﻣ ﻞ اﻟﺒﻴﺌﻴ ﺔ اﻟﻤﺤﻴﻄ ﺔ ،اﻷﻧ ﻮاع اﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔ ﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﺮﺑ ﺔ
اﻟﻌﻀﻮﻳﺔ واﻷﻧﻈﻤ ﺔ اﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔ ﺔ ﻟﺘ ﺼﻨﻴﻔﻬﺎ ﻣ ﻊ اﻟﻤﻘﺎرﻧ ﺔ ﺑﻴﻨﻬ ﺎ .آﻤ ﺎ ﺗ ﻢ اﺳ ﺘﻌﺮاض اﻷﺳ ﺎﻟﻴﺐ
اﻟﻤﺘﺒﻌﺔ ﻹﺳﺘﺨﺮاج ﻋﻴﻨﺎت ﻣﻤﺜﻠﺔ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ و اﻹﺧﺘﺒ ﺎرات اﻟﺤﻘﻠﻴ ﺔ اﻟﻤﻨﺎﺳ ﺒﺔ ﻟﺘﺤﺪﻳ ﺪ اﻟﻤﻌ ﺎﻣﻼت
اﻟﻬﻨﺪﺳﻴﺔ ﻟﻬﺎ ،و آﺬﻟﻚ اﻟﺨﻮاص اﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺋﻴﺔ و اﻟﻜﻴﻤﻴﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﻟﻬﺎ و آﻴﻔﻴﺔ ﺗﺤﺪﻳﺪهﺎ.
ﻳﻌﺮض ه ﺬا اﻟﻔ ﺼﻞ ﻣﻠﺨ ﺺ ﻟﻤ ﺎ ﺳ ﺒﻖ ﻧ ﺸﺮﻩ ﻋ ﻦ اﻟﺨ ﻮاص اﻟﻬﻨﺪﺳ ﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﺮﺑ ﺔ اﻟﻌ ﻀﻮﻳﺔ و اﻟﻔﺼﻞ اﻟﺜﺎﻟﺚ
اﻟﺘﻰ ﺗﺸﻤﻞ ﺧﻮاص اﻟﻨﻔﺎذﻳﺔ و ﻣﻘﺎوﻣﺔ اﻟﻘﺺ و اﻹﻧﻀﻐﺎط ﻟﻠﺘﺮﺑﺔ و آﻴﻔﻴﺔ ﺗﺤﺪﻳﺪهﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻌﻤﻞ
و ﻓﻰ اﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﺔ ،ﻣﻊ اﺳﺘﻌﺮاض ﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻒ اﻟﻌﻮاﻣﻞ اﻟﺘﻰ ﺗﺆﺛﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ هﺬﻩ اﻟﺨﻮاص ﻟﻠﺘﺮﺑﺔ .آﻤ ﺎ
ﻳﺘﻨ ﺎول ه ﺬا اﻟﻔ ﺼﻞ ﺑﺎﻟ ﺸﺮح و اﻟﻤﻨﺎﻗ ﺸﺔ أوﺟ ﻪ اﺧ ﺘﻼف اﻟ ﺴﻠﻮك اﻹﻧ ﻀﻐﺎﻃﻰ ﻟﺘﻜﻮﻳﻨ ﺎت
اﻟﺘﺮﺑﺔ اﻟﻌﻀﻮﻳﺔ ﻓﻰ ﻣﺮﺣﻠﺘﻴﻪ اﻷﺳﺎﺳ ﻰ و اﻟﺜ ﺎﻧﻮى ﻋ ﻦ ﻧﻈﻴﺮﻳﻬﻤ ﺎ ﻟﻠﺘﺮﺑ ﺔ اﻟﻄﻴﻨﻴ ﺔ اﻟﻤﻌﺘ ﺎدة
ﻓ ﻰ اﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌ ﺔ و آ ﺬﻟﻚ ﻓﻴﻤ ﺎ ﻳﺨ ﺺ ﻧﺘ ﺎﺋﺞ اﺧﺘﺒ ﺎرات اﻹﻧ ﻀﻐﺎط أﺣ ﺎدى اﻹﺗﺠ ﺎﻩ ﻣ ﻦ ﺣﻴ ﺚ
ﻣﻨﺤﻨﻴﺎت اﻹﻧﻀﻐﺎط اﻟﻤﺘﻮﻟﺪة ﻋﻨﻬ ﺎ و ﻣﻌ ﺎﻣﻼت اﻹﻧ ﻀﻐﺎط ﻟﻬ ﺎ .آﻤ ﺎ ﻳﻌ ﺮض ه ﺬا اﻟﻔ ﺼﻞ
ﻟﻠﻨﻈﺮﻳﺎت اﻟﺘﻰ وﺿﻌﺖ ﻟﺘﻔﺴﻴﺮ هﺬﻩ اﻟﺨﻮاص و ﻓﺮوﺿﻬﺎ و و ﻣ ﺪى اﺗ ﺴﺎﻗﻬﺎ ﻣ ﻊ ﻧﻈﻴﺮﺗﻬ ﺎ
ﻟﻠﺘﺮﺑﺔ اﻟﻄﻴﻨﻴﺔ.
و ﻳﺘﻨ ﺎول ه ﺬا اﻟﻔ ﺼﻞ ﺑﺮﻧ ﺎﻣﺞ اﻟﺒﺤ ﺚ و ﺷ ﺮح ﻷهﺪاﻓ ﻪ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻔ ﺼﻴﻞ و اﻷﺳ ﺎﻟﻴﺐ اﻟﺘ ﻰ ﺗ ﻢ اﻟﻔﺼﻞ اﻟﺮاﺑﻊ
اﺗﺒﺎﻋﻬﺎ ﻟﺘﺤﻘﻴﻖ هﺬﻩ اﻷهﺪاف ،ﺣﻴﺚ ﻳﺘﻨﺎول ﺑﺎﻟﺸﺮح اﻟﻤﻌﺎﻳﻴﺮ اﻟﺘﻰ ﺗﻢ ﻋﻠﻰ أﺳﺎﺳﻬﺎ اﺧﺘﻴ ﺎر
اﻟﻤﻮاﻗﻊ اﻟﻤﻨﺎﺳﺒﺔ ﻹﺳ ﺘﺨﺮاج اﻟﻌﻴﻨ ﺎت اﻟﻼزﻣ ﺔ ﻟﻠﺒﺤ ﺚ ،و اﻟﻄﺮﻳﻘ ﺔ اﻟﻤ ﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﺔ ﻹﺳ ﺘﺨﺮاج
اﻟﻌﻴﻨ ﺎت ﺑﺤﺎﻟﺘﻬ ﺎ اﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻴ ﺔ اﻟﻐﻴ ﺮ اﻟﻤﻘﻠﻘﻠ ﺔ ،و اﻟﻄ ﺮق اﻟﺘ ﻰ اﺳ ﺘﺨﺪاﻣﻬﺎ ﻟﺘﻌﻴ ﻴﻦ اﻟﺨ ﻮاص
اﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺋﻴ ﺔ و اﻟﻜﻴﻤﻴﺎﺋﻴ ﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﺮﺑ ﺔ اﻟﻌ ﻀﻮﻳﺔ اﻟﻤ ﺴﺘﺨﺮﺟﺔ ،آﻤ ﺎ ﺗ ﻢ اﻗﺘ ﺮاح ﻧﻈ ﺎم ﻟﺘﻌﺮﻳ ﻒ و
ﺗ ﺼﻨﻴﻒ اﻟﺘﺮﺑ ﺔ اﻟﻌ ﻀﻮﻳﺔ ﻓ ﻰ ﻣ ﺼﺮ و اﻟ ﺬى ﺗ ﻢ اﺗﺒﺎﻋ ﻪ ﻟﺘ ﺼﻨﻴﻒ ﻋﻴﻨ ﺎت اﻟﺘﺮﺑ ﺔ ،آﻤ ﺎ
ﻳﻌﺮض ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻔﺼﻴﻞ ﻟﻠﺒﺮوﺗﻮآﻮل اﻟﺬى ﺗﻢ وﺿ ﻌﻪ ﻟﺘﺤﺪﻳ ﺪ اﻟﺨ ﻮاص اﻟﻬﻨﺪﺳ ﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﺮﺑ ﺔ و اﻟﺘ ﻰ
ﺗ ﺸﻤﻞ ﺗﻌﻴ ﻴﻦ ﻣﻌﺎﻣ ﻞ اﻟﻨﻔﺎذﻳ ﺔ و ﻣﻌﺎﻣ ﻞ ﻣﻘﺎوﻣ ﺔ اﻟﻘ ﺺ ﺑﻄﺮﻳﻘ ﺔ اﻟ ﻀﻐﻂ اﻟﻤﺤ ﻮرى ﺑ ﺪون
ﺿﻐﻂ ﻣﺤﻴﻂ و ﻣﻌ ﺎﻣﻼت اﻹﻧ ﻀﻐﺎط ﻟﻬ ﺎ و اﻷﺟﻬ ﺰة اﻟﻤ ﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﺔ و اﻟﻤﻮاﺻ ﻔﺎت اﻟﺘ ﻰ ﺗ ﻢ
اﺗﺒﺎﻋﻬﺎ ﻟﺘﺤﺪﻳﺪ هﺬﻩ اﻟﺨﻮاص.
اﻟﻔﺼﻞ اﻟﺴﺎدس ﻳﻨﺎﻗﺶ هﺬا اﻟﻔﺼﻞ اﻟﺨﻮاص اﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ و اﻟﺨﻮاص اﻟﻬﻨﺪﺳﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﺮﺑﺔ اﻟﻌﻀﻮﻳﺔ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﺨﺮﺟﺔ ﻣ ﻦ
اﻟﻤﻮﻗﻌﻴﻦ اﻟﺴﺎﺑﻖ اﻹﺷﺎرة اﻟﻴﻬﻤ ﺎ آﻤ ﺎ ﻳﻮﺿ ﺢ أوﺟ ﻪ اﻹﺧ ﺘﻼف و اﻹﺗﻔ ﺎق ﺑ ﻴﻦ ﻃﺒﻴﻌ ﺔ ه ﺬﻩ
اﻟﺘﺮﺑﺔ ﻓﻰ ﻣﺼﺮ و ﻧﻈﻴﺮﺗﻬﺎ ﻓﻰ أرﺟﺎء اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﻢ ﻣﻘﺎرﻧﺔ اﻟﻨﺘﺎﺋﺞ اﻟﺘﻰ ﺗﻢ اﻟﺘﻮﺻﻞ اﻟﻴﻬﺎ
ﻓ ﻰ ه ﺬا اﻟﺒﺤ ﺚ ﻣ ﻊ ﻧﻈﻴﺮﺗﻬ ﺎ اﻟﻤﻨ ﺸﻮرة ﺑ ﺎﻟﻤﺮاﺟﻊ و اﻟ ﺪورﻳﺎت ،و اﻟﺘ ﻰ ﺗ ﻢ ﺗﺠﻤﻴﻌﻬ ﺎ و
ﺗﺼﻨﻴﻔﻬﺎ ﺧﻼل هﺬا اﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﻃﺒﻘﺎ ﻟﻨﻈﺎم اﻟﺘﺼﻨﻴﻒ اﻟﺬى ﺗﻢ اﻋﺘﻤﺎدﻩ ﻟﺘﺼﻨﻴﻒ ﻋﻴﻨﺎت اﻟﺘﺮﺑﺔ ،
و آﺬﻟﻚ ﺗﻢ اﺳﺘﻨﺒﺎط ﺑﻌﺾ اﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎت ﺑﻴﻦ اﻟﺨﻮاص اﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺋﻴﺔ و اﻟﺨﻮاص اﻟﻬﻨﺪﺳﻴﺔ ﻟﻬﺎ.
ﻳﻌﺮض هﺬا اﻟﻔﺼﻞ اهﻢ اﻟﻨﺘ ﺎﺋﺞ و اﻟﺘﻮﺻ ﻴﺎت اﻟﺘ ﻰ ﺗ ﻢ اﻟﻮﺻ ﻮل اﻟﻴﻬ ﺎ ﺧ ﻼل ه ﺬا اﻟﺒﺤ ﺚ، اﻟﻔﺼﻞ ااﻟﺴﺎﺑﻊ
آﻤﺎ ﻳﻌﺮض ﺑﻌﺾ ﻣﺠﺎﻻت اﻟﺒﺤﺚ اﻟﻤﺤﺘﻤﻠﺔ ﻟﻨﻔﺲ اﻟﻤﻮﺿﻮع .