Electrodynamics and Insulation Materials B: Multiconductor Transmission Lines

Electrodynamics and insulation materials B
Multiconductor transmission lines
Mwema
University of Nairobi
November 2020
WM (UoN) Multiconductor transmission lines 07/05 1 / 173

A distributed parameter circuit analysis
The TEM mode of propagation is characterised by unique voltage and

current waves with a …eld distribution similar to the static case


The transmission line can hence be regarded as a distributed
parameter electrical network


Per unit length shunt capacitance, C 0 and series inductance, L0 account
for energy storage in the electric and magnetic …elds resp.


Per unit length shunt capacitance, C 0 and series inductance, L0 account
for energy storage in the electric and magnetic …elds resp.
Per unit length shunt conductance, G 0 and series resistance, R 0
account for losses in the dielectric and conductors resp.

These parameters can be determined from the …eld distribution on

the line but for the moment, we satisfy ourselves with the following
expressions for the parameters

These parameters can be determined from the …eld distribution on

the line but for the moment, we satisfy ourselves with the following
expressions for the parameters
The energy storage parameters L0 and C 0
Z
0 µ ! ! 1
L = H H dS, where I0 I0 L0 = Um
I0 I0 4
S
Z
e0 ! ! 1
C0 = E E dS, where V0 V0 C 0 = Ue
V0 V0 4
S

The loss parameters R 0 and G 0 expressed as

I
Rm ! !
R0 = H H dl
I0 I0
S 1 +S 2
and Z
0 ωe00 ! !
G = E E dS
V0 V0
S

For the analysis, we consider a short section of line of length ∆z as

shown
∆z
I(z) L’∆z R’∆z I(z)+∆I(z)
i(z,t)
v(z,t) C’∆z G’∆z

V(z) V(z)+∆V(z)
A short transmission line model

Let the current and voltage at the sending end be i (z, t ) and v (z, t )
respectively

Let the current and voltage at the sending end be i (z, t ) and v (z, t )
respectively
Let the corresponding quantities at the receiving end be given by
∂
i (z, t ) + ∆z i (z, t )
∂z
and
∂
v (z, t ) + ∆z v (z, t )
∂z
respectively

From Kirchhof’s laws, we can write

∂v ∂i
v v + ∆z = i (z, t ) R 0 ∆z + L0 ∆z
∂z ∂t
or
∂v ∂i
= i (z, t ) R 0 L0
∂z ∂t


∂v ∂i
v v + ∆z = i (z, t ) R 0 ∆z + L0 ∆z
∂z ∂t
or
∂v ∂i
= i (z, t ) R 0 L0
∂z ∂t
Similarly
∂i ∂v ∂ ∂v
i i + ∆z = v + ∆z G 0 ∆z + C 0 ∆z v + ∆z
∂z ∂z ∂t ∂z


∂v ∂i
v v + ∆z = i (z, t ) R 0 ∆z + L0 ∆z
∂z ∂t
or
∂v ∂i
= i (z, t ) R 0 L0
∂z ∂t
Similarly
∂i ∂v ∂ ∂v
i i + ∆z = v + ∆z G 0 ∆z + C 0 ∆z v + ∆z
∂z ∂z ∂t ∂z
Or with ∆z su¢ ciently small to ignore higher order terms,
∂i ∂v
= v G0 C0
∂z ∂t

We di¤erentiate the voltage equation w.r.t. z and the current one

w.r.t. t to obtain
∂2 v ∂i ∂ ∂i
= R0 L0
∂z 2 ∂z ∂z ∂t
∂ ∂i ∂v ∂2 v
= G0 C0
∂t ∂z ∂t ∂t 2

We di¤erentiate the voltage equation w.r.t. z and the current one

w.r.t. t to obtain
∂2 v ∂i ∂ ∂i
= R0 L0
∂z 2 ∂z ∂z ∂t
∂ ∂i ∂v ∂2 v
= G0 C0
∂t ∂z ∂t ∂t 2
And on substituting,
∂2 0 0 0 0 0 0 ∂v
2
0 0∂ v
v = R G v + R C + L G + L C
∂z 2 ∂t ∂t 2

Rearranging, we obtain
∂2 ∂ ∂2
R0 G 0 R 0 C 0 + L0 G 0 L0 C 0 v (z, t ) = 0
∂z 2 ∂t ∂t 2

Rearranging, we obtain
∂2 ∂ ∂2
R0 G 0 R 0 C 0 + L0 G 0 L0 C 0 v (z, t ) = 0
∂z 2 ∂t ∂t 2
This is in the form of a wave equation in terms of the voltage at z

down the line and is called the telegrapher’s equation for line votage

The general solution is a propagating voltage wave of the form
v (z, t ) = Re [V (z ) exp (j ωt )]
where
V (z ) = V + exp ( γz ) + V exp (γz )
is the line voltage phasor at z down the line

The general solution is a propagating voltage wave of the form
v (z, t ) = Re [V (z ) exp (j ωt )]
where
V (z ) = V + exp ( γz ) + V exp (γz )
is the line voltage phasor at z down the line
And q
γ= (R 0 + j ωL0 ) (G 0 + j ωC 0 )
or s
p R 0G 0 1 R0 G 0
γ = ω L0 C 0 1+j + 0
L0 C 0 ω L0 C
is the propagation constant on the line

If R 0 and G 0 are small as would often be the case, we have
s
p 1 R0 G 0
γ j ω L0 C 0 1 j + 0
ω L0 C

s
p 1 R0 G 0
γ j ω L0 C 0 1 j + 0
ω L0 C
Using binomial expansion and keeping the …rst two linear terms, we
obtain
p 1 R0 G 0
γ = j ω L0 C 0 1 j + 0
2ω L0 C

s
p 1 R0 G 0
γ j ω L0 C 0 1 j + 0
ω L0 C
Using binomial expansion and keeping the …rst two linear terms, we
obtain
p 1 R0 G 0
γ = j ω L0 C 0 1 j + 0
2ω L0 C
Hence
r r !
1 C 0 L0 p
γ = α + jβ = R0 0
+ G 0
0
+ j ω L0 C 0
2 L C
1 R0 p
= + G 0 Z0 + j ω L0 C 0
2 Z0
where r
L0
Z0 =
C0
The line current phasor at z is given by
I (z ) = I + exp ( γz ) + I exp (γz )

γ
= V + exp ( γz ) V exp (γz )
R + j ωL0
0

The line current phasor at z is given by
I (z ) = I + exp ( γz ) + I exp (γz )

γ
= V + exp ( γz ) V exp (γz )
R + j ωL0
0
The parameters I + , V + and I , V are the incident and re‡ected

wave amplitudes resp.

We de…ne a characteristic impedance of the line as
V+ V
Z00 = =
I+ I

V+ V
Z00 = =
I+ I
Hence,
R 0 + j ωL0 R 0 + j ωL0 V+ V
Z00 = = 0 = =
γ G + j ωC 0 I+ I
since q
γ= (R 0 + j ωL0 ) (G 0 + j ωC 0 )

V+ V
Z00 = =
I+ I
Hence,
R 0 + j ωL0 R 0 + j ωL0 V+ V
Z00 = = 0 = =
γ G + j ωC 0 I+ I
since q
γ= (R 0 + j ωL0 ) (G 0 + j ωC 0 )
In the loss-free case p
γ = j β = j ω L0 C 0
and r
L0
Z00 = Z0 =
C0

Transmission line parameters: Capacitance per unit length
Consider the two-conductor structure shown below
Two-conductor transmission line for computing line parameters

In the loss-free case, the charge on the conductor surfaces can be

determined from the normal component of the electric …eld as
! ! ∂Φe
ρs = eb
n E = n r t Φe =
eb e
∂n
once the potential has been determined

In the loss-free case, the charge on the conductor surfaces can be

determined from the normal component of the electric …eld as
! ! ∂Φe
ρs = eb
n E = n r t Φe =
eb e
∂n
once the potential has been determined
The total charge per unit length of line on one conductor say S2 is
I
!
Q0 = n E dl
eb
S2
and that on S1 is then Q0

Since the potential di¤erence between the conductors is V0 , the

capacitance per unit length of line is then
Z
!
e b
n E dl
Q0 S
C0 = = S2
V0 Z1
! !
E d l
S2

The total current on S2 is

I I
! ! 1 ! Q0
I0 = H d l = b
n E dl =
η eη
S2 S2


I I
! ! 1 ! Q0
I0 = H d l = b
n E dl =
η eη
S2 S2
This holds because


I I
! ! 1 ! Q0
I0 = H d l = b
n E dl =
η eη
S2 S2
This holds because

! ! !
H = E /η = b n E /η at the surface S2


I I
! ! 1 ! Q0
I0 = H d l = b
n E dl =
η eη
S2 S2
This holds because

! ! !
The tangential component of the electric and normal component of the
magnetic …elds are separately equal to zero on a perfect conductor


I I
! ! 1 ! Q0
I0 = H d l = b
n E dl =
η eη
S2 S2
This holds because

! ! !
The tangential component of the electric and normal component of the
magnetic …elds are separately equal to zero on a perfect conductor
The characteristic impedance of the line is then
V0 V0 e
Z0 = = 0 eη = 0 η
I0 Q C

Transmission line parameters: Inductance per unit length
! ! ! !
Ht =bn H and E t = b n E are orthogonal and hence the
magnetic …eld lines are coincident with the equipotentials

! ! ! !
Ht =b n H and E t = b n E are orthogonal and hence the
All ‡ux lines from the Φe = 0 equipotential to Φe = V0 /2 in the
two-conductor line link the current in S2

! ! ! !
Ht =b n H and E t = b n E are orthogonal and hence the
All ‡ux lines from the Φe = 0 equipotential to Φe = V0 /2 in the
two-conductor line link the current in S2
Hence, any path P1 S2 or P2 S2 orthogonal to the ‡ux lines coincides
with a line of electric force and the ‡ux cutting such a path is then
ZS2 ZS2
µ ! ! µ V0
Ψ= µHt dl = Et d l =
η η 2
P1 P1

The inductance of one conductor is hence

magnetic ‡ux linkage Ψ µ V0
L1 = = =
total current I0 2η I0


L1 = = =
The inductance of both conductors then twice this value, i.e.,

µ
L0 = Z0
η


L1 = = =
The inductance of both conductors then twice this value, i.e.,

µ
L0 = Z0
η
From which
µ C0
η= Z0 = Z0
L0 e

Transmission line parameters: Shunt conductance per unit
length
The dielectric has a complex permittivity e = e0 j e00 , where e00

includes the e¤ects of a non-zero conductivity of the dielectric,

length

The total shunt current then consists of the displacement and
conduction components

length

The total shunt current then consists of the displacement and
conduction components
The current leaving S2 per unit length of line is then
I I I
! ! !
n dl = j ωe0
I = Id + Ic = j ωe E t b n dl + ωe00
Et b Et b
n dl
S2 S2 S2

length
The total shunt admittance is given by

Id + Ic
Yd = j ωC 0 + G 0 =
V0
or
Ic Ic Id ωe00
G0 = = = 0 C0
V0 Id V0 e

Transmission line parameters: Series resistance per unit
length
The …nite conductivity of the conductors is accounted for by a series

resistance per unit length of line R 0 as long as this is so chosen that
I
1 0 2 Rm ! 2
R I0 = Ht dl
2 2
S 1 +S 2

Transmission line parameters: Series resistance per unit
length
The …nite conductivity of the conductors is accounted for by a series

resistance per unit length of line R 0 as long as this is so chosen that
I
1 0 2 Rm ! 2
R I0 = Ht dl
2 2
S 1 +S 2
Thus I
! 2
Ht dl
Rm S1 +S2
R0 = 0 12
2 I
@ ! 2
Ht dl A
S2

Transmission line parameters: Skin e¤ect inductance per
unit length
A further e¤ect of a …nite conductivity is to increase the series

inductance of the line since
1+j
Zm = = Rm + jXm
σδs

unit length
A further e¤ect of a …nite conductivity is to increase the series

inductance of the line since
1+j
Zm = = Rm + jXm
σδs
The imaginary part of Zm comes from the fact that the magnetic …eld
now penetrates the conductor

unit length
The magnetic energy stored in Xm is given by

I
Xm ! 2
Um = Js dl
4ω
S 1 +S 2
where
Xm Rm
Lm = =
ω ω

unit length
The magnetic energy stored in Xm is given by

I
Xm ! 2
Um = Js dl
4ω
S 1 +S 2
where
Xm Rm
Lm = =
ω ω
Hence,
I 2
Rm ! 2 Rm R 0 I0 R0 I
Um = Ht dl = = p0
4ω 4ω Rm 2ω 2
S 1 +S 2

unit length
We therefore de…ne a skin-e¤ect or internal inductance Lm per unit

length through
1
Lm I02 = Um
4
so that
ωLm = R 0

unit length

length through
1
Lm I02 = Um
4
so that
ωLm = R 0
We see therefore that the series inductive reactance of the line is
increased by an amount equal to the series resistance

unit length

length through
1
Lm I02 = Um
4
so that
ωLm = R 0
We see therefore that the series inductive reactance of the line is
increased by an amount equal to the series resistance
We illustrate these ideas using the coaxial and the two-wire lines

Transmission line parameters: The coaxial and two-wire
lines
For a coax line, we have

ln (r /b )
Φe = V0 ,
ln (a/b )
Z2π Z2π
0 ! ∂Φe
Q = e br E t a d φ = e a dφ
∂r
0 0
Z2π
V0 2πeV0
= e dφ =
ln (a/b ) ln (b/a)
0

lines
For a coax line, we have

ln (r /b )
Φe = V0 ,
ln (a/b )
Z2π Z2π
0 ! ∂Φe
Q = e br E t a d φ = e a dφ
∂r
0 0
Z2π
V0 2πeV0
= e dφ =
ln (a/b ) ln (b/a)
0
Thus
e0 Q 0 2πe0
C0 = =
e V0 ln (b/a)

lines
The magnetic …eld is given by
! ! b
φ V0
H = H t exp ( j βz ) = exp ( j βz )
r η ln (b/a)

lines
! ! b
φ V0
r η ln (b/a)
And the current by
Z2π
! b 2πV0
I0 = H t φa d φ =
η ln (b/a)
0

lines
! ! b
φ V0
r η ln (b/a)
And the current by
Z2π
! b 2πV0
I0 = H t φa d φ =
η ln (b/a)
0
Hence
V0 η 60
Z0 = = ln (b/a) = p ln (b/a) Ω
I0 2π er

lines
The ‡ux linking the center conductor is then
Zb Zb
! b V0 dr µ
Ψ=µ Ht φ dr = µ = V0
η ln (b/a) r η
a a

lines
Zb Zb
! b V0 dr µ
η ln (b/a) r η
a a
Thus
Ψ µηV0 b µ b
L0 = = ln = ln
I0 2πηV0 a 2π a

lines
Zb Zb
! b V0 dr µ
η ln (b/a) r η
a a
Thus
Ψ µηV0 b µ b
L0 = = ln = ln
I0 2πηV0 a 2π a
And
ωe00 0 ωe00 2πe0 2πωe00
G0 = C = =
e0 e0 ln (b/a) ln (b/a)

lines
The power loss in the conductors
1 0 2 Rm πV02 1 1
R I 0 = Pc = 2 +
2 η ln (b/a) a b

lines
1 0 2 Rm πV02 1 1
R I 0 = Pc = 2 +
2 η ln (b/a) a b
Hence
Rm 1 1 R0
R0 = + , Lm =
2π a b ω

lines
1 0 2 Rm πV02 1 1
R I 0 = Pc = 2 +
2 η ln (b/a) a b
Hence
Rm 1 1 R0
R0 = + , Lm =
2π a b ω
And
µ b 1 1 1
L0 + Lm = ln + +
2π a 2πωσc δs a b

lines
The capacitance per unit length of a two-wire transmission line with
wires of radius a and separation D, is given by
πe
C0 = , Fm 1
cosh 1 D/a

lines
πe
C0 = , Fm 1
cosh 1 D/a
The inductance per unit length is
µ D
L0 = cosh 1
π a

lines
πe
C0 = , Fm 1
cosh 1 D/a
µ D
L0 = cosh 1
π a
And
πσd
G0 =
cosh 1 D/a

lines
πe
C0 = , Fm 1
cosh 1 D/a
µ D
L0 = cosh 1
π a
And
πσd
G0 =
cosh 1 D/a
If D/a >> 1,
1 D D
cosh ln
a a

lines
Assuming a surface current density Js ‡ows in a very thin surface
layer of the conductor and uniformly distributed, the current in each
wire is given by
I = 2πaJs

lines
wire is given by
I = 2πaJs
Hence
1 2 Rm
Pc = I
2 2πa

lines
wire is given by
I = 2πaJs
Hence
1 2 Rm
Pc = I
2 2πa
From which s
Rm 1 πf µc
R0 = 2
2πa πa σc

lines
wire is given by
I = 2πaJs
Hence
1 2 Rm
Pc = I
2 2πa
From which s
Rm 1 πf µc
R0 = 2
2πa πa σc
Js is not uniform over the circumference of the wires in the strict

sense as the proximity of the two wires will tend to distort current
distribution

lines
wire is given by
I = 2πaJs
Hence
1 2 Rm
Pc = I
2 2πa
From which s
Rm 1 πf µc
R0 = 2
2πa πa σc
Js is not uniform over the circumference of the wires in the strict

sense as the proximity of the two wires will tend to distort current
distribution
This phenomenon is called the proximity e¤ect
Wave characteristics on an in…nitely long transmission line
On an in…nitely long line, the z-directed wave components must

vanish


vanish
Hence, the line voltage and current are given by
V (z ) = V0+ exp ( γz )
and
I (z ) = I0+ exp ( γz )


vanish
Hence, the line voltage and current are given by
V (z ) = V0+ exp ( γz )
and
I (z ) = I0+ exp ( γz )
In this case, the voltage-current ratio is independent of position on
the line and is called the characteristic impedance of the line,
s
R 0 + j ωL0 γ R 0 + j ωL0
Z00 = = 0 =
γ G + j ωC 0 G 0 + j ωC 0

Example (1)
Demonstrate the analogy between wave characteristics on a transmission
line and uniform plane waves in a lossy and unbounded medium.
Solution (1)
In a lossy medium, e = e0 j e00 and µ = µ0 j µ00 . Maxwell’s curl
equations are then modi…ed as
! ! !
r E = j ω µ0 j µ00 H
! ! !
r H = j ω e0 j e00 E

Solution (1 continued)
!
We assume E = b x Ex , then
dEx (z )
= ωµ00 + j ωµ0 Hy (z )
dz
dHy (z )
= ωe00 + j ωe0 Ex (z )
dz
Comparing with
dV (z )
= R 0 + j ωL0 I (z )
dz
and
dI (z )
= G 0 + j ωC 0 V (z )
dz

Solution (1 continued)
Then the equations governing Ex and Hy are similar. We combine to
obtain
d 2 Ex ( z )
= γ 2 Ex ( z )
dz 2
d 2 Hy ( z )
= γ 2 Hy ( z )
dz 2
with q
γ = α + jβ = (ωµ00 + j ωµ0 ) (ωe00 + j ωe0 )
and the intrinsic impedance of the lossy medium for a wave propagating in
the +z-direction is s
µ00 + j µ0
η=
e00 + j e0

Limiting cases: Lossless line
For a lossless line R 0 = 0, G 0 = 0


Hence p
γ = α + j β = j ω L0 C 0


Hence p
γ = α + j β = j ω L0 C 0
From which we deduce that
p
α = 0, β = ω L0 C 0
ω 1
vp = =p
β L0 C 0
and r
L0
Z00 = Z0 =
C0

Limiting cases: Low-loss line
In a low-loss line, R << ωL0 , G 0 << ωC 0


Hence, we can use binomial expansion to write
s
p R0 G0
γ = α + j β = j ω L0 C 0 1+ 0
1+
j ωL j ωC 0
p R0 G0
j ω L0 C 0 1 + 0
1+
j2ωL j2ωC 0
p 1 R0 G 0
j ω L0 C 0 1 + + 0
j2ω L0 C


Hence, we can use binomial expansion to write
s
p R0 G0
γ = α + j β = j ω L0 C 0 1+ 0
1+
j ωL j ωC 0
p R0 G0
j ω L0 C 0 1 + 0
1+
j2ωL j2ωC 0
p 1 R0 G 0
j ω L0 C 0 1 + + 0
j2ω L0 C
From which we have

r
1 R0 p L0
α + G 0 Z0 , β = ω L0 C 0 , Z0 =
2 Z0 C0

The phase velocity on the line is given by

ω 1
vp =p
β L0 C 0

The phase velocity on the line is given by

ω 1
vp =p
β L0 C 0
And the characteristic impedance by
r 1/2
L0 R0 G0
Z00 = 1 + 1+
C0 j ωL0 j ωC 0
1 R0 G 0
Z0 1 + Z0
j2ω L0 C0
since the frequency dependent imaginary part is negligible when

R 0 << ωL0 and G 0 << ωC 0

Limiting cases: Distortionless line
A distortionless line is one in which
R0 G0
=
L0 C0

R0 G0
=
L0 C0
Hence,
s
R 0C 0
γ = α + jβ = (R 0 + j ωL0 ) + j ωC 0
L0
1
= R 0 + j ωL0
Z0
R0 p ω 1
α= , β = ω L0 C 0 , vp =p
Z0 β L0 C 0
s
R 0 + j ωL0
Z00 = = Z0
R C 0 /L0 + j ωC 0
0

R0 G0
=
L0 C0
Hence,
s
R 0C 0
γ = α + jβ = (R 0 + j ωL0 ) + j ωC 0
L0
1
= R 0 + j ωL0
Z0
R0 p ω 1
α= , β = ω L0 C 0 , vp =p
Z0 β L0 C 0
s
R 0 + j ωL0
Z00 = = Z0
R C 0 /L0 + j ωC 0
0
In general, a lossy line is dispersive

Wave characteristics on an in…nitely long transmission line:
Limiting cases
Example (2)
It is found that the attenuation on a 50 Ω distortionless line is
0, 01 dBm 1 . The line has a capacitance of 0, 1 nFm 1 (a) Determine the
resistance, inductance and conductance per unit length of the line (b) Find
the velocity of wave propagation (c) Determine the percentage to which
the amplitude of a voltage travelling wave decreases in 1 km and 5 km

Limiting cases
Solution (2)
(a) For a distortionless line,
R0 G0
0
= 0
L C
Thus r
L0
Z0 = = 50 Ω
C0
r
0C0 1 0, 08 1
α = R = 0, 01 dBm = Npm
L0 8, 69
= 1, 15 10 3 Npm 1

Limiting cases
Solution (2)
(a) Thus
R 0 = αZ0 = 0, 057 Ωm 1
L0 = C 0 Z02 = 0, 25 µHm 1
R 0C 0
G0 = = 22, 8 µSm 1
L0
Solution (2)
(b)
1
vp = p =2 108 ms 1
L0 C 0
Limiting cases
Solution (2)
(c)
V2
= exp ( αz ) = 31, 7% @ 1 km
V1
= 0, 32% @ 5 km

Attenuation from power relations
We note that for a travelling wave on a transmission line, the

attenuation constant is given by
α = Re [γ] = Re R 0 + j ωL0 G 0 + j ωC 0


α = Re [γ] = Re R 0 + j ωL0 G 0 + j ωC 0
This can be obtained from a power relation as well


α = Re [γ] = Re R 0 + j ωL0 G 0 + j ωC 0
This can be obtained from a power relation as well

We note that the line voltage and current on an in…nitely long
transmission line have the phasor representation
V (z ) = V + exp f (α + j β) z g
and
V+
I (z ) = exp f (α + j β) z g
Z0

The time-average power propagated down the line across the plane at
z is given by
2
1 1 jV + j
P (z ) = Re [V (z ) I (z )] = Re [Z0 ] exp ( 2αz )
2 2 jZ0 j2

z is given by
2
1 1 jV + j
2 2 jZ0 j2
From the principle of energy conservation, the rate of decrease of

P (z ) with distance down the line is equal to the time-average power
loss Pl per unit length at z

z is given by
2
1 1 jV + j
2 2 jZ0 j2
From the principle of energy conservation, the rate of decrease of

P (z ) with distance down the line is equal to the time-average power
loss Pl per unit length at z
Hence,
∂P (z ) P (z )
= Pl (z ) = 2αP (z ) ) α = l
∂z 2P (z )

Example (3)
(a) Find the attenuation constant of a lossy transmission line with R 0 , L0 ,
G 0 , C 0 using the power relation (b) Specialise the results in (a) to obtain
the attenuation constant for a low-loss and a distortionless line

Solution (3)
(a) For a lossy transmission line, the time-average power loss per unit
length is
1h 2 i
Pl ( z ) = I (z ) R 0 + jV (z )j2 G 0
2
V02 n 0 0 2
o
= R + G j Z0 j exp ( 2αz )
2 jZ0 j2
Thus
1 n 0 o
α= R + G 0 jZ0 j2 , Npm 1
2Z0

Solution (3)
p
(b) For a low-loss line, Z0 L0 /C 0
( r r )
1 R0 1 C0 L0
α + G 0 R0 = R 0
+ G0
2 Z0 2 L0 C0
p
and for a distortionless line, Z0 = L0 /C 0 , R 0 /L0 = G 0 /C 0 so that
r
0 C0 R0
α=R =
L0 Z0

Wave characteristics on a …nite-length line
The general solutions to the Helmholtz equations governing the

voltage and current waves on a transmission line are of the form
V (z ) = V + exp ( γz ) + V exp (γz )
I (z ) = I + exp ( γz ) + I exp (γz )


V (z ) = V + exp ( γz ) + V exp (γz )
I (z ) = I + exp ( γz ) + I exp (γz )

γ is in general complex and both terms of the solutions are present


V (z ) = V + exp ( γz ) + V exp (γz )
I (z ) = I + exp ( γz ) + I exp (γz )

The characteristic impedance of the line is de…ned as
V+ V
Z0 = =
I+ I


V (z ) = V + exp ( γz ) + V exp (γz )
I (z ) = I + exp ( γz ) + I exp (γz )

The characteristic impedance of the line is de…ned as
V+ V
Z0 = =
I+ I
The re‡ected waves V (z ) exp (γz ) and I (z ) exp (γz ) vanish when
the line is terminated in its characteristic impedance

Consider a load ZL connected to a sinusoidal generator Vg of source

impedance Zg through a …nite-length line of length l as depicted
below
Zg
Ii IL
Vg Vi Zi ZL
VL
γ,Z0
-l -z 0
A terminated …nite-length transmission line

For convenience, we assume the load to be at z = 0 so that the

source is at z = l

For convenience, we assume the load to be at z = 0 so that the

source is at z = l
Thus, at the load, we can write
V ( 0 ) = VL = V + + V
V+ V
I (0) = IL = I + + I =
Z0 Z0

By Ohm’s law,
VL = IL ZL

By Ohm’s law,
VL = IL ZL
Thus, we can express the wave amplitudes in terms of the load
current by writing
IL ZL = V + + V
IL Z0 = V + V

By Ohm’s law,
VL = IL ZL
Thus, we can express the wave amplitudes in terms of the load
current by writing
IL ZL = V + + V
IL Z0 = V + V
From which,
IL IL
V+ = (ZL + Z0 ) , V = (ZL Z0 )
2 2

At any z from the load, we can write

IL IL
V (z ) = (ZL + Z0 ) exp ( γz ) + (ZL Z0 ) exp (γz )
2 2
= IL ZL cosh γz IL Z0 sinh γz

At any z from the load, we can write

IL IL
2 2
= IL ZL cosh γz IL Z0 sinh γz
And
IL IL
I (z ) = (ZL + Z0 ) exp ( γz ) (ZL Z0 ) exp (γz )
2Z0 2Z0
IL IL
= Z0 cosh γz ZL sinh γz
Z0 Z0

The ratio of the line voltage to current at z is given by
V (z ) Z cosh γz Z0 sinh γz Z Z0 tanh γz

Z (z ) = = Z0 L = Z0 L
I (z ) Z0 cosh γz ZL sinh γz Z0 ZL tanh γz


Z (z ) = = Z0 L = Z0 L
This is the impedance seen looking toward the load at a distance z

from the load


Z (z ) = = Z0 L = Z0 L
This is the impedance seen looking toward the load at a distance z

from the load
Hence at the generator end source-end of line, z = l
V ( l) Vi Z Z0 tanh ( γz ) Z + Z0 tanh γl
Zi = = = Z0 L = Z0 L
I ( l) Ii Z0 ZL tanh ( γz ) Z0 + ZL tanh γl
and is the impedance the generator would see looking toward the load

Thus, as far as the generator is concerned, the terminated

…nite-length line can be replaced by this impedance as shown
Zg Ii
Vg Vi Zi
Equivalent circuit for …nite-length line at the source-end

The input voltage and current can then be computed as
Zi
Vi = Vg
Zi + Zg
and
Vg
Ii =
Zi + Zg

Zi
Vi = Vg
Zi + Zg
and
Vg
Ii =
Zi + Zg
The time-average power delivered by the generator at the input
terminals of the line is given by
1
Pi ,ave = Re [Vi Ii ]
2

Zi
Vi = Vg
Zi + Zg
and
Vg
Ii =
Zi + Zg
The time-average power delivered by the generator at the input
terminals of the line is given by
1
Pi ,ave = Re [Vi Ii ]
2
And that delivered to the load by
2
1 1 VL 1
PL,ave = Re [VL IL ] = RL = jIL j2 RL
2 2 ZL 2

If the line is lossless, the PL,ave = Pi ,ave


If ZL = Z0 , the impedance seen by the generator at any distance z
from the load is Z0


from the load is Z0
In this case, the line voltage and current at any z is given by
V (z ) = IL Z0 exp ( γz ) = VL exp ( γz )
and
I (z ) = IL exp ( γz )
and no re‡ections occur on the line


from the load is Z0
and
On a …nite length lossless transmission line is terminated in its own

characteristic impedance, the voltage and current distribution on the
line is as though the line were in…nitely long


from the load is Z0
and
On a …nite length lossless transmission line is terminated in its own

characteristic impedance, the voltage and current distribution on the
line is as though the line were in…nitely long
In this case, the line is said to be matched to the load
Example (4)
A signal generator with a source resistance of 1 Ω and an open-circuit
voltage vg = 0, 3 cos 2π 108 t V is connected to a 50 Ω lossless
transmission line. The line is 4 m long and the measured velocity of the
wave on the line is 2, 5 108 ms 1 . For a matched load, determine (a)
The instantaneous voltage and current at an arbitrary location on the line
(b) The expression of the instantaneous voltage and current at the load
(c) The average power transmitted to the load

Solution (4)
(a) We have
VG = 0, 3\0 , Zg = Rg = 1 Ω, Z0 = 50 Ω,
ω = 2π 108 rads 1 , vp = 2, 5 108 ms 1 , l = 4 m
Since the line is matched, Zi = Z0 = 50 Ω. The voltage and current at

the input are thus,
Zi
Vi = Vg = 0, 294\0 V
Zi + Zg
VG
Ii = = 5, 9\0 mA
Zi + Zg

Solution (4)
(a) Since only the forward wave exists on the lossless line, we have
ω 1
γ = jβ = j = j0, 8π radm
vp
and
V (z ) = 0, 294 exp ( j0, 8πz ) V
I (z ) = 5, 9 exp ( j0, 8πz ) mA

Solution (4(a) continued)

Hence
v (z, t ) = Re [0, 294 exp fj (ωt 0, 8πz )g]

8
= 0, 294 cos 2π 10 t 0, 8πz V
i (z, t ) = Re [5, 9 exp fj (ωt 0, 8πz )g]

8
= 5, 9 cos 2π 10 t 0, 8πz mV

Solution (4)
(b) At the load, z = l = 4 m. Hence
v (z, t ) = 0, 294 cos 2π 108 t 3, 2π V
i (z, t ) = 5, 9 cos 2π 108 t 3, 2π mV

(c)
1
Pi ,ave = Po,ave = Re [V (z ) I (z )] = 0, 87 mW
2

Finite length transmission line as a circuit element
At ultrahigh frequencies (300 MHz-3 GHz), lumped-element

components are di¢ cult to fabricated as e¤ects of stray …elds become
important


important
Sections of transmission lines can be used to


important
Simulate capacitance and inductance


important
Simulate capacitance and inductance
Match arbitrary terminating loads to the source impedance of the
generator for maximum power transfer operation

In most practical cases, short sections of line of length l << λ can be

considered lossless with γl j βl,


Z0 is then real and tanh (γl ) = j tan βl


Z0 is then real and tanh (γl ) = j tan βl
Hence the impedance seen at the input of the line section looking
toward the load becomes
ZL + jZ0 tan βl
Zi = Z0
Z0 + jZL tan βl

Finite length transmission line as a circuit element:
Open-circuited short line
If ZL = ∞,
Z0
Zi ,oc = j = jZ0 cot βl
tan βl

If ZL = ∞,
Z0
tan βl
Thus, depending on the sign of cot βl, Zi ,oc can have either inductive
or capacitive characteristics

If ZL = ∞,
Z0
tan βl
If βl << 1, tan βl βl and
r
Z0 1 L0 1
Zi ,oc = p =
j βl j ω L0 C 0 l C0 j ωC 0 l
i.e. a capacitive impedance

If ZL = ∞,
Z0
tan βl
If βl << 1, tan βl βl and
r
Z0 1 L0 1
Zi ,oc = p =
j βl j ω L0 C 0 l C0 j ωC 0 l
i.e. a capacitive impedance

In practice, ZL can large but remains …nite especially at high
frequencies due to coupling to nearby objects and radiation at the
open end
The variation of the input impedance of an open-circuited short line

section with line length is illustrated below
Xi,oc
inductive
λ/2 3λ/4 λ
l
0 λ/4 5λ/4
capacitive
Input reactance of an open-circuited short transmission line

Short-circuited short line
If ZL = 0, we have
Zi ,sc = jZ0 tan βl

If ZL = 0, we have
For very short lines this can be approximated as
r
p L0
Zi ,sc jZ0 βl = j ω L0 C 0 l = j ωL0 l
C0
which is an inductive impedance

If ZL = 0, we have
For very short lines this can be approximated as
r
p L0
Zi ,sc jZ0 βl = j ω L0 C 0 l = j ωL0 l
C0
which is an inductive impedance
The input reactances of open- or short-circuited transmission lines
are the same if their lengths di¤er by (2n + 1) λ/4, n = 0, 1, 2, . . .

The variation of the input impedance of an short-circuited short line

section with line length is illustrated below
Xi,sc
inductive
λ/4 λ 5λ/4 l
0 λ/2 3λ/4
capacitive
Input impedance of a short-circuited short transmission line

Quarter-wavelength line
If l is such that
λ
l = (2n + 1)
4

If l is such that
λ
l = (2n + 1)
4
Then
2π λ π
βl = (2n + 1) = (2n + 1)
λ 4 2
and
π
tan βl = tan (2n + 1) = ∞
2

If l is such that
λ
l = (2n + 1)
4
Then
2π λ π
βl = (2n + 1) = (2n + 1)
λ 4 2
and
π
tan βl = tan (2n + 1) = ∞
2
In this case,
R02
Zi =
ZL

Half-wavelength line
For l = nλ/2, n = 1, 2, . . .,
2π nλ
βl = = nπ
λ 2

Half-wavelength line
For l = nλ/2, n = 1, 2, . . .,
2π nλ
βl = = nπ
λ 2
Hence,
tan βl = 0
so that
Zi = ZL

parameter measurement
We can determine Z0 and γ of a given line by measuring the input

impedance of the a section of the line with open- and short-circuit
terminations


terminations
We note that for


terminations
We note that for
ZL ! ∞, Zi ,oc = Z0 coth γl


terminations
We note that for
ZL = 0, Zi ,sc = Z0 tanh γl


terminations
We note that for
Thus p
Z0 = Zi ,oc Zi ,sc
and s
1 1 Zi ,sc
γ = tanh
l Zi ,oc


terminations
We note that for
Thus p
Z0 = Zi ,oc Zi ,sc
and s
1 1 Zi ,sc
γ = tanh
l Zi ,oc
These expressions hold regardless of whether the line is lossy or not

Example (5)
The open- and short-circuit impedances measured at the input terminals
of a lossless transmission line of length 1, 5 m less than λ/4 are j54, 6 Ω
and j103 Ω resp. (a) Determine Z0 and γ of the line (b) Without
changing the operating frequency, determine the input impedance of a
short-circuited section of line that is twice as long as the one given. (c)
How long should the short-circuited line be in order for it to appear as an
open circuit at the input terminals at this frequency?

Solution (5)
(a)
p
Z0 = Zi ,oc Zi ,sc , (Ω)
p
= j54, 6 j103 = 75 Ω
and
s
1 1Zi ,sc
γ = tanh , m 1
l Zi ,oc
s
1 j103
= tanh 1 = j0, 628 m 1
1, 5 j54, 6

Solution (5)
(b)
γl = j0, 628 2 1, 5 m = j1, 884 rad
Zi ,sc = 75 tanh (j1, 884) = j75 tan 1, 884 = j231 Ω
Thus
λ
1, 5 m < < 3, 0 m
4

Solution (5)
(c) For a short-circuited line to appear open at the input, it should be an
odd multiple of λ/4 long. We have
2π 2π
λ= = 1
= 10 m
β 0, 628 m
Hence
λ λ
l= + (n 1) = 2, 5 + 5 (n 1) , n = 1, 2, . . .
4 2

When a lossy line is terminated in a short-circuit, the input

impedance seen at the input will not vanish when l = nλ/2

When a lossy line is terminated in a short-circuit, the input

impedance seen at the input will not vanish when l = nλ/2
In this case, we have
sinh (α + j β) l
Zi ,sc = Z0 tanh γl = Z0
cosh (α + j β) l
sinh αl cos βl + j sin βl cosh αl
= Z0
cosh αl cos βl + j sinh αl sin βl

For l = nλ/2, βl = nπ, sin βl = 0


Hence,
sinh αl cos βl
Zi ,sc = Z0 = Z0 tanh αl Z0 αl
cosh αl cos βl
since for αl small, tanh αl αl


Hence,
sinh αl cos βl
Zi ,sc = Z0 = Z0 tanh αl Z0 αl
cosh αl cos βl
since for αl small, tanh αl αl
We therefore have a series resonant circuit when l = nλ/2

Similarly, when l = (2n + 1) λ/4, Zi ,sc will not be in…nite

Similarly, when l = (2n + 1) λ/4, Zi ,sc will not be in…nite

With l = nλ/4, n odd, cos βl = 0 and
sin βl cosh αl Z0 Z0
Zi ,sc = Z0 =
sinh αl sin βl tanh αl αl
for small αl which is a parallel resonant circuit

The quality factor of the circuit is determined by …rst determining its
half-power bandwidth

We let f = f0 + ∆f2 where ∆f << f0 is the shift from the resonance
frequency

We let f = f0 + ∆f2 where ∆f << f0 is the shift from the resonance
frequency
Thus
2πf 2πf0 ∆f
βl = l= 1+ l
vp vp 2f0
nπ nπ ∆f nλ
= + , n odd, l =
2 2 2f0 4
nπ ∆f nπ ∆f
cos βl = sin
2 f0 2 2f0
nπ ∆f
sin βl = cos 1
2 2f0

Thus
1
nπ ∆f
Zi ,sc = Z0 αl + j
2 2f0
2
2 nπ
2 ∆f
) jZi ,sc j = jZ0 j αl + j
2 2f0

Thus
1
nπ ∆f
Zi ,sc = Z0 αl + j
2 2f0
2
2 nπ
2 ∆f
2 2f0
The magnitude of the input impedance at the resonance frequency is
given by
jZ0 j 2
jZi ,sc (f0 )j2 = jZi ,sc ,max j2 =
αl

Thus
1
nπ ∆f
Zi ,sc = Z0 αl + j
2 2f0
2
2 nπ
2 ∆f
2 2f0
The magnitude of the input impedance at the resonance frequency is
given by
jZ0 j 2
jZi ,sc (f0 )j2 = jZi ,sc ,max j2 =
αl
The magnitude of the input impedance normalised to its magnitude
at resonance is hence,
" # 2
jZi ,sc j2 nπ 2 ∆f 2
= 1+
jZi ,sc ,max j2 2αl 2f0
Therefore, the half-power frequencies f1 and f2 , f2 > f1 at which this

ratio is 1/2 are given by
nπ ∆f β ∆f
= = 1, n odd
2αl 2f0 2α f0


nπ ∆f β ∆f
= = 1, n odd
2αl 2f0 2α f0
The Q of the parallel-resonant circuit is hence
f0 β
Q= =
∆f 2α


nπ ∆f β ∆f
= = 1, n odd
2αl 2f0 2α f0
The Q of the parallel-resonant circuit is hence
f0 β
Q= =
∆f 2α
Assuming low loss,
ωL0 R0 G0
Q= = +
R 0 + G 0 L0 /C 0 ωL0 ωC 0

For a well insulated line, G 0 L0 /C 0 << R 0 ,

For a well insulated line, G 0 L0 /C 0 << R 0 ,

Hence,
ωL0
Q
R0

Example (6)
The measured attenuation of an air-dielectric coaxial line at 400 MHz is
0, 01 dBm 1 . Determine the Q and half-power bandwidth of a
quarter-wavelength section of line terminated in a short-circuit.

Solution (6)
At f = 4 108 Hz, λ = 0, 75 m, β = 8, 38 radm 1
1 0, 01 1
α =, 01 dBm = Npm
8, 69
Thus
β 8, 38 8, 69
Q= = = 3641
2α 2 0, 01
f0
∆f = = 0, 11 106 Hz
Q

A line terminated in a resistive load
Recall that the voltage at a point z from the load is given by

IL IL
2 2
IL ZL Z0
= (ZL + Z0 ) exp ( γz ) 1 + exp (2γz )
2 ZL + Z0
IL
= (ZL + Z0 ) exp ( γz ) f1 + Γ exp (2γz )g
2

Recall that the voltage at a point z from the load is given by

IL IL
2 2
IL ZL Z0
= (ZL + Z0 ) exp ( γz ) 1 + exp (2γz )
2 ZL + Z0
IL
= (ZL + Z0 ) exp ( γz ) f1 + Γ exp (2γz )g
2
Where
ZL Z0
Γ= = jΓj exp (j θ Γ )
ZL + Z0
is the voltage re‡ection coe¢ cient at the load

Similarly, for the current wave,

IL IL
2Z0 2Z0
IL ZL Z0
= (ZL + Z0 ) exp ( γz ) 1 exp (2γz )
2Z0 ZL + Z0
IL
= (ZL + Z0 ) exp ( γz ) f1 Γ exp (2γz )g
2Z0

Similarly, for the current wave,

IL IL
2Z0 2Z0
IL ZL Z0
= (ZL + Z0 ) exp ( γz ) 1 exp (2γz )
2Z0 ZL + Z0
IL
= (ZL + Z0 ) exp ( γz ) f1 Γ exp (2γz )g
2Z0
Note that the current re‡ection coe¢ cient de…ned as
∆ I V
ΓI = =
I+ V+
is equal to the negative of the voltage re‡ection coe¢ cient

Thus at z from the load,

IL
V (z ) = (ZL + Z0 ) exp ( γz ) f1 + Γ exp (2γz )g
2
and
IL
I (z ) = (ZL + Z0 ) exp ( γz ) f1 Γ exp (2γz )g
2Z0

Thus at z from the load,

IL
V (z ) = (ZL + Z0 ) exp ( γz ) f1 + Γ exp (2γz )g
2
and
IL
I (z ) = (ZL + Z0 ) exp ( γz ) f1 Γ exp (2γz )g
2Z0
For a lossless transmission line, γ = j β, hence
IL
V (z ) = (ZL + Z0 ) exp ( j βz ) f1 + Γ exp (j2βz )g
2
Io
I (z ) = (ZL + Z0 ) exp ( j βz ) f1 Γ exp (j2βz )g
2Z0

The current and voltage phasors are obtained as
V (z ) = VL cos βz jIL Z0 sin βz

VL
I (z ) = IL cos βz j sin βz
Z0
where VL = IL ZL


VL
Z0
where VL = IL ZL
If ZL = RL ,
s
2
Z0
jV (z )j = VL cos2 βz + sin2 βz
RL
s
2
RL
jI (z )j = IL cos2 βz + sin2 βz
Z0


VL
Z0
where VL = IL ZL
If ZL = RL ,
s
2
Z0
jV (z )j = VL cos2 βz + sin2 βz
RL
s
2
RL
jI (z )j = IL cos2 βz + sin2 βz
Z0
These represent standing wave patterns with minima and maxima
located at …xed planes along the line
The voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR) is given by
jVmax j 1 + jΓj
S= =
j min j
V 1 jΓj

jVmax j 1 + jΓj
S= =
j min j
V 1 jΓj
jVmax j and jImin j occur together at z = zM when
θΓ 2βzM = 2nπ, n = 0, 1, 2, . . .

jVmax j 1 + jΓj
S= =
j min j
V 1 jΓj
jVmax j and jImin j occur together at z = zM when
θΓ 2βzM = 2nπ, n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
jVmin j and jImax j occur together at z = zm when
θΓ 2βzm = (2n + 1) π, n = 0, 1, 2, . . .

Example (7)
The standing wave ratio on a transmission line is an easily measured
quantity. (a) Show how the value of the terminating resistance on a
lossless line of known characteristic impedance Z0 can be determined by
measuring VSWR. (b) What is the impedance of the line looking towards
the load at a distance λ/4 where λ is the operating wavelength?

Solution (7)
(a) If there are voltage maxima at z = 0, λ/2, λ, . . ., RL < Z0 . If
RL > Z0 , θ Γ = 0 and jVmax j, jImin j occur at βz = 0 and jVmin j, jImax j at
βz = π/2. Thus
Z0
jVmax j = VL , jVmin j = VL
RL
RL
jImin j = IL , jImax j = IL
Z0
Thus
jVmax j jImax j R
= =S = L
jVmin j jImin j Z0
or
RL = SZ0

Solution (7)
(a) If RL < Z0 , θ Γ = π and jVmin j, jImax j occur at βz = 0 and jVmax j,
jImin j at βz = π/2.
Z0
jVmin j = VL , jVmax j = VL
RL
RL
jImax j = IL , jImin j = IL
Z0
Thus
jVmax j jImax j Z0
= =S =
jVmin j jImin j RL
or
Z0
RL =
S

Solution (7)
(b) λ is determined from twice the distance between to neighbouring
voltage (or current) maxima or minima. At z = λ/4, βz = π/2,
cos βz = 0, sin βz = 1. Thus
λ λ VL
V = jIL Z0 , I =j
4 4 Z0
λ V (λ/4) Z2
Z = Zi = = 0
4 I (λ/4) RL

A line terminated in an arbitrary load
A voltage minimum or maximum cannot occur at the termination

when ZL is complex because θ Γ 6= 0 or θ Γ 6= π


Let ZL = RL + jXL


Let ZL = RL + jXL
If the standing wave is extended by an extra distance lm beyond the
load, the wave will reach a minimum

The voltage minimum is hence where it should be had the

termination been replaced by a section of length lm terminated in a
resistance Rm < Z0 as shown below
Z0 ZL
z’
m z’=0
lm
Z0 Rm
z’
m z’=0
λ/2
Finite-length transmission line with an arbitrary load termination

This does not change the voltage distribution to the left of the actual
termination where z < 0

Using Rm in place of ZL , and lm in place of l, we have
Rm + jZ0 tan βlm

Ri + jXi = Z0
Z0 + jRm tan βlm

Rm + jZ0 tan βlm

Ri + jXi = Z0
Z0 + jRm tan βlm
The real and imaginary parts then yield values of Rm and lm

Rm + jZ0 tan βlm

Ri + jXi = Z0
Z0 + jRm tan βlm
The real and imaginary parts then yield values of Rm and lm

Experimentally, ZL is obtained by measuring the standing wave ratio
and the distance zm of the closest extremum of the voltage wave to
the load, i.e.
λ
zm + lm =
2

Thus,

Thus,
1 Determine jΓj from VSWR as
S 1
jΓj =
S +1

Thus,
S 1
jΓj =
S +1
2 Determine θ Γ from zm as
θ Γ = 2βzm π, n = 0

Thus,
S 1
jΓj =
S +1
θ Γ = 2βzm π, n = 0
3 Determine ZL as
1 + jΓj exp (j θ Γ )
ZL = RL + jXL = Z0
1 jΓj exp (j θ Γ )

Thus,
S 1
jΓj =
S +1
θ Γ = 2βzm π, n = 0
3 Determine ZL as
1 + jΓj exp (j θ Γ )
ZL = RL + jXL = Z0
1 jΓj exp (j θ Γ )
4 The distance of a voltage maximum to the termination, zM could also
be used for which
θ Γ = 2βzM , n = 0

Example (8)
The standing wave ratio of a lossless 50 Ω line terminated in an unknown
load impedance is found to be 3, 0. The distance between successive
voltage minima is 20 cm and the …rst minimum occurs at 5 cm from the
load. Determine (a) The re‡ection coe¢ cient Γ (b) The load impedance
ZL (c) The equivalent length and terminating resistance of line such that
the input impedance is ZL

Solution (8)
(a) The distance between successive voltage minima is λ/2. Thus
λ=2 0, 2 m = 0, 4 m
2π
β= = 5π rads 1
λ
S 1
jΓj = = 0, 5
S +1
θ Γ = 2βzm0 π= 0, 5π rad
Γ = jΓj exp (j θ Γ ) = j0, 5
(b)
1 j0, 5
ZL = 50 = 30 j40 Ω
1 + j0, 5

Solution (8)
(c)
Rm + j50 tan βlm
30 j40 = 50
50 + jRm tan βlm
Equate real and imaginary parts or recall
λ Z0
zm0 + lm = , Rm =
2 SWR
Hence
λ
lm = zm0 = 0, 15 m
2
50
Rm = = 16, 7 Ω
3

Solution (8)
(c) Note that
λ
lm0 = lm = 0, 05 m
4
and
Rm0 = Z0 SWR = 150 Ω
are also valid when we use the locations of the maxima instead

Transmission line circuits
We seek to express the voltages on a line terminated in ZL in terms of


The source parameters Vg , Zg ,


The line characteristics γ, Z0 , l and


The line characteristics γ, Z0 , l and
The load impedance ZL

At z = l, we have
IL
Vi = Vg Ii Zg = (ZL + Z0 ) exp (γl ) f1 + Γ exp ( 2γl )g
2
and
IL
Ii = (ZL + Z0 ) exp (γl ) f1 Γ exp ( 2γl )g
2Z0

At z = l, we have
IL
2
and
IL
2Z0
Thus
IL Z0 Vg 1
(ZL + Z0 ) exp (γl ) =
2 Z0 + Zg 1 Γg Γ exp ( 2γl )

At z = l, we have
IL
2
and
IL
2Z0
Thus
IL Z0 Vg 1
(ZL + Z0 ) exp (γl ) =
2 Z0 + Zg 1 Γg Γ exp ( 2γl )
Where
Zg Z0
Γg =
Zg + Z0
is the voltage re‡ection coe¢ cient at the generator end of the line

Thus, at any point z from the load, we have
Z0 Vg 1 + Γ exp (2γz )
V (z ) = exp f γ (z + l )g
Z0 + Zg 1 Γg Γ exp ( 2γl )

Thus, at any point z from the load, we have
Z0 Vg 1 + Γ exp (2γz )
V (z ) = exp f γ (z + l )g
And
Vg 1 Γ exp (2γz )
I (z ) = exp f γ (z + l )g

Example (9)
A 100 MHz sinusoidal generator with Vg = 10\0 and source resistance
50 Ω is connected to a lossless 50 Ω air line 3, 6 m long and terminated in
a 25 + j25 Ω load. Determine (a) V (z ) at the location z from the
generator (b) Vi at the input terminals of the line and VL at the load (c)
The VSWR on the line (d) The average power delivered to the load

Solution (9)
(a) We have
Vg = 10\0 , Zg = 50 Ω, f = 108 Hz, Z0 = 50 Ω,

ZL = 25 + j25 Ω = 35, 36\45 , l = 3, 6 m
Thus
2π 2πf 2π
β= = = radm 1 ) βl = 2, 4π rad
λ c 3
ZL Z0
Γ= = 0, 447\116, 6 , Γg = 0
ZL + Z0

Solution (9)
(a) Since the distance from the load is z = z 0 and the source is at
z = l, then the point of interest is at z 0 from the generator with z 0 = 0
at the generator and l at the load. Hence
Z0 Vg
V z0 = 1 + Γ exp j2β l z0 exp j βz 0
Z0 + Zg

Solution (9)
(b)
Z0 Vg
Vi = V (0) = f1 + Γ exp ( j2βl )g
Z0 + Zg
Z0 Vg
= f1 + 0, 447\ 27, 4g
Z0 + Zg
= 5 (1 + 0, 397 j0, 206) V
= 7, 06\8, 38 V

Solution (9)
(b) and
Z0 Vg
VL = V z 0 = l = (1 + Γ) exp ( j βl )
Z0 + Zg
= 5 f1 + 0, 447\116, 6 g exp ( j2, 4π ) V
= 5 f1 0, 200 + j0, 4g exp ( j2, 4π ) V
= 5 (0, 894\26, 5) exp ( j2, 4π ) V
= 4, 47\ 45, 5 V

Solution (9)
(c)
1 + jΓj
S= = 2, 62
1 jΓj
(d)
2
1 VL
Pave = RL = 0, 2 W
2 ZL
If ZL = 50 Ω, Γ = 0 and jVL j = jVi j = Vg /2. Maximum power would
thus be delivered to the load and is
VL2
Pave,max = = 0, 25 W
2RL
The re‡ected power is hence
jΓj2 Pave,max = 0, 05 W
Transients on transmission lines
The concept of reactance, wavelength, wavenumber, phase constant

lose meaning under transient conditions or non-sinusoidal line
operation


operation
Important practical situations where signals and sources are not
time-harmonic and the conditions not steady-state, include


operation
Line excitation with digital pulse signals in computer networks


operation
Line excitation with digital pulse signals in computer networks
Sudden surges in power on telephone or power lines

We consider lossless lines and start with the simplest situation where
a DC source is connected to a line terminated in its characteristic
impedance at t = 0 as shown below
Zg t=0
VDC Z0 Z0
z1
z=-l z=0
DC excited terminated line

The impedance looking into the line from the source-end is hence Z0
and a voltage wave of magnitude
Z0
V1+ = VDC
Z0 + Rg
p
propagates down the line in the +z-direction at vp = 1/ L0 C 0 with
a corresponding current
V1 VDC
I1+ = =
Z0 Z0 + Rg
at z1

Z0
V1+ = VDC
Z0 + Rg
p
V1 VDC
I1+ = =
Z0 Z0 + Rg
at z1
The plot of V (z1 ) as a function of time is a delayed step function at
t = z1 /vp and the current has a similar shape

Z0
V1+ = VDC
Z0 + Rg
p
V1 VDC
I1+ = =
Z0 Z0 + Rg
at z1
When the voltage and current waves arrive at the load end (z = 0),
no re‡ections occur since the line is matched

Z0
V1+ = VDC
Z0 + Rg
p
V1 VDC
I1+ = =
Z0 Z0 + Rg
at z1
When the voltage and current waves arrive at the load end (z = 0),
no re‡ections occur since the line is matched
Steady-state is established with the entire line charged to a voltage
V1+
If both Rg and RL are di¤erent from Z0 , then when the switch is
closed at t = 0, the source-end will send a voltage wave of magnitude
Z0
V1+ = VDC
Z0 + Rg
p
in the +z-direction which propagates at v = 1/ L0 C 0 proceeding as
if the line were in…nitely long

Z0
V1+ = VDC
Z0 + Rg
p
At t = T = l /v , this wave arrives at the load end and a re‡ected
wave travelling in the z-direction is established and has a magnitude
RL Z0
V1 = ΓL V1+ , ΓL =
RL + Z0

Z0
V1+ = VDC
Z0 + Rg
p
At t = T = l /v , this wave arrives at the load end and a re‡ected
wave travelling in the z-direction is established and has a magnitude
RL Z0
V1 = ΓL V1+ , ΓL =
RL + Z0
The re‡ected wave arrives at the source end at t = 2T where it
su¤ers re‡ection again and a new wave propagating in the
+z-direction established with a magnitude
Rg Z0
V2+ = Γg V1 = Γg ΓL V1+ , Γg =
Rg + Z0
This goes on inde…nitely with re‡ection at both ends of the line at

t = nT , n = 1, 2, . . .


t = nT , n = 1, 2, . . .
Some of the re‡ected waves may have negative amplitudes since Γg
or ΓL could be negative


t = nT , n = 1, 2, . . .
Some of the re‡ected waves may have negative amplitudes since Γg
or ΓL could be negative
Unless the termination is a short- or open-circuit, Γg and ΓL are less
than unity so that the re‡ections grow weaker with time

At any location z1 on the line from the source, the voltage and
current on the line at a given time interval are
V (z1 ) = V1+ + V1 + V2+ + V2 + . . .
and
I (z1 ) = I1+ + I1 + I2+ + I2 + . . .

At any location z1 on the line from the source, the voltage and
current on the line at a given time interval are
V (z1 ) = V1+ + V1 + V2+ + V2 + . . .
and
I (z1 ) = I1+ + I1 + I2+ + I2 + . . .
The ultimate voltage across the load as time progresses will be
VL = V1+ 1 + ΓL + Γg ΓL + Γg Γ2L + . . .
= V1+ 1 + Γg ΓL + Γ2g Γ2L + . . . + ΓL 1 + Γg ΓL + Γ2g Γ2L + . . .
or
1 + ΓL
VL = V1+
1 Γg ΓL

For example, if RL = 3Z0 , Rg = 2Z0 , Γg = 1/3, ΓL = 1/2 and

V1+ = VDC /3


V1+ = VDC /3
Thus VL ! 9V1+ /5 = 3VDC /5 as t ! ∞


V1+ = VDC /3
Thus VL ! 9V1+ /5 = 3VDC /5 as t ! ∞
Similarly
1 ΓL V1+ 3 V1+ 1 VDC
IL = = =
1 Γg ΓL Z0 5 Z0 5 Z0

Transients on transmission lines: Re‡ection or bounce
diagrams
The re‡ection diagram illustrated below is useful tool for visualising

the voltage and current at a given point z1 on the line measured from
the source as time evolves
t
t5 P5
Γ2g Γ2L V+1
4T
P4
t4 ΓgΓ2L V+1
3T
t3 P3
ΓgΓLV+1
2T
P2
t2 ΓLV+1
T
V+1
P1
t1 slope=1/v
z1 z
0 l
Re‡ection diagram
diagrams
The re‡ection diagram can be used to determine the voltage

distribution at a given time as well as the variation with time at an
arbitrary point on the line

diagrams

To obtain the voltage distribution at t = t4 say, we note that
3T < t4 < 4T

diagrams

To obtain the voltage distribution at t = t4 say, we note that
3T < t4 < 4T
We thus, mark t4 on the time scale and extend a horizontal line to
intersect the directed line below t = 4T at P4 which has a value
Γg Γ2L V1+

diagrams
A vertical line drawn from P4 to the z-axis intersects it at z1 ,

diagrams

Note that in the range 0 < z < z1 from the source, the voltage has
value V1+ + V1 + V2+ = V1+ (1 + ΓL + Γg ΓL ) and in the range
z1 < z < l, the value is V1+ 1 + ΓL + Γg ΓL + Γg Γ2L

diagrams

Note that in the range 0 < z < z1 from the source, the voltage has
value V1+ + V1 + V2+ = V1+ (1 + ΓL + Γg ΓL ) and in the range
z1 < z < l, the value is V1+ 1 + ΓL + Γg ΓL + Γg Γ2L
The voltage discontinuity is hence Γg Γ2L V1+ at z = z1 from the source

diagrams
Hence, at t = t4 , V (z, t4 ) has the form shown below
ΓgΓ2L V+1
t4 l
Transient voltage on a lossless transmission line

diagrams
ΓgΓ2L V+1
t4 l

Now consider the line excited by a rectangular pulse of the form
vg (t ) = V0 fu (t ) u (t T0 )g

diagrams
ΓgΓ2L V+1
t4 l

Now consider the line excited by a rectangular pulse of the form
vg (t ) = V0 fu (t ) u (t T0 )g
The transient response of the line is the superposition of the two step
functions

diagrams
Example (10)
A rectangular pulse of an amplitude 15 V and duration 1 µs is applied
through a series resistance of 25 Ω to the inputs of a 50 Ω lossless coaxial
line. If the line is 400 m long and is terminated in a short-circuit at the far
end, determine the voltage response midway down the line as a function of
time up to 8 µs. The dielectric constant is 2, 25.

diagrams
Solution (10)
ΓL = 1, Γg = 1/3. We have
6
vg (t ) = 15 u (t ) u t 10
c
v = p = 2, 0 108 ms 1
er
l
T = = 2 µs
v
15Z0
V1+ = = 10 V
Z0 + RG

diagrams
Solution (10)
The diagram below illustrates the solution process. The values indicated in
brackets apply to the 15u t 10 6 function applied 1 µs later.
t
9 +1/9
(+1/3)
8
-1/3
7
+1/3 6
5 (-1/3)
(+1)
4
-1
+1 2
1 (-1)
z
0 200 400
Re‡ection diagram solution

Transients on transmission lines: Initially charged line
Any disturbance or change in a transmission line circuit will start

transients along the line even without external excitation as long as
initial voltages or currents exist on the line.
Example (11)
A lossless air-dielectric, open-circuited line of resistive characteristic
impedance Z0 and length l is initially charged to a voltage V0 . At t = 0
the line is connected to a resistance R. Determine the voltage across and
the current through R as a function of time. Assume R = Z0 .

Solution (11)
The diagram below illustrates the situation
Z0 t=0 t=0
IR I+1
R VR Z0 LINE
z=-l z=0 z=0

(a) OPEN-CIRCUITED LINE (b) EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
t=0 t=0
I1
IR
R LINE R LINE
z=0 z=0
(c) VOLTAGES OPPOSE HENCE NO TRANSIENTS (d) INTERESTING PART
Charged open-circuited line and its equivalent circuit

Solution (11)
Since the voltage across R is initially zero (no current ‡ows through R),
we can model the situation as shown in (b) which can be redrawn as in (c)
and (d). The line is assumed to be uncharged with the initial charge
represented by a voltage source.
When the switch is closed, a wave of amplitude V1+ is sent down the line
in the +z-direction with an amplitude
Z0 V0
V1+ = V0 =
Z0 + R 2

Solution (11)
At t = l /v , this wave arrives at the open-circuit having lowered the
voltage everywhere on the line to V0 /2. A re‡ected wave V1 is sent back
to the sending end where
V0
V1 = ΓV1+ =
2
and arrives here at t = 2l /v and lowers the line voltage to zero.
The current through the resistor
IR = I1
where
V1+ V0
I1 = I1+ = =
Z0 2Z0
in the time interval 0 t l /v
Solution (11)
At t = l /v , I1+ reaches the open circuit and the re‡ected current must
change sign to make the total current zero as required by the open circuit.
Thus
V0
I1 = I1+ =
2Z0
This arrives at the sending end at t = 2l /v reducing both I1 and IR to
zero. Since R = Z0 , no further re‡ection takes place and the transient
ends. This circuit is useful as a pulse generator with the pulse duration
adjustable through l.

Transients on transmission lines: A line terminated in an
inductive load
Consider a line terminated in an inductance L as shown below

Z0 t=0 Z0 t=0
iL(t) iL(t)
2V+1 Z0 2V+1 vL(t) L vL(t)

vL(t) L
z=-l z=0 z=0

INDUCTIVELY TERMINATED LINE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
Inductively terminated transmission line

inductive load
When the switch is closed at t = 0, a voltage wave of an amplitude
V0
V1+ =
2
travels towards the load arriving there at l = l /v = T

inductive load
V0
V1+ =
2
A re‡ected wave V1 (t ) is generated due to the mismatch and at
z = l, we can then write
v (t ) = V1+ + V1 (t )
for all t T

inductive load
V0
V1+ =
2
v (t ) = V1+ + V1 (t )
for all t T
The current through the inductor is given by
1
iL (t ) = V + V1 ( t )
Z0 1

inductive load
V0
V1+ =
2
v (t ) = V1+ + V1 (t )
for all t T
The current through the inductor is given by
1
iL (t ) = V + V1 ( t )
Z0 1
And the voltage by
diL
vL (t ) = L
dt
inductive load
Hence
V1 (t ) = vL (t ) V1+
and
1
iL (t ) = V1+ vL (t ) + V1+
Z0

inductive load
Hence
V1 (t ) = vL (t ) V1+
and
1
iL (t ) = V1+ vL (t ) + V1+
Z0
Thus
vL (t ) = 2V1+ Z0 iL (t )

inductive load
Hence
V1 (t ) = vL (t ) V1+
and
1
iL (t ) = V1+ vL (t ) + V1+
Z0
Thus
vL (t ) = 2V1+ Z0 iL (t )
At the load end, the equivalent circuit for t T is of the form shown

inductive load
We can therefore write
diL
L + Z0 iL (t ) = 2V1+ , t T
dt
or
2V1+ Z0
iL (t ) = 1 exp (t T ) , t T
Z0 L
2V1+
iL (T ) = 0, iL (∞) =
Z0

inductive load
We can therefore write
diL
L + Z0 iL (t ) = 2V1+ , t T
dt
or
2V1+ Z0
iL (t ) = 1 exp (t T ) , t T
Z0 L
2V1+
iL (T ) = 0, iL (∞) =
Z0
The voltage across the load is hence
diL Z0
vL (t ) = L = 2V1+ 1 exp (t T) , t T
dt L
and
Z0 1
V1 (t ) = vL (t ) V1+ = 2V1+ exp (t T) , t>T
L 2
inductive load
At any z = z1 along the line, the voltage is V1+ before the re‡ection
from the termination reaches this point at
l z1
t T <
v

inductive load
At any z = z1 along the line, the voltage is V1+ before the re‡ection
from the termination reaches this point at
l z1
t T <
v
It then equals
V1+ + V1 (t T)
thereafter

inductive load
The voltage function is as shown below
iL(t) vL(l,t)
2V+1 /Z0 2V+1
t t
T T
V1- (l,t)
v(z,t)
V+1
2V+1
t
T
V+1
-V+1
z
z1 l
Transient on an inductively terminated line

inductive load
The voltage function is as shown below
iL(t) vL(l,t)
2V+1 /Z0 2V+1
t t
T T
V1- (l,t)
v(z,t)
V+1
2V+1
t
T
V+1
-V+1
z
z1 l
Transient on an inductively terminated line

Note that
l z1 z1
t1 T = ) 2T
v v
Transients on transmission lines: A line terminated in a
capacitive load
For a capacitive termination as shown below

Z0 t=0
iC(t)
V0 Z0 C vC(t)
z=-l z=0
Transient on a capacitively terminated line

capacitive load
We have at z = l,
dvC
iC (t ) = C
dt

capacitive load
We have at z = l,
dvC
iC (t ) = C
dt
For t T , we need to solve
dvC 1 2V1+
C + vC (t ) =
dt Z0 Z0
where V1+ = V0 /2

capacitive load
Thus
t T
vC (t ) = 2V1+ 1 exp
Z0 C
and
2V1+ t T
iC (t ) = exp
Z0 Z0 C

capacitive load
Thus
t T
vC (t ) = 2V1+ 1 exp
Z0 C
and
2V1+ t T
iC (t ) = exp
Z0 Z0 C
Thus,
1 t T
V1 = 2V1+ exp , t T
2 Z0 C

capacitive load
The voltage waveform on the line is illustrated below
vC(l,t) iC(t)
2V+1 2V+1 /Z0
t t
T T
V1- (l,t)
v(z,t)
V+1
2V+1
t
T
-V+1 z
z1 l

capacitive load
The voltage waveform on the line is illustrated below
vC(l,t) iC(t)
2V+1 2V+1 /Z0
t t
T T
V1- (l,t)
v(z,t)
V+1
2V+1
t
T
-V+1 z
z1 l

Note
l z1 z1
t1 T = ) t1 = 2T
v v
The Smith-Chart
The re‡ection coe¢ cient at the load ZL terminating a lossless

transmission line of characteristic impedance Z0 is given by
ZL Z0
ΓL = = jΓL j exp (j θ Γ )
ZL + Z0
where r
L0
Z0 =
C0

The Smith-Chart
The re‡ection coe¢ cient at the load ZL terminating a lossless

transmission line of characteristic impedance Z0 is given by
ZL Z0
ΓL = = jΓL j exp (j θ Γ )
ZL + Z0
where r
L0
Z0 =
C0
We can normalise the load to the characteristic impedance of the line
and de…ne a dimensionless quantity zL 1 as
ZL
zL = = rL + jxL
Z0

The Smith-Chart
Thus, if Γr = Re [Γ] and Γi = Im [Γ], then
(rL 1) + jxL
Γr + j Γi =
(1 + rL ) + jxL

The Smith-Chart
(rL 1) + jxL
Γr + j Γi =
(1 + rL ) + jxL
Or equivalently
(1 + Γr ) + j Γi
rL + jxL =
(1 Γr ) j Γi

The Smith-Chart
(rL 1) + jxL
Γr + j Γi =
(1 + rL ) + jxL
Or equivalently
(1 + Γr ) + j Γi
rL + jxL =
(1 Γr ) j Γi
From which we see that
1 Γ2r Γ2i 2Γi
rL = 2
, xL =
(1 Γr ) + Γ2i (1 Γr )2 + Γ2i

The Smith-Chart
For a given value of rL , the locus of the re‡ection coe¢ cient describes
a circle speci…ed through the equation
2 2
rL 1
Γr + Γ2i =
1 + rL 1 + rL

The Smith-Chart
For a given value of rL , the locus of the re‡ection coe¢ cient describes
a circle speci…ed through the equation
2 2
rL 1
Γr + Γ2i =
1 + rL 1 + rL
The centre of r -circle is located on the complex Γ-plane at
rL
,0
1 + rL
and has a radius

1
1 + rL

The Smith-Chart
xL forms another family of circles

2 2
1 1
( Γr 1)2 + Γi =
xL xL

The Smith-Chart

2 2
1 1
( Γr 1)2 + Γi =
xL xL
x-circles are of radius

1
xL
and are centred at
1
1,
xL

The Smith-Chart

2 2
1 1
( Γr 1)2 + Γi =
xL xL
x-circles are of radius

1
xL
and are centred at
1
1,
xL
The Smith-chart is thus a graph of r - and x-circles in the complex
Γ-plane forjΓj 1

The Smith-Chart
An example of the impedance Smith-chart is illustrated below
x=1.0
phase angle of reflection coeff

x=2.0
x=0.5
r=0
r=0.5 r=1.0 r=2.0
x=-0.5
x=-1.0 x=-2.0
unit circle
Simpli…ed Smith chart

The Smith-Chart
The fractional distance from the center of the chart to a given point
relative to the radius jΓj = 1 of the circle is a measure of the value of
jΓj at that point

The Smith-Chart
The fractional distance from the center of the chart to a given point
relative to the radius jΓj = 1 of the circle is a measure of the value of
jΓj at that point
θ Γ is the angle the line from the centre passing through the given
point makes with the real axis

The Smith-Chart
Thus,

The Smith-Chart
Thus,
A jΓj circle intersects the real axis at two points: at PM towards the
open-circuit point at (r = 1, x = 0), and Pm towards the short-circuit
point at (r = 0, x = 0)

The Smith-Chart
Thus,
point at (r = 0, x = 0)
PM and Pm represent a case of pure resistive loading on the line with
PM representing RL > Z0 and Pm representing resistive loading with
RL < Z0 .

The Smith-Chart
Thus,
point at (r = 0, x = 0)
RL < Z0 .
For RL > Z0
RL
S= = rL
Z0

The Smith-Chart
Thus,
point at (r = 0, x = 0)
RL < Z0 .
For RL > Z0
RL
S= = rL
Z0
Hence

The Smith-Chart
Thus,
point at (r = 0, x = 0)
RL < Z0 .
For RL > Z0
RL
S= = rL
Z0
Hence
The r -circle passing through PM is numerically equal to the standing
wave ratio

The Smith-Chart
Thus,
point at (r = 0, x = 0)
RL < Z0 .
For RL > Z0
RL
S= = rL
Z0
Hence
The r -circle passing through PM is numerically equal to the standing
wave ratio
The value of the r -circle passing through Pm is equal to 1/S

The Smith-Chart
For a lossless line therefore, the impedance seen looking toward the
load at a plane z from the load is given by
V ( z) 1 + Γ exp ( j2βz )
Zi ( z ) = = Z0
I ( z) 1 Γ exp ( j2βz )
where like before, we locate the load at the origin of the z-axis

The Smith-Chart
For a lossless line therefore, the impedance seen looking toward the
load at a plane z from the load is given by
V ( z) 1 + Γ exp ( j2βz )
Zi ( z ) = = Z0
I ( z) 1 Γ exp ( j2βz )
where like before, we locate the load at the origin of the z-axis
Using normalised impedance, we can write
1 + Γ exp ( j2βz ) 1 + jΓj exp (j ϕ)

zi ( z ) = =
1 Γ exp ( j2βz ) 1 jΓj exp (j ϕ)
where
ϕ = θΓ 2βz

The Smith-Chart
Thus keeping jΓj constant and subtracting (rotating clockwise) from

θ Γ through 2βz = 4πz/λ locates the point jΓj exp (j ϕ), the re‡ection
coe¢ cient of the input impedance a distance z from the load zL
Example (12)
Use the Smith-chart to determine the input impedance of a section of a
50 Ω lossless line that is 0, 1λ long and terminated in a short circuit.

The Smith-Chart
Solution (12)
We have zL = 0, Z0 = 50 Ω, z = 0, 1λ. On the Smith-chart, mark Psc
at the intersection of r = 0 and x = 0. Move along the circumference of
the chart (jΓj = 1) a distance 0, 1λ towards the generator in a clockwise
direction to point P1 as shown below
P1
Psc
Smith chart solution
At P1 read o¤ r = 0 and x 0, 725 or

zi = j0, 725 ) Zi = zi Z0 = j36, 3 Ω. Con…rm this result using
The Smith-Chart
Example (13)
A lossless transmission line of length 0, 434λ and characteristic impedance
100 Ω is terminated in an impedance 260 + j180 Ω. Determine (a) The
voltage re‡ection coe¢ cient (b) The standing-wave ratio (c) The input
impedance (d) The location of a voltage maximum on the line

The Smith-Chart
Solution (13)
Given
l = 0, 434λ, Z0 = 100 Ω, ZL = 260 + j180 Ω
Thus
(a) We have
ZL
zl = = 2, 60 + j1, 8
Z0
zl 1, 0
jΓj = = 0, 60
zl + 1, 0
We plot on the Smith chart, the point P2 = (2, 6, 1, 8) and draw a circle
of radius OP2 = jΓj centred at the origin of the chart ((0, 0)). We then
draw the line OP2 and extend it to the point P20 on the unit-circle and
read o¤ the length of line toward the generator as 0, 220. Phase angle of
re‡ection coe¢ cient is hence
The Smith-Chart
Solution (13)
(a)
4π (0, 250 0, 220) = 0, 12π = 0, 38 rad = 22
Multiplication by 4π is because angles on Smith chart are in
4π
2βl = l
λ
Thus
Γ = 0, 60\22
(b) The jΓj = 0, 60 circle intersects the positive real axis OPoc at
r = SWR = 4 so that voltage standing-wave ratio is 4

The Smith-Chart
Solution (13)
(c) For the impedance, advance P20 at 0, 220 through l = 0, 434λ towards
generator to point P30 , …rst to 0, 50 equivalent to 0, 0 and a further 0, 154
0, 50 0, 220 = 0, 280
and then
0, 280 + 0, 154 = 0, 434
since a complete revolution around the Smith chart corresponds to a
length of λ/2.

The Smith-Chart
Solution (13)
(c) Join the origin with P30 which then intersects the jΓj = 0, 6 circle at
point P3 and read o¤ the value of r and x at P3
zi = 0, 69 + j1, 2
Input impedance is hence
Zi = Z0 zi = 69 + j120 Ω
(d) Going from P2 to P3 , the jΓj = 0, 6 circle intersects the positive real
axis OPoc at PM where the voltage is maximum. Hence, maximum
voltage occurs at
(0, 25 0, 22) λ = 0, 03λ
from the load.

The Smith-Chart
Solution (13)
(d) The Smith chart solution process is illustrated below
P’3
P3
P2 P’2
toward generator
Psc Poc
O PM
toward load

The Smith-Chart
Solution (14)
The input impedance of a short-circuited lossy transmission line of length
2 m and Z0 = 75 Ω approximately real is 45 + j225 Ω. (a) Determine α
and γ of the line (b) Determine the input impedance if the short-circuit is
replaced by a load ZL = 67, 5 j45 Ω.

The Smith-Chart
Solution (14)
(a) For a lossy line of a su¢ cient length l such that 2αl cannot be ignored,
the expression for input impedance must be modi…ed to
1 + Γ exp ( 2αz ) exp ( j2βz )

zi =
1 Γ exp ( 2αz ) exp ( j2βz )
1 + jΓj exp ( 2αz ) exp (j ϕ)
=
1 jΓj exp ( 2αz ) exp (j ϕ)
and we must therefore perform extra calculations to account for the

exp ( 2αz ) factor. A short circuit on the Smith-chart is represented by
the point Psc at (0, 0).

The Smith-Chart
Solution (14)
(a) Thus, plot
1
zi = f45 + j225g = 0, 6 + j3, 0
75
on the chart as point P1 as shown below
P’3
P1 P’1
P3
Pi
P2
P’2

The Smith-Chart
Solution (14)
(a) and draw a straight line from the centre of the circle through P1 to P10
on the circumference of the chart. Now measure
OP1 /OP10 = exp ( 2αl ) = 0, 89. Hence determine α as
1 1 1 1
α= ln = ln 1, 124 = 0, 029 Npm
2l 0, 89 4
Record the length of the arc Psc P10 in wavelengths toward the generator
(i.e. clockwise) which gives the number of wavelengths l /λ = 0, 20 and
4π
2βl = l = 4π 0, 20 = 0, 8π ) β = 0, 20π
λ

The Smith-Chart
Solution (14)
(b) Plot zL = ZL /Z0 = 0, 9 j0, 6 on the chart as P2 and draw a straight
line from centre toP20 on the circumference of the chart and read o¤ the
number of wavelengths towards the generator as 0, 364. Now draw the
jΓj-circle centred at the centre of the chart having radius OP2 . Move P20
along the circumference by l = 0, 20 in wavelengths toward the generator
to point P30
0, 364 + 0, 20 0, 5 = 0, 064
and join P30 to the centre of the chart by a straight line. This line
intersects the jΓj-circle at P3 . Mark on OP3 a point Pi such that
OPi /OP3 = exp ( 2αl ) = 0, 89. At Pi read o¤ zi = 0, 64 + j0, 27. Hence
Zi = Z0 zi = 48, 0 + j20, 3 Ω

Transmission line matching: The quarter-wavelength
impedance transformer
We insert a λ/4 impedance transformer to match RL to a line of

characteristic impedance Z0 (real)

We insert a λ/4 impedance transformer to match RL to a line of

characteristic impedance Z0 (real)
The characteristic impedance of the λ/4 transformer is then given by
p
Z00 = Z0 RL

Example (15)
A signal generator is to feed equal power through a lossless air line of
Z0 = 50 Ω to two separate resistive loads of 64 Ω and 25 Ω.
Quarter-wave transformers are used to match the loads to the 50 Ω line as
shown below.
λ/4
64Ω
B
Z’01
Z0
Z’02
B’ 25Ω
λ/4
A matching scheme using a quarter-wavlength impedance transformer

Example (15 continued)

(a) Determine the required characteristic impedance of the impedance
transformer sections (b) Determine S on the matching line sections

Solution (15)
(a) The input impedance at the junction with the main line looking into
each load must be 2Z0 since they are in parallel. Thus, we must have
Ri 2 = Ri 1 = 100 Ω and
p p
0
Z01 = Z0 RL1 = 80 Ω, Z02 0
= Z0 RL2 = 50 Ω
(b) Under matched conditions, there are no standing waves on the main
line. On the matching lines however, we have
RL1 Z010 1 + j Γ1 j
Γ1 = 0 = 0, 11 ) S1 = = 1, 25
RL1 + Z01 1 j Γ1 j
RL2 Z020 1 + j Γ2 j
Γ2 = 0 = 0, 33 ) S2 = = 1, 99
RL2 + Z02 1 j Γ2 j
Transmission line matching: Single-stub matching of
arbitrary loads
Consider the single-stub matching scheme below

d
B
Z0 yB
yi yL
ys
Z0
B’
A single-stub matching scheme

arbitrary loads
We seek to determine l and d such that the impedance seen looking
into the junction is Z0

arbitrary loads
The parallel combination of a line terminated in ZL and a stub at the
points B B 0 suggests use of admittances for convenience

arbitrary loads
We have
1 1
Yi = = YB + Ys = Y0 =
Zi Z0

arbitrary loads
We have
1 1
Yi = = YB + Ys = Y0 =
Zi Z0
In terms of normalised admittances, then
yB + ys = 1
where
yB = Z0 YB , ys = Z0 Ys
with YB and Ys the admittances of the load section and
short-circuited stub respectively
arbitrary loads
The short-circuited stub is purely susceptive so that the normalised

admittance is satis…ed only if
yB = 1 + jbB , ys = jbB

arbitrary loads

Thus, we seek d such that yB looking towards the load at the

junction has unity real part and …nd l for the stub such that its
susceptance cancels that of the load.

arbitrary loads

Thus, we seek d such that yB looking towards the load at the

junction has unity real part and …nd l for the stub such that its
susceptance cancels that of the load.
Analytically, we can write
(rL + jxL ) + jt
zB =
1 + j (rL + jxL ) t
where t = tan βd

arbitrary loads
The normalised input admittance to the right of B B 0 is

1
yB = = gB + jbB
zB
where
rL (1 xL t ) + rL t (xL + t )
gB =
rL2 + (xL + t )2
and
rL2 t (1 xL t ) (xL + t )
bB =
rL2+ (xL + t )2

arbitrary loads
The normalised input admittance to the right of B B 0 is

1
yB = = gB + jbB
zB
where
rL (1 xL t ) + rL t (xL + t )
gB =
rL2 + (xL + t )2
and
rL2 t (1 xL t ) (xL + t )
bB =
rL2+ (xL + t )2
Perfect match requires simultaneously satisfying

arbitrary loads
Thus
2xL t rL rL2 xL2
gB = 1 ) t 2 + =0
rL 1 rL 1
or
( r )
1 h i
t = xL rL (1 rL )2 + xL2 , rL 6= 1
rL 1
xL
= , rL = 1
2

arbitrary loads
And
d 1
= tan 1 t, t 0
λ 2π
1
= π + tan 1 t , t < 0
2π
l 1 1
= tan 1 , bB 0
λ 2π bB
1 1
= π + tan 1 , bB < 0
2π bB

Transmission line matching: Double-stub matching of
arbitrary loads
Consider the double-stub matching scheme below

d0
B A
yA
Z0
yB ZL
yi
ySA
ySB
Z0
B’ Z0
A’
lB lA
A double-stub matching scheme

arbitrary loads
d0 is chosen arbitrarily e.g. λ/16, λ/8, 3λ/16, 3λ/8, etc. lA and lB

are adjusted to match ZL to the main line

arbitrary loads

Total admittance looking into the terminals B B 0 looking towards
the load must be equal to the conductance of the main line, i.e.
1
Yi = YB + YSB = Y0 =
Z0
or
1 = yB + ySB
where ySB is purely imaginary

arbitrary loads

Total admittance looking into the terminals B B 0 looking towards
the load must be equal to the conductance of the main line, i.e.
1
Yi = YB + YSB = Y0 =
Z0
or
1 = yB + ySB
where ySB is purely imaginary
This hence requires that
yB = 1 + jbB , ySB = jbB

arbitrary loads
On the Smith-chart, yB must lie on the g = 1 circle and is translated

by d0 /λ wavelengths towards the load

arbitrary loads

This means that yA must be on the g = 1 circle also but rotated
through an angle 4πd0 /λ counterclockwise

arbitrary loads

Since ySA is also purely imaginary, the real part of yA must come from
Re [zL ] = gL

arbitrary loads

Since ySA is also purely imaginary, the real part of yA must come from
Re [zL ] = gL
Solutions are the intersections of the gL -circle and the rotated g = 1
circle

Electrodynamics and Insulation Materials B: Multiconductor Transmission Lines

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Electrodynamics and Insulation Materials B: Multiconductor Transmission Lines

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Electrodynamics and insulation materials B

Multiconductor transmission lines

WM (UoN) Multiconductor transmission lines 07/05 1 / 173

The TEM mode of propagation is characterised by unique voltage and

WM (UoN) Multiconductor transmission lines 07/05 2 / 173

The TEM mode of propagation is characterised by unique voltage and

WM (UoN) Multiconductor transmission lines 07/05 2 / 173

The TEM mode of propagation is characterised by unique voltage and

WM (UoN) Multiconductor transmission lines 07/05 2 / 173

The TEM mode of propagation is characterised by unique voltage and

WM (UoN) Multiconductor transmission lines 07/05 2 / 173

These parameters can be determined from the …eld distribution on

WM (UoN) Multiconductor transmission lines 07/05 3 / 173

These parameters can be determined from the …eld distribution on

WM (UoN) Multiconductor transmission lines 07/05 3 / 173

The loss parameters R 0 and G 0 expressed as

WM (UoN) Multiconductor transmission lines 07/05 4 / 173

For the analysis, we consider a short section of line of length ∆z as

v(z,t) C’∆z G’∆z

A short transmission line model

WM (UoN) Multiconductor transmission lines 07/05 5 / 173

WM (UoN) Multiconductor transmission lines 07/05 6 / 173

WM (UoN) Multiconductor transmission lines 07/05 6 / 173

From Kirchhof’s laws, we can write

WM (UoN) Multiconductor transmission lines 07/05 7 / 173

From Kirchhof’s laws, we can write

WM (UoN) Multiconductor transmission lines 07/05 7 / 173

From Kirchhof’s laws, we can write

Or with ∆z su¢ ciently small to ignore higher order terms,

WM (UoN) Multiconductor transmission lines 07/05 7 / 173

We di¤erentiate the voltage equation w.r.t. z and the current one

WM (UoN) Multiconductor transmission lines 07/05 8 / 173

We di¤erentiate the voltage equation w.r.t. z and the current one

WM (UoN) Multiconductor transmission lines 07/05 8 / 173

WM (UoN) Multiconductor transmission lines 07/05 9 / 173

This is in the form of a wave equation in terms of the voltage at z

WM (UoN) Multiconductor transmission lines 07/05 9 / 173

The general solution is a propagating voltage wave of the form

WM (UoN) Multiconductor transmission lines 07/05 10 / 173

The general solution is a propagating voltage wave of the form

WM (UoN) Multiconductor transmission lines 07/05 10 / 173

WM (UoN) Multiconductor transmission lines 07/05 11 / 173

WM (UoN) Multiconductor transmission lines 07/05 11 / 173

The line current phasor at z is given by

I (z ) = I + exp ( γz ) + I exp (γz )

WM (UoN) Multiconductor transmission lines 07/05 12 / 173

The line current phasor at z is given by

I (z ) = I + exp ( γz ) + I exp (γz )

The parameters I + , V + and I , V are the incident and re‡ected

WM (UoN) Multiconductor transmission lines 07/05 12 / 173

WM (UoN) Multiconductor transmission lines 07/05 13 / 173

WM (UoN) Multiconductor transmission lines 07/05 13 / 173

WM (UoN) Multiconductor transmission lines 07/05 13 / 173

Consider the two-conductor structure shown below

Two-conductor transmission line for computing line parameters

WM (UoN) Multiconductor transmission lines 07/05 14 / 173

In the loss-free case, the charge on the conductor surfaces can be

WM (UoN) Multiconductor transmission lines 07/05 15 / 173

In the loss-free case, the charge on the conductor surfaces can be

and that on S1 is then Q0

WM (UoN) Multiconductor transmission lines 07/05 15 / 173

Since the potential di¤erence between the conductors is V0 , the