Unit No. - 3.

SIGNAL PROCESSING
3.1 Signal Processing/Signal Conditioning -

Signal Processing or Signal Conditioning may be defined as the process of

modifying the output signals from the transducer into usable and satisfactory
signal using amplification, attenuation, non-linearisation, linearisation or
multiplication by another function.

3.1.1. The necessity of signal processing or signal conditioning may be due

to following reasons -
1. Signals may be too noisy due to electromagnetic interference.
2. Signals may be too small, usually is mV range.
3. Signals may be non-linear and require to be converted into digital form.
4. Signals may be analog one and require to be converted into digital form.
5. Signals may be digital one and need to be converted into analog signals.
6. It may be required to improve the quality of digital signals.

3.1.2. Functions of Signal Processing or Signal Conditioning stage -

1. Amplification - It means enhancement of the signal level which is often in the
low level range. The amplification system must bring the level of transducer
signal to a value adequate enough to make it useful for conversion, processing,
indicating and recording.
2. Modification or modulation - It means to change the form of signal. The
signal may be smoothened, linearised, filtered or converted into digital form.
3. Impedance matching - The signal conditioning equipment arranges the input,
and output impedances of the matching device so as to prevent loading of the
transducer and to maintain a high signal level at the recorder.
4. Data processing - To carry out mathematical operations (e.g., addition,
subtraction, differentiation, integration etc.) before indication or recording of data.
5. Data transmission - To transmit signal from one location to another without
changing the contents of the information.

3.2 Amplification -
3.2.1. Amplifier - An amplifier is a device which is used to increase or augment
the weak signal. It may operate on mechanical (levers, gears etc.) optical,
pneumatic and hydraulic, or electrical and electronic principles.
3.2.2. Amplification - The ratio of output signal (lo) to input signal (li) for an
amplifier is termed as gain, amplification or magnification. The gain of
amplification (G) is expressed as:
lo
G=
li
lo
Since are in the same units, the gain G is a dimensionless quantity.
li
3.2.3. Types of Amplifiers -
1. Mechanical Amplifiers
1.1) Simple and compound levers
1.2) Simple and compound gears
2. fluid Amplifiers:
2.1) Hydraulic Amplifiers
2.2) Pneumatic Amplifiers
3. Optical Amplifiers
4. Electrical / Electronic Amplifiers:
4.1) AC and DC Amplifiers
4.2) Differential Amplifier
4.3) Operational Amplifiers
 3.2.4. Mechanical Amplifiers -
- A mechanical amplifier, or a mechanical amplifying element, is a linkage
mechanism that amplifies the magnitude of mechanical quantities such as force,
displacement, velocity, acceleration and torque in linear and rotational systems
- The mechanical amplifiers may be further classified as follows:
(i) Simple and compound levers -
- The compound lever has two or more levers linked together so that output from
one lever provides the input to the other.
Example - The Huggenberger extensometer is one of the most popular and
accurate mechanical amplifier. It uses a system of compound levers to give a
very high magnification to the order of 2000 or even more.
(ii) Simple and compound gears -
- The simple and compound gear trains are used quite frequently to provide
mechanical amplification of either angular displacement or rotary speed.
- A "compound gear train" gives greater modification with the additional
advantage of no change in the direction of input signal.
Example - The gear trains are used for the magnification of displacement in the
Bourdon tube pressure gauge and in the dial-test indicator where linear
movement is translated into rotation by means of rack and pinion.

3.2.5. Fluid Amplifiers -

- Fluid amplifiers may be classified as follows:
(i) Hydraulic Amplifier -
- In a hydraulic amplifier shown schematically in Fig., a small displacement xi of
a piston working inside a larger cylinder containing some liquid is used to
produce a higher displacement xo of the liquid in a tube of smaller diameter.
- considering volume balance,

Gain =

- This principle is used in single column manometers for measurement of

pressure and in mercury-in-glass thermometers for measuring temperature.

(ii) Pneumatic Amplifier -

- The principle of operation of a pneumatic amplifier is shown in Fig.
- In this setup a bellows and a lever system is used to move a valve relative to its
seat.

- When a pressure p1 is applied to the bellows, the valve spindle is pushed

leftwards thereby increasing the space between the valve and its seat.
- More high pressure air rushes in resulting in an increase of outlet pressure p₂.

- A linear relationship of the type p₂ = G p 1 is found to exist over a part of the

range of movement of the valve where G is a constant.

-
3.2.6. Optical Amplifier -
- Fig. shows the schematic diagram for an optical amplifier.
- If a ray of light strikes a mirror at an angle i, it is reflected at the same angle as
shown in Fig. (a)
- Now if the mirror is rotated through an angle θ, the ray will strike the mirror at
angle (i + θ) and will be reflected through the same angle so as to emerge at 2
(i + θ) from its incidence direction.
- rotation of the mirror through an angle θ thus results in a rotation 2θ of the ray.
- Several mirror surfaces can be used to get greater amplification.

- This type of amplification devices are used in optical levers and in many
comparators for amplification of input signals.

3.2.7. Electrical/Electronic Amplifier -

- Electrical/Electronic amplifiers are used to increase the magnitude of weak
voltage or current signals emanating from electromechanical transducers.

- A schematic diagram for an electronic amplifier is shown in Fig.

- Amplifiers of this type are designed with following objectives:
1. The frequency response of the amplifier should be compatible with that of the
transducer.
2. The input impedance should be high so that there is minimum loading effect
on the transducer.
3. The output impedance should be low so that there is no loading of the
amplifier by the display or recording device.
4. Zero output for zero input.
5. Ability to ignore or reject extraneous inputs.
- None of these aims can be completely realized in practice and a perfect
amplifier is only a theoretical possibility. Assuming these characteristics helps in
simplifying circuit analysis.
- In Fig. a separate power supply input is shown. This power supply is used to
step up the power output from the amplifier because the input power from the
detector / transducer stage may not be enough for the recording/ displaying stage.
- The Electrical/Electronic amplifiers may be classified as follows:
(i) AC and DC Amplifiers -
- The electronic amplifiers used in instrument systems can be divided into two
distinct classes:
A) AC coupled amplifiers
B) DC coupled amplifiers
- Fig. explains the basic difference between these two types of analysis.
- The figure represents voltage gain verses frequency characteristics of the two
types of amplifiers.
- The frequency response for the A.C. amplifier shown in Fig. (a) indicates that
the voltage gain is constant over a frequency range known as the band width.
This constant gain is referred to as mid band gain or Amid.
- At frequencies lower and higher than the level width gain is less than Amid.
- Two such frequencies f1 and f2 where the gain falls to 0.707 Amid are
respectively known as lower cut off frequency and the upper cut off frequency
respectively. This corresponds to a gain fall of 3 dB as shown.
- At zero or low frequencies AC amplifier has no response and as such these
amplifiers cannot be used for steady state (zero frequency) or low frequency
signals.
- The frequency response of DC amplifiers shown in Fig. (b) on the other hand
shows that the device can respond to signals down to zero frequency.
- The device can thus operate over the entire range from zero to high frequency.
- DC amplifiers, however, do show a slow change in output signal when the input
signal is either static or varies at a very slow rate. This slow change in output
voltage called drift is attributed to variation in voltage of the power supply,
transistor characteristics or caused by some other elements used in amplifiers.
- Some improved D.C. amplifiers are now available which show a very low drift
and are finding wide application in analog computer systems.
- DC amplifier systems can be easily calibrated at low frequencies and can
recover rapidly from overload conditions.

(ii) Defferential amplifier -

- A differential amplifier is an amplifier which has two inputs (V, and V₂) but
only one output which is proportional to the difference of the two inputs i.e.
(V₁ - V₂) .
- Means, Vo = G (V₁ - V₂)
 Vo
- The gain of the amplifier is then
V₁ - V₂
- If the inputs V, and V₂ have the same value and polarity, the output is zero.
- Again the output remains constant so long as the difference in the magnitudes
of V1 and V₂ is same irrespective of their magnitude.
- Differential amplifiers are used in instrumentation system for two main reasons:
1. To eliminate drift due to variation in supply voltage and temperature.
2. To minimize the output due to spurious input signals.

(iii) Operational Amplifier (Op-Amps) -

- Operational amplifiers are linear Integrated Circuits (ICs) with very high
voltage gain, high input impedance and low output impedance.
- It is so called because it can be employed to carry out many different
mathematical operations like "addition", "subtraction", "multiplication",
"division", "integration", "differentiation" etc.
- They operate on relatively low supply voltage and are reliable and inexpensive.
- They have a flat frequency response, high gain and have the characteristic of
phase reversal i.e. the input and output voltages have opposite directions.
- Because of the low input voltage and high input impedance the current into the
amplifier is negligible.
- Fig. shows a symbolic representation of the operational amplifier.

- The input terminal of the op-amp designated by a negative sign is called the
inverting end while the other terminal marked positive is the non-inverting end.
These signs indicate phase reversal.
- Resistance R, called feedback resistance is provided so that the voltages at '-'
and '+' nodes are always equal and the amplifier does not saturate.
- The output voltage from the op-amp is limited to the power supply voltages. If
the voltage difference increases the output voltage stabilizes near one of the input
voltages and remains constant.
- Applications of Op-amp -
Operational amplifiers may be used as the basic components of :
1. Linear voltage amplifiers;
2. Integrators and differentiators;
3. Function generators;
4.Impedance transformers;
5. Differential amplifiers;
6. Voltage comparators;
7. Filters

3.2.7.1 Types of Op-amp -

- Some of the commonly used op-amp circuits used for instrumentation are
described below:
These include:
1. Adder / Summing
2. Subtractor
3. inverting
4. Integrator
5. Voltage Follower / Buffer
3.3 Filters -
- Electronic filters are a type of signal processing devices in the form of electric
circuit.
- The filter is an electronic circuit which can pass or stop a particular band of
unwanted frequencies through it.
- Filtering is the process of attenuating unwanted components of a measurement
while permitting the desired component to pass.

3.1 Needs of filters -

- Output obtained by rectifier is pulsating DC (AC+DC)
- AC components present in output voltage is called ripple.
- Output should be ripple free (pure DC).
- For removal of ripple filter is used.

3.2. Classification of Filters -

- Based on frequencies that are passed and eliminated filters are divided into
following types :
i) Low pass filter -

- These are those filters which pass only low frequencies through them and which
reject all high frequencies above the cut-off frequencies.
- A low pass filter is also called "lag network" because it causes a phase lag in the
output signal.
- This type of filter is also called "integrating network".
ii) High pass filter -

- These are those filters which pass only high frequencies through them and
which reject all low frequencies below the cut-off frequency.
- The high pass filter is a differentiating network and is also called as "lead
network" because it wilt cause a phase lead in the output signal.

iii) Band pass filter -

- These are those filters which pass a band of frequencies through them and
which reject all other frequencies to pass through them.
iv) Band reject/stop filter -

- These filters, which are also known as "band elimination filters", are those
which reject a band of frequencies to pass through them and which allow the
other frequencies to pass though them.

3.4 Types of I/P (inputs) -

- For time domain analysis of control systems, we need to subject the

system to various test inputs. Test input signals are used for testing how
well a system responds to a known input. It is not necessary to choose
complicated input signals to analyse a system behaviour.

- Some of the standard test signals that are used are -

i) Step Input

ii) Ramp Input

iii) Impulse Input

iv) Parabolic Input

v) Sinusoidal Input
3.4.1 Step I/P -

- A step input represents a constant command such as position.

- A step signal is given by the formula,

- The input given to an elevator is a the example of step input.

- Another example of a step input is setting the temperature of an air

conditioner.

3.4.2. Ramp I/P -

- The ramp input represents a linearly increasing input command.

- It is given by the formula.

- Systems are subjected to Ramp inputs when we need to study the system
behaviour for linearly increasing functions like velocity.

3.5 Actuators -
- Actuators are devices which produce physical changes such as linear and
angular displacement.
- They also modulate the rate and power associated with these changes.
 Actuation System - A group of elements which is responsible directly or
indirectly for imparting motion to an actuator is called an actuation system.
 Types of ACTUATORS -
1) Mechanical actuators
2) Hydraulic actuators
3) Pneumatic actuators
4) Electrical actuators

3.5.1 Mechanical Actuators -

- Mechanical actuators or mechanisms are devices which can be considered to be
motion converters in that they transform motion from one form to some other
required form.
- For example, they might transform linear motion into rotational motion, or
motion in one direction into a motion in a direction at right angles, or perhaps a
linear reciprocating motion into rotary motion, as in the internal combustion
engine where the reciprocating motion of the pistons is converted into rotation of
the work and hence the drive shaft.
- Mechanical elements include the use of linkages, cams, gears, rack and pinion,
chains, belt drives etc. For example:
 Cams and linkages can be used to obtain motions which are prescribed to vary
in a particular manner.
 Parallel shaft gears might be used to reduce a shaft-speed. Bevel gears might
be used for the transmission of rotary motion through 90°.
 Rack-and pinion can be used to convert rotational motion to linear motion.
 A toothed belt or chain drive might be used to transform rotary motion about
one axis to motion about another.
- However, mechanisms,/mechanical actuators still have a role in mechatronic
systems to provide such functions as:
(i) Change of speed, e.g., that given by gears.
(ii) Specific type of motion, e.g., that given by a quick-return mechanism.
(iii) Amplification of force, e.g., that given by levers.
(iv) Transfer of rotation about one axis to rotation about another, e.g., timing belt.

3.5.2 Hydraulic Actuators -

- An actuator wherein hydraulic energy is used to impart motion is called
hydraulic actuator.
- Depending on the type of actuation, hydraulic actuators are classified as follows:
1) Linear actuator: For linear actuation (hydraulic cylinders)
2) Rotary actuator: For rotary actuation (hydraulic motor)
3) Semi rotary actuator: For limited angle of actuation (Semi-rotary actuator)
3.5.2.1. Linear Actuator -
- A fluid power hydraulic cylinder is a linear actuator which is most useful and
effective in converting fluid energy to an output force in a linear direction for
performing work such as pulling or pushing in a variety of engineering
applications such as in machine tools and other industrial machinery, earth
moving equipment, construction equipment and space applications.
- A hydraulic cylinder usually consists of a movable element, a piston and a
piston rod operating within a cylindrical bore.

 Types of cylinders -
The cylinders may be classified as follows:
l. According to function performed :
(i) Single acting cylinders.
(ii) Double acting cylinders.
2. According to construction:
(i) Tie rod cylinders.
(ii) Mill type cylinders.
(iii) One-piece welded cylinders.
(iv) Threaded head cylinders.
3. Special types :
(i) Plunger or ram cylinders.
(ii) Telescoping cylinders.
(iii) Cable cylinders.
(iv) Diaphragm cylinders.
(v) Tandem cylinders.
(vi) Duplex cylinders.
(vii) Rotary cylinders etc.

Some of the commonly used cylinder are discussed below:

1. Single acting cylinders:
- A single acting cylinder is designed to apply force in only one direction. It
consists of a piston inside a cylindrical housing, called a barrel. A rod is attached
to one end of the piston and it extends outside the barrel. At the other end (blank
end) is a port for the entrance and exit of the oil.
- A single acting cylinder can exert a force only in the extending direction, as
fluid from the pump enters through the blank end of the cylinder.
- These cylinders do not retract hydraulically. Retraction is accomplished by the
inclusion of a compression spring or by using gravity.
2. Double acting cylinders:
- A double acting cylinder is capable of delivering forces in both directions
and is most commonly used in industrial hydraulics.

- As the fluid from pump enters the cylinder through port-1, the piston moves
forward and the fluid returns to the reservoir from the cylinder through port-2.
During the return stroke the fluid is allowed to enter the cylinder through port -
2 and the fluid from the other side of the piston goes back to the reservoir
through port-l.
- Double acting cylinders my be either single rod ended, (also called differential
cylinder) or double rod ended, (also called non-differential cylinder).
- The single rod cylinders have piston connected to a smaller diameter piston rod.
For a given pressure, these cylinders exert greater force when extending than
when retracting.
- The double rod ended cylinder is used when it is required to exert equal forces
in both direction However, the maximum force of the cylinder for a given tube
size is smaller than the single rod end type.

3. Telescoping cylinders :
- These cylinders are employed where long work-strokes are required.
- A telescoping cylinder provides a relatively long working stroke for an overall
reduced length by using several pistons which telescope into each other.
- Figure shows a two-stage double acting telescoping cylinder :

- Fluid for the retraction stroke is fed into port-A and passes through the hollow
piston rod into the annulus behind the first stage piston. So the first stage piston
is forced to the left until it uncovers the fluid ports connecting this with the
second stage annulus, thereby moving the larger piston to the left until both the
pistons are fully retracted into the body of the cylinder
- Fluid for the extension stroke is then fed through port-B, forcing both pistons to
the right until the cylinder is fully extended.

 Hydraulic cylinders applications:

- The following are the applications of hydraulic cylinders:
1. Haulier jacks.
2. Aircraft landing system.
3. Hydraulic shapers and many machine tools.
4. Oceanography applications.
6. Power steering control for off-highway vehicles.
7. Earth excavators.
8. Automobile hoisting.

3.5.2.2. Rotary Actuators -

- Rotary actuators are the hydraulic pneumatic equivalents of electric motors.
- For a given torque, or power a rotary converter:
i) is more compact than an equivalent motor;
ii) cannot be damaged by an indefinite stall;
iii) can be safely used in an explosive atmosphere.
- An hydraulic motor is a rotary actuator wherein hydraulic energy is converted
into mechanical energy in the form of rotary motion and torque which may be
used for doing work.
 Types of hydraulic motors:
Hydraulic motors are classified as follows :
1. Gear motors.
2. Vane motors.
3. Piston motor
1. Gear Motor -
- Fig. shows the schematic of a gear motor.
- Fluid enters at the top and pressurizes the top chamber. Pressure is applied to
two gear faces at A, and a single gear face at B. There is, thus an imbalance of
forces on the gears resulting in rotation as shown.
- Gear motors suffer from leakage which is more pronounced at low speed. Thus
they tend to be used in medium speed, low torque applications.
2. Vane motors -
- A vane motor is a positive displacement motor which develops an output torque
at its shaft by allowing hydraulic pressure to act on the vanes which are extended.
Basically a vane motor consists of rotor, vanes, cam ring, port plates with kidney
shaded inlet and outlet ports and shaft.

- Fig. shows the schematic of a vane motor:

-Vane motors develop torque by the hydraulic pressure that acts on the exposed
surfaces of the vanes which slide in and out of the rotor connected to the driver
shaft. Larger the exposed surface of the vane or higher the pressure of oil, more
will be the torque developed.
- In vane motor two different pressures, system pressure and outlet pressure are
involved. System Pressure will be greater than the outlet pressure resulting in
side loading in the motor shaft. The side loading in the motor is avoided by using
cam shaped ring, instead of a circular ring. With this arrangement the two
pressure quadrants oppose each other and the forces acting on the shaft are
balanced; such motors are balanced vane motors.

3. Piston motors -
- In swash plate type, the motor drive shaft and cylinder block are centered on the
same axis. Pressure at the ends of the multiple pistons causes a sequential action
against a tilted swash plate and rotates the cylinder block and the motor shaft.
- The operation of a bent axis piston motor is similar to the swash plate type,
except that the thrust of the pistons is transferred against the drive shaft.
- In the radial piston, motors have a cylinder block with an attached output shaft
to transmit the force imparted to the pistons. The cylinder block has an odd
number of radial bores with precision fitted pistons.
- When oil enters the cylinder bore, the piston is forced against the thrust ring,
imparting a tangential force to the cylinder block and shaft, causing the assembly
to rotate. Each piston is pushed inward by the thrust ring once it reaches the
outlet port, thus pushing the fluid to the reservoir.

3.5.2.3. Semi Rotary Actuators -

- These actuators are used to convert fluid pressure energy into torque which
turns through an angle limited by the design of the actuator.
-With majority of the designs, the angle of rotation is within 360° although it is
possible to considerably exceed this when using piston-operated actuators.
-Some examples are illustrated in Figs. (a) and (b).
- In Fig. (a) shows, a double-acting piston is coupled to the output shaft by a rack
in piston.
-The actuator shown in Fig. (b) is driven by a single vane coupled to the outputshaft.
 Applications of hydraulic motors:
The fields of applications of hydraulic motors include:
(i) Mining equipment;
(ii) Machine tools;
{iii) Pottery machines;
(iv) Drill rigs;
(v) Winding machines etc.
3.5.3 Pneumatic Actuators -
- Pneumatic systems use pressurised air to transmit and control power.
- Air is used as the fluid because :
(i) It is safe.
(ii) It is less expensive and readily available
(iii) It can be inducted and exhausted directly to the atmosphere and a return line
is not necessary as with hydraulics.
- Depending on the type of actuation, pneumatic actuators are classified as
follows:
1) Linear actuator: For linear actuation (pneumatic cylinders)
2) Rotary actuator: For rotary actuation (air motors)
3.5.3.1. Linear actuator -
- The pneumatic cylinders convert the pneumatic power into straight-tine
reciprocating motions
- Pneumatic cylinder construction makes extensive use of aluminium and non -
ferrous alloy materials to reduce the weight and the corrosive effects of air and to
improve heat transfer capabilities.
 Types of pneumatic cylinder -
1. Single-acting cylinder.
2. Double-acting cylinder.
3. Tandem cylinder.
4. Three position cylinder.
5. Through rod cylinder.
6. Adjustable stroke cylinder.
7. Telescoping cylinder.

1. Single-acting cylinder :

- in a single-acting cylinder, the compressed air is fed only in one side. Hence,
this cylinder can produce work only in one direction. The return movement of the
piston is effected by a built in spring or by application of an external force. The
spring is designed to return the piston to its initial position with a sufficiently
high speed.
- The advantage of a single-acting cylinder lies in its reduced air consumption,
since air is not wasted while retracting the piston.
2. Double-acting cylinder -

- In this type of cylinder, the force exerted by the compressed air moves the
piston in two directions. This cylinder produces less force during retraction,
because the piston rods cross-sectional area is subtracted from the piston area
under pressure.
- In principle, the stroke length is unlimited, although buckling and bending must
be considered before we select a particular size of piston diameter, rod length and
stroke length.
-These are used particularly when the piston is required to perform work not only
on the advance movement but also on the return.

3. Tandem cylinder -

- Here two cylinders are arranged in series so that the force obtained from the
cylinder is almost double.
- Since the available force is doubled, this design is useful when larger forces are
required, but a single cylinder with a larger diameter cannot be accommodated.
4. Three position cylinder:

- A three position cylinder is quite similar to the tandem cylinder, except that the
left piston rod is not connected to the right piston and the left cylinder is shorter
than the right one.
- With the left piston extended, the retraction of the right piston is limited to an
intermediate position which is determined by the ability of the right-piston to
retract fully.

5. Through rod cylinder:

- Here the piston rod is extended on both ends of the piston.

- This will ensure equal force and speed on both sides of the cylinder.

6. Adjustable stroke cylinder:

- The cylinder stroke can be adjusted by screwing the left hand piston in or out.
- By using the shortest possible stroke needed for a given job, better rapid cycling
is achieved and air consumption is reduced.
7. Telescoping cylinder :

- When pressure is applied to the left side, the inner cylinder acts as a piston and
extends.
- Once it reaches the end of its stroke, the inner most piston begins to extend.
- The available stroke is almost double when compared to a normal cylinder
having the same retracted length.

3.5.3.2. Rotary actuators -

- An air motor is used to generate rotational motion in a pneumatic system.
- The air motors have been found to provide very high rotational speeds, which
may sometimes go upto 10,000 rpm.
- These motors are manufactured with fractional kW as low as 0.05 kW, while
the higher range is upto 20 kW.
 Types of rotary actuators -
1. Piston type motors.
2. Vane motors.
3. Turbine motors.
4. Gerotor type motors.

1. Piston type motors -

These motors may be of axial or radial type design :
- The operation of an"axial" piston air motors is similar to the piston type
hydraulic motor. As pistons reciprocate in sequence, they actuate a wobble plate
and this in turn imparts a rotary motion to the output shaft through a gear train.
- Axial piston motors are low power (2.5 kW) motors while radial piston motors
give upto 18 kW.
- "Radial" piston motors are low speed motors.
- Piston type motors may have 4,5, or 6 cylinders. The power developed by these
motors is dependent on the inlet pressure, number of pistons, the area of the
pistons, the stroke of the pistons and the speed.
- The S-cylinder design provides an even torque at any given operating speed due
to the overlap of the five power impulses occurring in the stroke revolution.

2. Vane motor -

- An eccentric rotor has slots in which vanes are forced outwards against the
walls of the cylinder by rotation. The vanes divide the chamber into separate
compartments which increase in size from the inlet port round to the exhaust port.
The air entering such a compartment exerts a force on a vane and causes a rotor
to rotate.
- The motor can be made to reverse its direction of rotation by using a different
inlet port

3. Turbine motors -
- These motors convert low velocity high pressure air to high velocity low
pressure air by passing it through metering nozzles.
- The advantage of this arrangement is that there is no rubbing or sliding contact
between the rotating parts and the body cavity.
- This reduces wear and lubricated air is not required to seal and lubricate parts.
- These are high speed low torque motors for the same volume of air than piston
vane type.
4. Gerotor type motor -

- A gerotor type motor is shown in Fig.

- These air motors are mostly used for low r.p.m. (such as 20 to 30 r.p.m.)
Pressure, hence they may not be suitable for high torque application.

 Applications of air motors :

The air motors may be used in conjuction with hydraulic power units :
(i) Conveyor belts;
(ii) Agitators and mixers;
(iii) Pipe threaders;
(iv) Tool devices;
(v) Bench grinders etc.

3.5.4. Electrical actuators -

- An actuator receiving electrical energy for motion is called an electrical
actuators.
Electrical actuators systems include the following:
I. Switching devices:
1. Mechanical switches:
1.1) Solenoids.
1.2) Relays.
2. Solid state switches:
2.1) Diodes.
2.2) Thyristors.
2.3) Transistors.
- Here the control signal switches on or off some electrical devices, perhaps a
heater or motor.
II. Drive systems:
1. D.C. motors.
2. A.C. motors.
3.5.4.1. Mechanical Switches -
- Mechanical switches are elements which are often used as sensors to give input
to systems e.g., keyboards. Here we are concerned with their use as actuators to
perhaps switch on electric motors or heating elements or switch on the current to
actuate solenoid valves controlling hydraulic or pneumatic cylinders.
- Mechanical switches are those where in switching action is by the application of
force on the switch and during switching action mechanical elements moves with
the switch. These switches consists of one or more pair of contacts which are
mechanically closed or opened and in doing so make or break electrical circuit.

i) Solenoids -
- A "solenoid" consists of a coil and a movable iron core called the armature.
When the current is passed through the coil it gets energized and consequently
the core moves to increase the flux linkage by closing the air gap between the
cores.
- The movable core is usually spring-loaded to allow the core to retract when the
current is switched off.
- The force generated is approximately proportional to the square of the current
and inversely proportion to the square of the width of the air gap.
- Solenoids are inexpensive.
- Solenoids can be used to provide electrically operated actuators. Solenoid
valves are an example of such devices, being used to control fluid flow in
hydraulic or pneumatic systems.
- The use of solenoids is limited to on-off applications such as latching,locking,
and triggering. They are frequently used in:
1. Home appliances (e.g., washing machine valves).

2. Automobiles (e.g., door latches and starter solenoid)

3. Pinball machines (e.9., plungers and bumpers).
4. Factory automation.

ii) Relays -
- Relays are electrically operated switches in which changing current in one
electrical circuit switches a current on or off in another circuit.
- Relays are often used in control systems the output from the controller is a
relatively small current and a much larger current is needed to switch on or off
the final connection element, e.g., the current required by an electric heater in a
temperature control system or a motor.
- Relays are used in 'power switches' and ‘electromechanical control elements’.
- A relay performs a function similar to a power transistor switch circuit but has
the capability to switch much larger currents.
- The input circuit of a relay is electrically isolated form the output circuit, unlike
the common-emitter transistor circuit, where there is a common ground between
the input and output. Since the relay is electrically isolated, noise, induced
voltages, and ground faults occurring in the output circuit have minimal impact
on the input circuit.
- The disadvantage of the relays is that they have slower switching times than
transistors.
 Applications of Relay -
1. Lighting control systems.
2. Industrial process controllers.
3. Traffic control.
4. Motor drives control.
5. Protection systems of electrical power system.
3.5.4.2. Stepper Motor -
- A stepper motor, n special type of D.C. motor, is an incremental motion rnachine.
It is a permanent magnet or variable reluctance D.C. motor and has the following
characteristics:
(i) It can rotate in both directions.
(ii) It can move in precise angular increments.
(iii) k can sustain a holding torque at zero speed.
(iv) It can be controlled with digital circuits.

- A stepper motor moves in accurate equal angular increments, known as steps, in

response to the application of digital pulses to an electric drive circuit. The number
and rate of the pulses control the position and speed of the motor shaft

- The stepper motor is used in digitally controlled position control system in open
loop mode. The input command is in the form of a train of pulses to turn a shaft
through a specified angle.

- Stepper motors are either bipolar, requiring two power sources or a switchable
polarity power source, or unipolar, requiring only one power source. They are
powered by D.C. sources and require digital circuitry to produce coil energising
sequences for rotation of the motor. Feedback is not always required for control, but
the use of an encoder or other position sensor can ensure accuracy when exact
position control is critical.

- Generally, stepper motors produce less than 1H.P. and are therefore used only in
low-power position control applications.

Construction and working:

- A stepper motor consists of a slotted stator having multi-pole, multi-phase winding

and a rotor structure carrying no winding. They typically use three and four phase
windings, the number of poles depends upon the required angular change per input
pulse.

- The rotors may be of the permanent magnet or variable reluctance type.

 1. Permanent magnet stepper motor -

- In the case of a permanent magnet stepper motor, the stator consists of wound poles,
the rotor poles are permanent magnets.

- Fig. shows the phases or stacks of a 2-phase, 4-pole permanent magnet stepper
motor.

- The rotor is made of ferrite or rate-earth material which is permanently magnetised.

- The stator stack of phase II is staggered from that of phase I by an angle of 90°.

- When the phase 'I' is excited, the rotor is aligned as shown in Fig. (i), If now the
phase 'II' is also excited, the effective stator poles shift anti-clockwise by 22.5° [Fig.
(ii)] causing the rotor to move accordingly. Now, keeping the phase 'II' still energised,
if the phase 'I' is now de-energised, the rotor will move another step of 22.5°. The
reversal of phase 'I' winding current will produce a further forward movement of 22.5°
and so on.

2. Variable reluctance stepper motor -

- A variable-reluctance stepper motor has no permanent magnet on the rotor and the
rotor employed is a ferro-magnetic multi-toothed one.

- The large differences in magnetic reluctances that exist between the direct and
quadrature axes develop the torque.

- Fig. shows the basic form of the variable reluctance stepper motor.

- With this form the rotor is made of soft-steel and is cylindrical with four poles, i.e.,
fewer poles than on the stator.

- When an opposite pair of windings has current switched to them, a magnetic field is
produced with lines of force which pass from the stator poles through the nearest set
of poles on the rotor. Since lines of force can be considered to be rather like elastic
thread and always trying to shorten themselves, the rotor will move until the rotor and
stator poles line up. This is termed the position of minimum reluctance.

- This form of stepper generally gives step angles of 7.5° or 15°.

- Stepping angle, irrespective of the type of stepper motor is given as,

3. Hybrid Stepper motor -

- This is infact a permanent magnet stepper motor with constructional features of

toothed and stacked rotor adopted from the variable-reluctance motor.

- The stator has only one set of winding-excited poles which interact with the two
rotor stacks.

- The permanent magnet is placed axially along the rotor in the form of an annular
cylinder over the motor shaft (See Fig.).
 Fig:

- The stacks at each end of the rotor are toothed. So all the teeth on the stack at one
end of the rotor acquire the-same polarity while the teeth of the stack at the other
end of the rotor acquire the opposite polarity. The two sets of the teeth are displaced
from each other by one half of the tooth pitch (also called pole pitch).

- The primary advantage of the hybrid motor is that if stator excitation is removed,
the rotor continues to remain locked into the same position, as before removal of
excitation. This is due to the reason that the rotor is prevented to move in either
direction by torque because of the permanent excitation.

 Advantages of Stepper Motor -

The stepper motor (position control device) entails the following advantages:

1. Compatibility with digital systems.

2. The angular displacement can be precisely controlled without any feedback

arrangement.

3. No sensors are needed for position and speed sensing.

4. It can be readily interfaced with microprocessor (or computer based controller).

 Applications of Stepper Motor -

1. Paper feed motors in typewriters and printers.

2. Positioning of print heads.

3. Pens in XY-plotters.

4. Recording heads in computer disc drives.

5. Positioning of worktables and tools in numerically controlled machining equipment.

6. Also employed to perform many other functions such as metering, mixing, cutting,
blending, stirring etc. in several commercial, military and medical applications.

3.5.4.3. Servomotors -
- The term servo or servo mechanism refers to a feedback control system in which the
controlled variable is:
- Mechanical position, or
- Time derivatives e.g., velocity and acceleration.
- A servo-motor should entail the following characteristics :
1. The output torque of the motor should be proportional to the voltage applied (i.e.,
the control voltage which is developed by the amplifier in response to an error signal),
2. The direction of the torque developed by the servo-motor should depend upon the
instantaneous polarity of the control voltage
- Types of servo-motors :
The servo-motors are of the following two types :
1. D.C. servo-motors.
2. A.C. servo-motors.

1. D.C. servomotors -
These motors are preferred for very high power systems since they operate more
efficiently (as compared to A.C. servo-motors).
These motors may be of the following types :
- Series motors;
- Split series motors ;
- Shunt control motors ;
- Permanent magnet (fixed excitation) shunt motor.

i) Series motors -
- This motor has a high starting torque.
- It draws large current.
- The speed regulation is poor.
- Reversal can be obtained by reversing field voltage polarity with split series field
winding.

ii) Split series motors -

- The D.C. series motor with split field (small fraction kW) may be operated as a
separately excited field-controlled motor (shown in Fig.). The armature may be
supplied from a constant current source.

- A typical torque curve shows the following:

- High stall torque
- Rapid reduction in torque with increase in speed.

iii) Shunt control motor -

- This type of motor has two separate wingdings, Field winding placed on the stator
and the armature winding placed on the rotor of the machine. Both the windings are
connected to a D.C. supply source.
- Whereas in a conventional D.C. shunt motor, the two windings are connected
in parallel across the D.C. supply mains, but in a servo-application in windings
are driven by separate D.C. supplies.

iv) Permanent magnet shunt motor -

- It is a fixed excitation shunt motor where the field is actually supplied by a
permanent magnet.
- Its performance is similar to that of armature controlled fixed field motor.

iii) A.C. servo motors -

- A type of servomotor that generates mechanical output by using AC electrical input
in the precise angular velocity form is called an AC servo motor.
- The output power obtained from this servomotor mainly ranges from watts to a few
100 watts.
- The operating frequency of ac servo motor ranges from 50 to 400 Hz
- An A.C. servo-motor is basically a two-phase induction motor except for certain
special design features.
- The main important difference between a standard split- phase motor and an A.C.
servo motor is that the latter has thinner conducting bars in the squirrel cage motor,
so that the motor resistance is higher. The torque-speed characteristics should be
linear as shown by the curve II in Fig.

 Advantages -
1. The speed control characteristics of this motor are good.
2. They generate less amount of heat.
3. At high speeds, they offer more constant torque.
4. These are highly reliable.
5. They provide high-speed performance.
6. These are well-suitable to unstable load applications.

 Applications -
1. AC servo motors are applicable where position regulation is significant & usually found
in semiconductor devices, robots, aircraft & machine tools.
2. These motors are used in the instruments which operate on servomechanism like in
computers & position control devices.
3. AC servo motor is used in machine tools, robotics machinery & tracking systems.
4. These servo motors are used in a variety of industries because of their efficiency &
versatility.
5. The AC servo motor is used in most common machines & appliances like water heaters,
ovens, pumps, Off-road vehicles, equipment in gardens, etc.

3.6. Limit Switches -

- Limit switch definition is an electromechanical switch that operates by any physical force
or the movement of a machine.
- These switches are very helpful in detecting the absence or presence of an object,
counting, detecting speed, detecting movement range, travel limit, positioning, etc.
- These switches include three terminals NO (Normally Open), NC (Normally Open) &
Common.
- The controlling of this switch can be done by different factors like temperature, position,
and pressure.
- This switch is mainly designed to operate only once a fixed limit is achieved, and it is
generally activated through contact by using an object like a cam.
- The limit switch consists of an actuator mechanically linked to a set of contacts.
- When an object comes into contact with the actuator, the device operates the contacts to
make or break an electrical connection.
- Limit switches are used in a variety of applications and environments because of their
ruggedness, ease of installation, and reliability of operation.
- They can determine the presence or absence, passing, positioning, and end of travel of an
object.
 Advantages -
1. Limit switch installation is simple.
2. Its size is compact.
3. It controls several loads.
4. It consumes less electrical energy.
5. It is applicable in many industries.
6. It has accuracy, repeatability & high precision.

 Disadvantages -
1. To activate this switch, it should make physical contact with an object.

2. Usually, it is restricted to equipment that operates at comparatively low speeds.

 Application -
1. The limit switch is used to detect the position of production lines.
2. It is used to detect the position of drive units and also industrial devices & equipment.
3. Limit switches are used to detect doors & covers on semiconductor manufacturing
devices and machine tools.
4. These switches are used in machine tools like metal fabrication devices, transfer lines,
presses, etc.
5. These types of switches are used in material handling equipment like elevators,
conveyors, hoists, and cranes.
6. These are used in textile machinery, process equipment, and packaging machinery.
3.7. Thumb Wheel Switch -
- A thumb wheel switch is a multi-position rotary switch.
- It contains a sprocket that can go forward or backward.
- As per their name, you will be able to use a thumb, or a finger, to move the sprocket each
way.
- They can be on a mechanical or an electronic device.
- These are sometimes called digital switches, and you can see them in action on a variety
of different devices.
- Some of them are very simple, while others are going to be quite a bit more complex.

 Applications -
1. Instrumentation
2. Process controls
3. Testing
4. Machine controls.