Weathering
Types of Weathering
Factors Affecting Weathering
Advantages of Weathering
Disadvantages of Weathering
“Weathering is a process that shapes the Earth's
landscapes.”
WEATHERING
-is the alteration and breakdown of rock minerals
and rock masses when they are exposed to the
atmosphere
-occurs in situ, that is, in the same place, with no
major movement of rock materials involved
- changes rocks from a hard state, to become
much softer and weaker, making them more
easily eroded
Types of WEATHERING
1. Physical Weathering- the group of
processes, such as frost wedging and volume
changes of minerals, that result in the
mechanical disruption of rocks (e.g. granular
disintegration, exfoliation, joint block separation,
shattering by changes in temperature or
pressure).
2. Chemical Weathering-the decay of rock
forming minerals caused by water, temperature,
oxygen, hydrogen and mild acids (e.g. solution,
hydration, oxidation, carbonation).
3. Biological Weathering- the group of
processes that are caused by, or assisted by,
the presence of vegetation, or to a lesser extent
animals, including root wedging and the
production of organic acids
Factors controlling WEATHERINg
1. Climate dictates the type of weathering
processes that operate, largely by determining
the amount of water available and the
temperature at which the processes occur.
Chemical reactions are faster at higher
temperatures, while frost wedging occurs in
colder climates.
2. Rock Type determines the resistance of the
rock to the weathering processes that operate in
that particular environment
-Porosity is a measure of how much of a rock's
volume is open space.
-Permeability is a measure of the ease with
which water can move through a porous rock
3. Rock Structure: highly jointed or faulted
rocks present many planes of weakness along
which weathering agents (e.g. water) can
penetrate into the rock mass
4. Topography: the slope angle determines the
energy of the weathering system by controlling
the rate at which water passes through the rock
mass
5. Erosion: the dynamism and efficiency of
erosion determines how rapidly any weathered
material is removed, how frequently fresh rock is
exposed to weathering, and if deeply weathered
profiles are preserved.
6. Time: the duration of the period that the same
type of weathering has been operating,
uninterrupted by climatic change, earth
movements, and other factors, determines the
degree and depth to which the rocks have been
weathered.
ADVANTAGES OF Weathering
1. Geologists can use weathering to determine
facts about a region's past.
2. Small pieces of rocks or sediments form
sedimentary rock like limestone and sandstone.
3. People use sedimentary stone for building
and carving.
4. Weathering creates nutrient-rich soil that
allows plants and trees to grow, and ultimately
makes life on Earth possible.
5. Rock weathering makes the ocean waters
saline.
6. Sometimes weathering will expose geologic
features previously unseen, giving scientists the
opportunity to learn about the Earth's history.
7. Some forms of chemical weathering help to
remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
8. If weathering never occurred, the Earth would
have a surface of bare rock, and no plant or
animal life could exist.
DISADVANTAGES OF WEATHERINg
1. Destroys the soil cover and its structure
2. Enhances soil erosion
3. High moisture loss
4. Disrupts the life cycle of beneficial soil
organisms
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Volcanism and Earthquake
VOLCANISM
Volcanism, any of various processes and
phenomena associated with the surficial
discharge of molten rock, pyroclastic fragments,
or hot water and steam, including volcanoes and
geysers
Tectonic Plates
A tectonic plate (also called lithospheric plate) is
a massive, irregularly shaped slab of solid rock,
generally composed of both continental and
oceanic lithosphere.
CONVECTION CURRENT
Convection currents are caused by the very hot
material at the deepest part of the mantle rising,
then cooling, sinking again and then heating,
rising and repeating the cycle over and over.
Findings that support Seafloor Spreading
Theory
Rocks are younger at the mid – ocean ridge
Rocks far from the mid – ocean ridge are older
Sediments are thinner at the ridge
Rocks at the ocean floor are younger than those
at the continents
New rocks are added to the ocean floor at the
ridge
Magnetic Reversal
Convergent Boundaries
Transform Fault Boundary
Hotspot or hot spot is a portion of the Earth's
surface which experiences volcanism. This may
be caused by a rising mantle plume or some
other cause.
A mantle plume is an upwelling of abnormally
hot rock within the Earth's mantle
Volcanoes
a mountain or hill, typically conical, having a
crater or vent through which lava, rock
fragments, hot vapor, and gas are being or have
been erupted from the earth's crust.
Types of Eruption
QUITE VOLCANISM
the lava slowly flows out and forms flat layers
that eventually make a shield volcano. The lava
spreads out over a large area creating a flat
base with gently sloping sides. Mauna Loa in the
Hawaiin Islands is the largest shield volcano.
EXPLOSIVE VOLCANISM
If a magma has a lot of gas which becomes
trapped in the magma, the pressure will build
and build until eventually the magma erupts
explosively out of the volcano.
Hawaiian Eruption
In a Hawaiian eruption, fluid basaltic lava is
thrown into the air in jets from a vent or line of
vents (a fissure) at the summit or on the flank of
a volcano. The jets can last for hours or even
days, a phenomenon known as fire fountaining.
Vulcanian Eruption
distinct bursts of fluid lava from the mouth of a
magma-filled summit conduit.
The explosions of lava, which can reach heights
of hundreds of meters, are caused by the
bursting of large bubbles of gas, which travel
upward in the magma-filled conduit until they
reach the open air.
Lava Domes
Lava domes form when very viscous, rubbly lava
is squeezed out of a vent without exploding. The
lava piles up into a dome, (something like
toothpaste coming out of a tube). Lava domes
may be rounded, pancake-shaped, or irregular
piles of rock, depending on the type of lava they
form from. .
Surtseyan Eruption
where magma or lava interacts explosively with Crust
water. In most cases, Surtseyan eruptions occur The rocky outermost layer of lithosphere.
when an undersea volcano has finally grown Composed of two kinds:
large enough to break the water's surface; Silicon –
because water expands when it turns to steam, Magnesium – submerged layer of the
water that comes into contact with hot lava lithosphere.
explodes and creates plumes of ash, steam and Magnesium makes up the ocean floor. It is also
scoria. known as Oceanic Crust.

Earthquake Difference of Continental crust from Oceanic

a sudden and violent shaking of the ground, crust.Crust
sometimes causing great destruction, as a result -Continental
of movements within the earth's crust or volcanic Granite Types of rocks found
action. Thicker
A sudden ground motion or vibration produced dense Density
by a rapid release of stored-up energy. -Oceanic
basalt Types of rocks found
Epicenter Thinner
the point on the earth's surface vertically above denser Density
the focus of an earthquake
HypoCenter Lithosphere-Asthenosphere
•The Crust, Mantle, Core boundaries
Richter Magnitude Scale –defined by composition
The Richter magnitude scale was developed in …but sometimes we want to divide the layers of
1935 by Charles F. Richter of the California the Earth by their behavior or physical properties
Institute of Technology as a mathematical •Lithosphere – The brittle portion of Earth’s
device to compare the size of earthquakes. The interior.
magnitude of an earthquake is determined from –Behaves as a non-flowing, rigid material.
the logarithm of the amplitude of waves –The material that moves as tectonic plates.
recorded by seismographs. –Made of 2 components: crust and upper
—------------------------------------------------------------- mantle.
----------------- •Asthenosphere – The ductile portion of Earth’s
COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF THE interior.
EARTH –Shallower under oceanic lithosphere.
What are the composition and structures of the –Deeper under continental lithosphere.
Earth? –Flows as a soft ductile solid.
–Contains a small percentage of melt (< 2%)
Crust
The rocky outermost layer of the lithosphere.
Composed of two kinds: Mantle
Silicon – The middle layer of the Earth
Aluminum - the upper layer of the Earth’s crust. It is composed of dense rocks largely made up
It is made up largely of granitic rocks which are of the mineral olivine.
lighter in color and weight. It is a much thicker 2,900 km. thick
part of the crust.
32-48 km. Divided into two parts:
CONTINENTAL CRUST Mantle
 Physical weathering
Lithosphere Frost action or Ice Wedging
Upper layer Contraction and expansion
Rocks are rigid Biological weathering
It is the tectonic plate

Asthenosphere
Lower part Chemical Weathering
Plastic Oxidation
It acts as a “lubricant” in plates. Carbonation
What do you think the two division of mantle? Hydrolysis / Hydration - When water interacts
chemically with minerals.
Core
The innermost portion of the Earth Factors controlling weathering
It is believed to be metallic. Carbonation
Composed of iron and nickel (NIFE) Climate
3,400 km. thick Rock Type
Nickel from NI Rock Structure
Iron from FE Topography
Time
Core
TWO PARTS– Climate
inner core – solid about 1,150 km. thick w/ an dictates the type of weathering processes that
extremely high temperature (2,200°C). operate, largely by determining the amount of
water available and the temperature at which the
outer core – made up of molten rock about processes occur. Chemical reactions are faster
2,250 km. thick. at higher temperatures, while frost wedging
occurs in colder climates.
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----------------- Rock Type
EXOGENIC PROCESSES Determines the resistance of the rock to the
● Weathering weathering processes that operate in that
● Mass Wasting particular environment.
● Erosion
Rock Structure
Weathering Highly jointed or faulted rocks present many
Physical planes of weakness along which weathering
Chemical agents (e.g. water) can penetrate into the rock
mass
Physical weathering- Takes place when rock is
split or broken into smaller pieces of the same Topography
material without changing its composition. The slope angle determines the energy of the
weathering system by controlling the rate at
Chemical weathering- takes place when the which water passes through the rock mass.
rock’s minerals are changed into different
substances. Time
Water and water vapor are important agents of The duration of the period that the same type of
chemical weathering. weathering has been operating, uninterrupted by
climatic change, earth movements, and other
factors, determines the degree and depth to 3 Types of Faults Caused by
which the rocks have been weathered. 3 Different Types of Stress
Normal Fault
—------------------------------------------------------------- (Caused by Tension)
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FRACTURES Reverse Fault
FAULTS (Caused by Compression)
FOLDS
Strike-Slip Fault
What is a fault? (Caused by Shear Stress)
A fault is a fracture or series of fractures in
Earth’s crust that occurs when stress is applied Normal Fault
too quickly or stress is too great. Occurs when tension pulls the fault apart and
Many faults occur along plate boundaries. the Hanging Wall drops.
Faults can also occur anywhere in the crust The fault is an example of tension
where rocks are bent (folded) until they break.
Faults occur as a result of various types of Reverse Fault
stress. Occurs when compression pushes the two parts
Most Faults Have a Hanging Wall & Foot Wall of the fault together and the Hanging Wall
moves up.
The Hanging Wall is the one with the slope on The fault is an example of compression
which you could hang.
The Foot Wall is the one with the slope on Strike-Slip Fault
which you could walk. Shear causes the parts of the fault to slide past
one another.
The type of fault is determined by the motion of This fault is an example of shear.
the Hanging Wall.
The fault line would also be called the fault Folds
plane. Occur when stress is applied to both ends of a
The area around it would be called the fault section of rock or rock layers. Some rocks
zone. would break, but a fold occurs when rocks bend.
An anticline looks like a “rainbow”; a syncline
The FOOTWALL is the one with the slope you looks like a “smile”.
would put your feet on. Examples of Folds
The HANGING WALL is the one with the slope
you would hang from. When compressive forces act on a material
(rocks) but the elastic limit is not reached,
Types of Faults folding occurs. If the elastic limit is exceeded,
There are several different kinds of faults. These the rock will break causing a fracture in the rock
faults are named according to the type of stress to form. If the elastic limit is exceeded and
that acts on the rock and by the nature of the movement occurs along the fracture, the fracture
movement of the rock blocks either side of the becomes a fault.
fault plane.
Stresses can be compressional (push),
tensional (pull) or shear (slide past each
other).
The type of stress determines how the Hanging —-------------------------------------------------------------
Wall moves and therefore the type of fault. -----------------
The Theory of Continental Drift Evidence of Continental Drift
Continental Drift Discovery
The Plates Move…
ALFRED WEGENER So what now?
THEORY OF CONTINENTAL DRIFT Which way?
Found evidence for PANGAEA and proposed 50 million years
the theory of continental drift.

Continental Drift
Theory that continents were once part of a
single landmass that broke apart and have
moved to their present locations.
can drift apart from one another and have done
so in the past

Pangaea —-------------------------------------------------------------
Pangaea is the name given to the single -----------------
landmass that was present 200 million years Crust Deformation
ago
Introduction
Continents
“fit together” The earth’s surface is dynamic. The
like puzzle Himalayas, Rockies, Andes, and Grand
pieces Canyon are all visible reminders that the
WEGENER’S EVIDENCE shape of the earth’s surface is always
changing. These changes are all a result of
Fossil Evidence The deformation of the earth’s crust.
fossils are remains of living things that lived long
ago. Deformation
similar fossils have been discovered in matching The bending, tilting, and breaking of the
coastlines on different continents. earth’s crust. Plate tectonics is the major,
but not only, cause of crustal deformation.
Mountains
Some mountain ranges on different continents Two types of deformation:
seem to match. 1. Plastic — the bending/warping of crust.
Ex: ranges in Canada match Norway and — Happens under high temperatures,
Sweden pressures, and time
Ex: Appalachian Mtn. match UK mtn — Occurs deep under the surface.
2. Brittle — the breaking of crust
Climatic evidence such as glaciers in areas that
are now close to the Equator Stress vs. Strain
Stress — force that causes pressure on
Satellites used to rocks that make up the earth’s crust.
measure the -Stress increases with depth
movement of - Stress causes deformation.
continents
Strain — deforming strata (layers of rocks)
Laser Geodynamics by folding them or faulting (breaking) them
Satellite (LAGEOS)
Strata
All sedimentary rocks are originally
deposited in flat (horizontal) layers called
Strata or beds.
— Stress adds pressure to the strata
— Strain deforms the strata

Types of Stress
Compression — rocks are squeezed
together.
— Strata thickens
— Pushes rocks either higher up or down in
crust
Tension — pulls rocks apart
— Makes rock layers thinner
Shearing — pushes rocks in opposite
horizontal directions

Stress + Plastic Deformation

(strain) = Folding

Permanently deforming rocks because of plastic

deformation causes the crust to fold.

Fold — wavelike structures in rock layers.

Most folds are a result of compressional strain

Anticline - up fold in strata

Syncline - down fold in strata
Monocline - large step like fold
Recumbent Fold - folds on top of itself
Basin - radial down fold
Dome - radial up fold