ADE 18CS33 Module1

SIR M VISVESVARAYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE & ENGINEERING

ANALOG AND DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

(Effective from the academic year 2018 -2019)

SEMESTER – III

Course Code 18CS33 CIE Marks 40

Number of Contact Hours/Week 3:0:0 SEE Marks 60

Total Number of Contact Hours 40 Exam Hours 03

CREDITS –3

Module 1
Photodiodes, Light Emitting Diodes and Optocouplers ,

BJT Biasing :Fixed bias ,Collector to base Bias , voltage divider bias,

Operational Amplifier Application Circuits: Multivibrators using IC-555, Peak Detector, Schmitt
trigger,

Active Filters, Non-Linear Amplifier,

Relaxation Oscillator,

Current-to-Voltage and Voltage-to-Current Converter ,

Regulated Power Supply Parameters, adjustable voltage regulator ,

D to A and A to D converter.

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PHOTODIODE

A photodiode is a p-n junction or pin semiconductor device that consumes light energy to generate
electric current. It is also sometimes referred as photo-detector, photo-sensor, or light detector.

Photodiodes are specially designed to operate in reverse bias condition. [Reverse bias means that
the p-side of the photodiode is connected to the negative terminal of the battery and n-side is
connected to the positive terminal of the battery.]

Photodiode is very sensitive to light so when light or photons falls on the photodiode it easily
converts light into electric current.

Solar cell is also known as large area photodiode because it converts solar energy or light energy
into electric energy. However, solar cell works only at bright light.

Definition:

A photodiode is one type of light detector, used to convert the light into current or voltage based
on the mode of operation of the device.

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Construction

photodiode construction

This example uses a construction technique called ion implantation where the surface of a layer
of N type is bombarded with P type silicon ions to produce a P type layer about 1 µm
(micrometre) thick. During the formation of the diode, electrons from the N type layer are
attracted into the P type material and holes from the P type are attracted into the N type layer,
resulting in the removal of free charge carriers close to the PN junction, so creating a depletion
layer (shown in white in Fig. 2.7.3).

The (light facing) top of the diode is protected by a layer of Silicon Dioxide (SO 2) in which
there is a window for light to shine on the semiconductor. This window is coated with a thin
anti-reflective layer of Silicon Nitride (SiN) to allow maximum absorption of light and an anode
connection of aluminum (Al) is provided to the P type layer. Beneath the N type layer is a more
heavily doped N+ layer to provide a low resistance connection to the cathode.

Operation

Fig1 Photons Create Electron/Hole Pairs Fig 2 Holes and Electrons are Attracted Fig 3 Holes and Electrons Form
by Reverse Bias a Photoelectric Current

For a diode operating in Photoconductive Mode, it is usual to use reverse bias by applying a DC
voltage to make the cathode more positive than the anode. This has the effect of widening the
depletion layer as shown in Figs. 1 and 2

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Because the P and N layers with the depletion layer between them effectively form a capacitor,
widening the depletion layer reduces the capacitance of the PN junction and increases the
maximum frequency at which the diode can operate; a desirable property, especially in
photodiodes that operate as digital information receivers.

When the surface of the photodiode is illuminated, as shown in Fig. 1 photons are absorbed within
the diode and, mainly in the depletion layer, energies negative electrons in the valence layer of
atoms, to jump to the higher energy level in the atom´s conduction band.

This leaves positively charged holes in the valence band, so producing ‘electron /hole pair’ in the
depletion layer. Some electron hole pair are also produced in the P and N layers, but apart from
those produced in the diffusion region N layers, most will be re-absorbed within the P and N
material as heat. The electrons in the depletion layer are then swept towards the positive potential
on the cathode, and the holes swept towards the negative potential on the anode, so creating a
photo current as shown in fig 3

V-I Characteristics of Photodiode

A photodiode continually operates in a reverse bias mode. For zero luminance, the photocurrent is
almost zero excluding for small dark current. It is of the order of nano amperes. As optical power
rises the photo current also rises linearly. The max photocurrent is incomplete by the power
dissipation of the photo diode.

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The reverse saturation current (I0) varies linearly with the intensity of photons striking the diode
surface. The current under reverse bias is the summation of reverse saturation current and short
circuit current(ISC)

I= ISC + I0(1- e v/∆Vt )

V is positive for forward voltage and negative for reverse voltage Vt is volt equivalent for
temperature , ∆ is 1 for Germanium and 2 for silicon.

Applications of Photodiode
• The applications of photodiodes involve in similar applications of photodetectors like charge-
coupled devices, photoconductors, and photomultiplier tubes.
• These diodes are used in the consumer electronic devices like smoke detector, CD player and
television and remote control in VCRs
• Photodiodes are frequently used for exact measurement of the intensity of light in science and
industry. Generally, they have an enhanced, more linear response than photoconductors.
• Photodiodes are also widely used in numerous medical applications like instruments to analyze
samples, detectors for computed tomography and also used in blood gas monitors.
• These diodes are much faster & more complex than normal PN junction diodes and hence are
frequently used for lighting regulation and in optical communications.

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)

The “Light Emitting Diode” or LED is semiconductor devices that convert electrical energy into
light energy. LED will pass current in its forward direction but block the flow of current in the
reverse direction.
Light emitting diodes are made from a very thin layer of fairly heavily doped semiconductor
material and depending on the semiconductor material used and the amount of doping, when
forward biased an LED will emit a coloured light at a particular spectral wavelength.
When the diode is forward biased, electrons from the semiconductors conduction band recombine
with holes from the valence band releasing sufficient energy to produce photons which emit a
monochromatic (single color) of light. Because of this thin layer a reasonable number of these
photons can leave the junction and radiate away producing a coloured light output.

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CONSTRUCTION

The recombination of the charge carrier occurs in the P-type material, and hence P-material is the
surface of the LED. For the maximum emission of light, the anode is deposited at the edge of the
P-type material. The cathode is made of gold film, and it is usually placed at the bottom of the N-
region. This gold layer of cathode helps in reflecting the light to the surface.

Light Emitting Diodes are made from exotic semiconductor compounds such as Gallium
Arsenide (GaAs), Gallium Phosphide (GaP), Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP), Silicon
Carbide (SiC) or Gallium Indium Nitride (GaInN) all mixed together at different ratios to produce
a distinct wavelength of colour.

▪ Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) – infra-red

▪ Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP) – red to infra-red, orange

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▪ Aluminium Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (AlGaAsP) – high-brightness red, orange-red,

orange, and yellow
▪ Gallium Phosphide (GaP) – red, yellow and green
▪ Aluminium Gallium Phosphide (AlGaP) – green
▪ Gallium Nitride (GaN) – green, emerald green
▪ Gallium Indium Nitride (GaInN) – near ultraviolet, bluish-green and blue
▪ Silicon Carbide (SiC) – blue as a substrate
▪ Zinc Selenide (ZnSe) – blue
▪ Aluminium Gallium Nitride (AlGaN) – ultraviolet

Working of LED
The working of the LED depends on the quantum theory. The quantum theory states that when
the energy of electrons decreases from the higher level to lower level, it emits energy in the form
of photons. The energy of the photons is equal to the gap between the higher and lower level.

The LED is connected in the forward biased, which allows the current to flows in the forward
direction. The flow of current is because of the movement of electrons in the opposite direction.
The recombination shows that the electrons move from the conduction band to valence band and
they emit electromagnetic energy in the form of photons. The energy of photons is equal to the
gap between the valence and the conduction band.

Advantages of LED in electronic displays

The followings are the major advantages of the LED in an electronics displays.

1. The LED are smaller in sizes, and they can be stacked together to form numeric and
alphanumeric display in the high-density matrix.

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2. The intensity of the light output of the LED depends on the current flows through it. The
intensity of their light can be controlled smoothly.
3. The LED are available which emits light in the different colors like red, yellow, green and
amber.
4. The on and off time or switching time of the LED is less than of 1 nanoseconds. Because of
this, the LED are used for the dynamic operation.
5. The LEDs are very economical and giving the high degree of reliability because they are
manufactured with the same technology as that of the transistor.
6. The LED are operated over a wide range of temperature say 0° – 70°. Also, it is very durable
and can withstand shock and variation.
7. The LED have a high efficiency, but they require moderate power for operation. Typically, the
voltage of 1.2V and the current of 20mA is required for full brightness. Therefore, it is used in
a place where less power are available.

Disadvantages of LED
The LED consume more power as compared to LCD, and their cost is high. Also, it is not used
for making the large display.

Applications of Light Emitting Diodes

There are many applications of the LED and some of them are explained below.

• LED is used as a bulb in the homes and industries

• The light emitting diodes are used in the motorcycles and cars
• These are used in the mobile phones to display the message
• Consumer electronics devices like smoke detector, CD player and TV and remote controls in
VCR’s
• LEDs are used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive headlamps,
advertising, general lighting, traffic signals, camera flashes, lighted wallpaper, horticultural
grow lights, and medical devices.

PHOTOCOUPLER
Photocoupler allows to transmit an electrical signal between two isolated circuits with two parts:
an LED that emits infrared light and a photosensitive device which detects light from the LED.

Optocouplers can be used to isolate low-power circuits from higher power circuits and to
remove electrical noise from signals. Optoisolators are most suited to digital signals but can also

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be used to transfer analog signals. ... In VoIP phones, electrical signals can be isolated using a
transistor output optocoupler.

Construction of an Optocoupler

An optocoupler mainly consists of an infrared LED and a photosensitive device that detects the
emitted infrared beam. The semiconductor photosensitive device can be a photodiode,
phototransistor, a Darlington pair, SCR or TRIAC. It is a 6 pin device.

The infrared LED and the device that are light sensitive is packed in a single package. The LED is
kept on the input side and the light-sensitive material is placed on the output side. A resistance is
connected at the beginning of the circuit which is used to limit the current and the other resistance
is connected between the supply voltage and the collector terminal.

• Pin 1: Anode
• Pin 2: Cathode
• Pin 3: Ground
• Pin 4: Emitter
• Pin 5: Collector
• Pin 6: Base
The base terminal of the phototransistor is externally available. A single phototransistor is used
at the output stage of a simple isolating optocoupler.

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Working Of an Optocoupler

An Optocoupler is a combination of LED and a Photo-diode packed in a single package. As we

can see in the below-shown circuit diagram, when a high voltage appears across the input side of
the Optocoupler, a current start to flow through the LED.

Due to this current LED will emit light. This emitted light when falls on a phototransistor cause a
current to flow through the same. The current flowing through the phototransistor is directly
proportional to the supplied input voltage. An input resistance placed at the beginning of the
circuit will decrease the amount of current flowing through the LED if its value is increased. As
the LED glows due to this current, hence, when current will be low so as the light intensity of
LED.

As we have already discussed earlier the intensity of emitted light by the LED will be equal to the
corresponding current flowing through the phototransistor. This means that the low-intensity light
emitted by the LED will cause a low-level current to flow through the phototransistor. Thus a
changing voltage is generated across the collector-emitter terminal of the transistor.

Advantages

1. Optocouplers allow easy interfacing with logic circuits.

2. Electrical isolation provides circuit protection.
3. It allows wideband signal transmission.
4. It is small in size and lightweight device.

Disadvantage

The operational speed of opto-coupler is low

In case of a very high power signal, the possibility of signal coupling may arise

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Applications

It is used in high power inverters.

It is used in high power choppers

In AC and Dc converters optocouplers are widely used.

Optocoupler application or function in the circuit is to : monitor high voltage, output voltage
sampling for regulation, system control micro for power On/OFF , ground isolation

BJT- BIASING

Biasing

Transistor Biasing is the process of setting a transistors DC operating voltage or current

conditions (Ic, VCE, IB etc.) to the correct level so that any AC input signal can be amplified
correctly by the transistor. BJT is properly biased when applying forward bias to EB – junction
and reverse bias to CB – junction makes the transistor to operate in active region.

Need for Biasing

The steady state operation of a transistor depends a great deal on its base current, collector
voltage, and collector current values and therefore, if the transistor is to operate correctly as a
linear amplifier, it must be properly biased around its operating point.
Establishing the correct operating point requires the selection of bias resistors and load resistors
to provide the appropriate input current and collector voltage conditions. The correct biasing
point for a bipolar transistor, either NPN or PNP, generally lies somewhere between the two
extremes of operation with respect to it being either “fully-ON” or “fully-OFF” along its DC
load line. This central operating point is called the “Quiescent Operating Point”, or Q-point for
short.

VBE = 0.7

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Types of Biasing
The commonly used methods of transistor biasing are

• Base Bias or Fixed Bias

• Collector to Base bias
• Voltage-divider bias

1.Fixed Base Bias or Fixed Resistance Bias or Base Bias

For this configuration a base resistor RB connected between the base and the VCC. Here the base-
emitter junction of the transistor is forward biased by the voltage drop across RB which is the result
of IB flowing through it.

The circuit shown is called as a “fixed base bias circuit”, because the transistors base
current, IB remains constant for given values of Vcc, and therefore the transistors operating point
must also remain fixed. This two-resistor biasing network is used to establish the initial operating
region of the transistor using a fixed current bias.

This type of transistor biasing arrangement is also beta dependent biasing as the steady-state
condition of operation is a function of the transistor’s β value, so the biasing point will vary over
a wide range for transistors of the same type as the characteristics of the transistors will not be
exactly the same.
Considering the closed circuit from VCC, base, emitter and ground, while applying the
Kirchhoff’s voltage law, we get,
VCC- IBRB - VBE = 0
VCC=IBRB+VBE
Or

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IBRB=VCC−VBE
Therefore
IB= (VCC−VBE ) / RB
Since VBE is generally quite small as compared to VCC, the former can be neglected with little
error.
VBE is 0.7 V for silicon and 0.3 for germanium transistor. Then,
RB=VCC / IB
We know that VCC is a fixed known quantity and IB is chosen at some suitable value. As RB can
be found directly, this method is called as fixed bias method.
the expressions for other voltages and currents are given as

The collector current is calculated as

Applying KVL to collector circuit, (VCC, RC ,VCE and ground)

VCC = VCE + ICRC

VCE = VCC – ICRC

Advantages

• The circuit is simple.

• A very small number of components i.e Only one resistor RE is required.
• Operating point can be shifted easily anywhere in the active region by merely changing
the base resistor (RB). Biasing conditions are set easily.
• No loading effect as no resistor is present at base-emitter junction.

Disadvantages

• The stabilization is poor as heat development can’t be stopped.

• The stability factor is very high. So, there are strong chances of thermal run away.
Hence, this method is rarely employed.

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Usage:

Due to the above inherent drawbacks, fixed bias is rarely used in linear circuits (i.e., those
circuits which use the transistor as a current source). Instead, it is often used in circuits where
transistor is used as a switch.

Exercise 1. For the base bias circuit find the values of IB, IC & VCE for the given data,
RB = 470 KΩ RC = 2.2 KΩ VCC = 18 V hfe = 100

Exercise 2. Calculate max and min levels of IC & VCE for the base bias circuit with the values
RB = 470 KΩ RC = 2.2 KΩ VCC = 18 V, when hfe (min) = 50 & hfe (max) = 200

Note : Two Q points for a transistor of a given type number always have a wide range hfe values.
So hfe (max) & hfe (min) should always be used for practical circuit analysis. The base bias circuit is
rarely employed because of the uncertainty of the Q point. More predictable results can be
obtained by other type of biased circuits.

Questions :
1. What is transistor biasing ? Explain the need of biasing and name different type of biasing.

2.What is Q point ? State the need of stabilization of Q point.

3.With a neat circuit diagram explain base bias method.

4.Design a fixed biased circuit using a silicon transistor having β value of 100. VCC = 12 V and
DC biased conditions are to be VCE = 6 V and IC = 6 mA.

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Collector Feedback Biasing a Transistor

This self-biasing collector feedback configuration is another beta dependent biasing method which
requires two resistors to provide the necessary DC bias for the transistor. The collector to base
feedback configuration ensures that the transistor is always biased in the active region regardless
of the value of Beta (β). The DC base bias voltage is derived from the collector voltage VC, thus
providing good stability.
In this circuit, the base bias resistor, RB is connected to the transistor’s collector C, instead of to
the supply voltage rail, Vcc. Now if the collector current increases, the collector voltage drops,
reducing the base drive and thereby automatically reducing the collector current to keep the
transistors Q-point fixed. Therefore, this method of collector feedback biasing produces negative
feedback round the transistor as there is a direct feedback from the output terminal to the input
terminal via resistor, RB.
The opposite reaction will also occur when the transistors collector current reduces. Then this
method of biasing is called self-biasing with the transistors stability using this type of feedback
bias network being generally good for most amplifier designs.

VCE=IBRB+VBE
Or
IB= ( VCE−VBE)/ RB
Analysis of this circuit to derive the base current IB,

KVL to the outer loop,

VCc= (IB +Ic)Rc+VCE

VCE= VCC - (IB +Ic)Rc ---(1)

Also KVL to the loop VCE, IBRB and VBE

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VCE =, IBRB + VBE ---(2)

Equating the above equations leads to

IB (Rc +RB ) + Ic Rc = VCC - VBE

Substituting Ic = β IB

IB (Rc +RB ) + β IB Rc = VCC - VBE

This gives

IB = VCC - VBE / ( β+1) Rc +RB

From these equations, it is seen that an increase in IC decreases VC which results in a reduced IB,
automatically reducing IC. This indicates that, for this type of biasing network, the Q-point
(operating point) remains fixed irrespective of the variations in the load current causing the
transistor to always be in its active region regardless of β value. Further this circuit is also referred
to as self-biasing negative feedback circuit as the feedback is from output to input via R B. This
kind of relatively simple bias has a stability factor which is less than (β+1), which results in a better
stability when compared to fixed bias. However the action of reducing the collector current by
base current leads to a reduced amplifier gain.

Advantages

• The circuit is simple as it needs only one resistor.

• This circuit provides some stabilization, for lesser changes.

Disadvantages

• The circuit doesn’t provide good stabilization.

• The circuit provides negative feedback which reduces the gain of the amplifier.
•
Usage:

The feedback also decreases the input impedance of the amplifier as seen from the base, which can
be advantageous. Due to the gain reduction from feedback, this biasing form is used only when
the trade-off for stability is warranted

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Voltage Divider Bias Method

This type of biasing network employs a voltage divider formed by the resistors R1 and R2 to bias
the transistor. This means that here the voltage developed across R2 will be the base voltage of
the transistor which forward biases its base-emitter junction.

This voltage divider biasing configuration is the most widely used transistor biasing method. The
emitter diode of the transistor is forward biased by the voltage value developed across resistor R2.
Also, voltage divider network biasing makes the transistor circuit independent of changes in beta
as the biasing voltages set at the transistors base, emitter, and collector terminals are not dependent
on external circuit values.
To calculate the voltage developed across resistor R2 and therefore the voltage applied to the base
terminal we simply use the voltage divider formula for resistors in series.
Generally, the voltage drop across resistor R2 is much less than for resistor R1. Clearly the
transistors base voltage VB with respect to ground, will be equal to the voltage across R2.
The amount of biasing current flowing through resistor R2 is generally set to 10 times the value of
the required base current IB so that it is sufficiently high enough to have no effect on the voltage
divider current or changes in β.
Voltage divider circuit can be analyzed in two ways:

1. Accurate Analysis.
2. Approximate Analysis

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ACCURATE ANALYSIS

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2.APPROXIMATE ANALYSIS

In Approximate Analsis, the base current is assumed to be much smaller than the voltage divider
current I2 Resistor R1 and R2 constitute a volateg divider that divides the supply voltage (VCC) to
produce the base voltage VB

I1= I2 +IB
Voltage divider bias circuits are normally designed to have the voltage divider current I2 very
much larger than the transistor base current IB, I2 >> IB
Therefore , I1 ͠ I2

By applying KVL from VCC R1 , R2 we get,

VCC – I1R1 – I2R2 =0
I1 ~~ I2
VCC - I2R1 - I2R2 = 0
I2[R1+R2]=VCC

I2 = VCC / (R1+R2)

VOLTAGE ACROSS R2 IS VB,

VB = I2R2

Applying KVL to base-emitter loop,

VB – VBE -VE =0

IERE = VB – VBE

IE = (VB -VBE) / RE

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Applying KVL to the collector-emitter circuit we have,

Questions

1. Compare different types of biasing methods.

2. Consider a transistor biased as voltage divider bias circuit with R1 = 45 KΩ,
R2= 12KΩ RC = 1.4KΩ RE= 900 Ω VCC = 14 V. Find emitter voltage ,
collector voltage and collector to emitter voltage.

Design the voltage divider bias circuit where VCC = 10 V , VCE = 5 V and IC =
2.5mA assuming a silicon transistor

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER APPLICATION CIRCUITS

Introduction:

Op-amp stands for operational amplifier. Originally, op-amps were so named because they were
used to model the basic mathematical operations of addition, subtraction, integration,
differentiation, etc. in electronic analog computers. In this sense a true operational amplifier is an
ideal circuit element.

An operational amplifier is an integrated circuit that can amplify weak electric signals. An
operational amplifier has two input pins and one output pin. Its basic role is to amplify
and output the voltage difference between the two input pins.

Its applications span the broad electronic industry satisfying the requirements for various
applications like signal conditioning, analog computing, analog instrumentation, multipliers,
voltage source, current source etc. That makes it useful in all kinds of industrial instrumentation,
communication, audio-visual equipment, medical electronics and so on.

Circuits such as moisture sensors, light / dark sensors, movement sensors, sound sensors etc.. often
need operational amplifiers for them to work properly.

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MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR DESIGN USING 555 TIMER IC

A monostable multivibrator (MMV) often called a one-shot multivibrator, is a pulse generator

circuit in which the duration of the pulse is determined by the R-C network, connected externally
to the 555 timer. In such a vibrator, one state of output is stable while the other is quasi-stable
(unstable). For auto-triggering of output from quasi-stable state to stable state energy is stored by
an externally connected capacitor C to a reference level. The time taken in storage determines the
pulse width. The transition of output from stable state to quasi-stable state is accomplished by
external triggering.

The circuit has only one stable state. When trigger is applied, it produces a pulse at the output
and returns back to its stable state. The duration of the pulse depends on the values of R and C. As
it has only one stable state, it is called one shot multivibrator.

Operation

The flip-flop is initially set i.e. Q is high. This drives the transistor Qd in saturation. The capacitor
discharges completely and voltage across it is nearly zero. the output at pin 3 is low.
When a trigger input, a low going pulse is applied, then circuit state remains unchanged till trigger
voltage is greater than 1/3 Vcc. When it becomes less than 1/3 Vcc, then comparator 2 output goes
high. This resets the flip-flop so Q goes low and Q goes high. Low Q makes the transistor Qd off.
Hence capacitor starts charging through resistance R, as shown by dark arrows in the Fig.
The voltage across capacitor increases exponentially. This voltage is nothing but the threshold
voltage at pin 6. When this voltage becomes more than 2/3 Vcc , then comparator 1 output goes
high. This sets the flip-flop i.e. Q becomes high and low. This high Q drives the transistor Qd in
saturation. Thus capacitor C quickly discharges through Qd as shown by dotted arrows in the Fig.
above.

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it can be noted that Vout at pin 3 is low at start, when trigger is less than 1/3 Vcc it becomes high
and when threshold is greater than 2/3 Vcc again becomes low, till next trigger pulse occurs. So a
rectangular wave is produced at the output. The pulse width of this rectangular pulse is controlled
by the charging time of capacitor. This depends on the time constant RC. Thus RC controls the
pulse width. The waveforms are shown in the Fig.

Derivation of Pulse Width:

The voltage across capacitor increases exponentially and is given by

where C in farads, R in ohms, t in seconds.

Thus, we can say that voltage across capacitor will reach 2/3 Vcc in approximately 1.1 times, time
constant i.e. 1.1 RC

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Thus the pulse width denoted as W is given by,

W = 1.1 RC
The pulse width of the circuit may range from micro-seconds to many seconds. This circuit is
widely used in industry for many different timing applications.

The pulse width of the circuit may range from micro-seconds to many seconds. This circuit is
widely used in industry for many different timing applications.

Schematic Diagram:

Trigger input is applied to pin 2. In quiescent condition of output this input is kept at + VCC. To
obtain transition of output from stable state to quasi-stable state, a negative-going pulse of
narrow width (a width smaller than expected pulse width of output waveform) and amplitude of
greater than + 2/3 VCC is applied to pin 2.

Output is taken from pin 3.

Pin 4 is usually connected to + VCC to avoid accidental reset.

Pin 5 is grounded through a 0.01 u F capacitor to avoid noise problem.

Pin 6 (threshold) is shorted to pin 7.

A resistor RA is connected between pins 6 and 8.

At pins 7 a discharge capacitor is connected while pin 8 is connected to supply VCC.

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Generally a schematic diagram of the Monostable Multivibrator Using IC 555 circuits is shown
which does not include comparators, flip-flop etc. It only shows the external components to be
connected to the 8 pins of Monostable Multivibrator Using IC 555. Thus, the schematic diagram
of Monostable Multivibrator Using IC 555 is shown in the Fig.above.
The external components R and C are shown. To avoid accidental reset, pin 4 is connected to pin
8 which is supply +Vcc. To have the noise filtering of control voltage, the pin 5 is grounded through
a small capacitor of 0.01 .tF.
Example

A 555 Timer IC in a Monostable multivibrator is needed to produce a time delay in a circuit. If

a 10 uF timing capacitor is used, then calculate the value of the resistor required to produce a
minimum o/p time delay of 500ms.
R=t/1.1C
Where, t=0. 5, C=10uF
Insert these values in the above formula
R=0. 5/1.1x10x10-2
=45.5kilo Ohms

Applications of Monostable Multivibrator

• Frequency Divider
• Pulse Width Modulation
• Linear Ramp Generator
• Switching the Relay ON
• Missing Pulse Detector

Frequency Divider

When the IC 555 is used as a monostable multivibrator, a positive going rectangular pulse is
available at the output when a negative going pulse of short duration is applied at the trigger input.
By adjusting the time interval t of the charging or timing circuit the device can be made to work
as a Frequency Divider circuit.

If the timing interval t is made slightly larger than the time period of the input pulse (trigger pulse),
the device can act as a Divide – by – two circuit. The timing interval can be controlled by
appropriately choosing the values of the resistor R and the capacitor C in the timing circuit. The
waveforms of the input and output signals corresponding to the divide–by–two circuit are shown
below.

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The circuit will trigger for the first negative pulse of the trigger input. As a result, the output will
go to high state. The output will remain high for the time interval t. During this interval, even if a
second negative going trigger pulse is applied, the output will not be affected and continues to
remain high as the timing interval is greater than the time period of the trigger pulse. On the third
negative going trigger pulse, the circuit is retriggered.

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So the circuit will trigger on every alternate negative going trigger pulse i.e. there is one output
pulse for every two input pulses and hence it is a divide–by–two circuit. By adjusting the timing
interval, a monostable circuit can be made to produce integral fractions of the input frequency.

Missing Pulse Detector

The circuit of a Missing Pulse Detector is shown below. A PNP transistor is connected across the
capacitor and the input trigger pulse train is given to the base terminal of the transistor as well as
the pin 2 trigger input of the IC 555.

The train of trigger pulses will continuously reset the timing cycle. Hence the output is always
high. If any trigger pulse is missing, the device detects this missing pulse and the output goes low.
The detailed working is as follows. When the input is 0, the PNP transistor is turned ON and the
voltage across the capacitor is clamped to 0.7 V and the output is HIGH. When the input trigger
voltage is high, the transistor is cut-off and the capacitor will start charging.

If the input trigger signal goes low again before the completion of the timing cycle, the voltage
across the capacitor falls to 0.7 V before reaching the threshold voltage (2/3 VCC) and the output
continues to remain HIGH. If the input trigger signal doesn’t go low before the completion of the
timing cycle due to a missing pulse, it allows the capacitor to charge to the threshold voltage and
the output will become LOW.

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In order to make this circuit work as a Missing Pulse Detector, the time period of the input trigger
signal should be slightly lesser than the timing interval. Because of this, the continuous negative
going input pulses will not allow the capacitor to charge till the threshold voltage. And the output
continues to stay high. In case of change of input frequency or a missing pulse, the capacitor will
charge to the threshold voltage and the output falls low. The waveforms of the input pulse, voltage
on the capacitor and the output signal are shown below.

PEAK DETECTOR

Rectifier circuit gives average value of input signal; but in practice we need peak value of input
signal. This is achieved by peak detector circuit. The following figure shows a simple peak
detector circuit using diode and capacitor.

In the positive half cycle, diode D is forward biased and capacitor C starts charging. When input
reaches its peak value capacitor gets charged to positive peak value.

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In negative half cycle, as input decreases, diode D is reversed biased and capacitor is isolated and
holds the peak value of previous cycle. Hence called as peak detector.

But in practice, output is taken across some load RL, so when input voltage decreases capacitor
discharges through load RL. To avoid this select RL of very large value so that capacitor
discharges very slowly hence almost holds the charge. Whatever charge it lost through RL is gets
back in next half cycle.

Limitation:

The diode D is acting as an instant switch, so supply gets loaded.

To avoid the loading while charging capacitor, we use op-amp as follows. Op-amp is placed
between input and diode D so loading is avoided as shown in circuit diagram below,

For every op-amp there is a limit for maximum differential input voltage Vid. So care must be
taken while selecting op-amp.
The load resistance RL is not possible to have a very large value always, so we use another op-
amp as follows,

Here second op-amp acts as a voltage follower. Its input impedance is very high so capacitor
discharges very slowly i.e. capacitor almost holding the charge. Therefore output voltage is
nothing but voltage across capacitor (Peak value of input signal).
Vout = Voltage across capacitor, Vc
As output impedance of voltage follower is very small we can connect any value of RL.

NON LINEAR AMPLIFIER

Is an amplifier in which a change in input does not produce a proportional change in output

There are three primary reasons for needing a non-linear amplifier:

1) the signal of interest has a known, unavoidable curve or nonlinearity of its own, so the
amplifier must compensate for it

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2) or, the signal may sometimes become so large that it overloads the input of the next stage. The
resulting amplifier must then have a recovery time during as it comes out of saturation, during
which no signal-handling is possible. In extreme cases, there may even be permanent physical
damage to channel front end due to the signal overload;
3) finally, the signal naturally spans a very wide dynamic amplitude range. This is often the case
an RF wireless, radar, or optical signals, which often range over 100 dB and more, but also
applies to some test and measurement instrumentation signals.

In non-linear amplifier output voltage is proportional to the logarithm of input voltage A device
that behaves nonlinearly (logarithmically) should be used to control gain of op amp –
Semiconductor diode

Forward transfer characteristics of silicon diodes are closely described by Shockley’s equation

IF = IS e (VF/ηVT)

IS -- is diode saturation (leakage) current

e is base of natural logarithms (e = 2.71828)

VF is forward voltage drop across diode

VT is thermal equivalent voltage for diode (26 mV at 20°C)

η is emission coefficient or ideality factor (2 for currents of same magnitude as IS to 1 for higher
values of IF)

I1= Vin / R1

IF = - I1

IF = - Vin/R1

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V0= -VF = -ηVT ln(IF/IS)

V0= -ηVT ln[Vin / (R1IS)]

R1IS is constant , it can be written as Vref

V0= -ηVT ln[Vin / (Vref)]

Figure shows the application of non- linear amplifier in AC bridge balance detector. In this large
change in bridge output voltage gets converted to small change and Milli-voltmeter can show the
large variation in voltage at the input.

If this non-linear amplifier is not used, then every time sensitivity of mili-ammeter has to be
adjusted.

Other Non-Linear applications

Comparators, Logarithmic amplifiers, Exponential amplifiers, Peak detectors, Precision rectifiers

Waveform generators, Clippers and clampers, zero crossing detector

RELAXATION OSCILLATOR
A relaxation oscillator is basically a non-linear oscillator that has the ability to generate a non-
sinusoidal periodic waveform at its output. Such as triangular wave, square wave etc. These are
also known as non-sinusoidal waveform generators.

A relaxation oscillator operates in such a way that it generates oscillations by charging the
capacitor and quickly discharging it after attaining a pre-determined threshold voltage.

Applications of Relaxation Oscillator

These are used to produce internal clock signaling in any digital circuits. These also
find applications in thyristor triggering circuits, in oscilloscopes as well as television receivers
etc.

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Relaxation Oscillator can be used in:

▪ Signal generators
▪ Counters
▪ Memory circuits
▪ Voltage control oscillators
▪ Fun circuits
▪ Oscillators
▪ Multi-vibrators.

Op-amp Relaxation Oscillator

An op-amp relaxation oscillator is basically a square wave generator. Here also the frequency of
oscillations is determined by the charging and discharging of the capacitor.
RF

R1
R2

The circuit looks like a comparator and feedback resistor R1 R2 form an inverting schmirr trigger.
When the output voltage Vo is at +Vsat the feedback voltage which is known as upper threshold
VUT a is given by

VUT = [R1 (+Vsat)] / ( R1 +R2 )

Similarly when the output voltage is at – Vsat the feedback volateg is known as lower threshold
VLT a is given by

VLT = [R1 (-Vsat)] / ( R1 +R2 )

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Let us assume that output is at positive saturation (+Vsat) i.e. Vo = +V sat we have V2=VUT and
capacitor towards +Vsat through the feedback provided by resistor Rf to the inverting terminal of
the input. Until the capacitor VC is less than VUT the output voltage remains at Vsat when the VC
charges to a value slightly greater than VUT the voltage at inverting terminals becomes greater
than non-inverting terminal this switches the output voltages form +Vsat to –Vsat. Therefore V2 =
VLT which is negative w.r.t ground.

Since Vo = -V sat capacitor starts discharging via Rf to 0 V and capacitor voltage VC = VLT,

When VC becomes more negative than feedback voltage VLT the output volateg Vo switches
back to +Vsat.

Now the capacitor will discharge from VLT to 0 V and then starts charging to VUT .This process
keeps repeating. The figure gives waveforms.

Frequency of oscillation is found by considering the time taken by capacitor to charge from VUT
to VLT and vice versa. The capacitor voltage is a function of time is given by,

VC(t) = Vmax + (Vintial – V max) e(-t/T) ----(1)

VC(t) =instantaneous voltage across capacitor

Vintial = initial voltage

V max = Voltage towards which capacitor charges

Consider the charging of capacitor from VLT to VUT where VUT is instantaneous voltage and VLT
is initial voltage at t= T1 voltage across capacitor reaches VUT , hence equation 1 can be written
as :

VUT= +Vsat + (VLT – Vsat) e (- T1/ Rf C)

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- (VLT – Vsat) e (- T1/ Rf C) = Vsat - VUT

e - ( -T1/ Rf C) = ( Vsat - VUT ) / (Vsat – VLT )

( -T1/ Rf C) = ln [( Vsat - VUT ) / (Vsat – VLT )]

T1 = - Rf C* ln [( Vsat - VUT ) / (Vsat – VLT )]

T1 = - Rf C* ln [( Vsat - VLT ) / (Vsat – VUT )]

The amount of time taken by the capacitor to charge from VUT TO VLT is equal to charging time
of capacitor from VLT to VUT.

Hence the time taken for one oscillation can be given as

T= 2 T1 =2 Rf C* ln [( Vsat - VLT ) / (Vsat – VUT )]

F0 = 1/T

F0 = frequency of oscillation

Therefore

F0 = 1/ [ = 2Rf C* ln [( Vsat - VLT ) / (Vsat – VUT )]

Substituting VLT and VUT

T= 2Rf C* ln [( Vsat - {[R1 (-Vsat)] / ( R1 +R2 )} ) / (Vsat – {[R1 (+Vsat)] / ( R1 +R2 )}])

T= 2Rf C* ln [( Vsat { 1+[R1 / ( R1 +R2 ) } / (Vsat 1 – {[R1 / ( R1 +R2 )}])

T=2 Rf C* ln { (2R1 +R2 ) / ( R2) }

CURRENT TO VOLTAGE CONVERTER

A current to voltage converter will produce a voltage proportional to the given current. This circuit
is required if your measuring instrument is capable only of measuring voltages and you need to
measure the current output.
A current-to-voltage amplifier is also called a transimpedance, or transresistance.

An op-amp based current to voltage converter produces an output voltage when current is applied
to its inverting terminal. The circuit diagram of an op-amp based current to voltage converter is
shown in the following figure.

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In the circuit shown above, the non-inverting input terminal of the op-amp is connected to ground.
That means zero volts is applied at its non-inverting input terminal.
According to the virtual short concept, the voltage at the inverting input terminal of an op-amp
will be equal to the voltage at its non-inverting input terminal. So, the voltage at the inverting
input terminal of the op-amp will be zero volts.

Thus, the output voltage, V0 of current to voltage converter is the (negative) product of the
feedback resistance, Rf and the input current, IS. Observe that the output voltage, V0 is having
a negative sign, which indicates that there exists a 1800 phase difference between the input
current and output voltage.
We write the equation as –
IS = (VB – VO) /R
= - VO/RF
VO = IS * R

The above equation represents the ratio of the output voltage V0 and the input current IS and it is
equal to the negative of feedback resistance, Rf. The ratio of output voltage V0 and input
current Ii is called as Transresistance.

We know that the ratio of output and input of a circuit is called as gain. So, the gain of a current
to voltage converter is its trans resistance and it is equal to the (negative) feedback resistance Rf.

VO α IS

Thus output is proportional to the input current IS and circuit works exactly as I to V converter.
These circuit are also called current controlled voltage sources (CCVS)

Applications of the current to voltage converter is

1. Digital to analog Converter (DAC)

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2. Sensing current through Photodetector. Such as photocell, photodiodes and photovoltaic

cells.
3. Photoconductive devices produce a current that is proportional to an incident energy or
light (i.e) It can be used to detect the light.

VOLTAGE TO CURRENT CONVERTER (V TO I CONVERTER)

The circuits in instrumentation for analog representation of certain physical quantities (weight,
pressure, motion etc), DC current is preferred. This is because DC current signals will be constant
throughout the circuit in series from the source to the load. The current sensing instruments also
have the advantage of less noise.

So sometimes it is essential to create current which is corresponding or proportional to a definite

voltage. For this purpose Voltage to Current Converters (also known as V to I converters) are
used. It can simply change the carrier of electrical data from voltage to current.

They are of two types

Voltage to Current Converter with Floating Load

Voltage to Current Converter with Ground Load

1.Voltage to Current Converter with Floating Load

As the name indicates, the load resistor is floating in this converter circuit. That is, the resistor RL
is not linked to ground. The voltage, VIN which is the input voltage is given to the non-inverting
input terminal. The inverting input terminal is driven by the feedback voltage which is across the
RL resistor.
This feedback voltage is determined by the load current and it is in series with the VD, which is
the input difference voltage. So this circuit is also known as current series negative feedback
amplifier.

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For the input loop, the voltage equation is

Since A is very large,

So,

Since, the input to the Op-amp,

From the above equation, it is clear that the load current depends on the input voltage and the input
resistance. That is, the load current, , which is the input voltage. The load current is
controlled by the resistor, R. Here, the proportionality constant is 1/R. So, this converter circuit is
also known as Trans-Conductance Amplifier. Other name of this circuit is Voltage Controlled
Current Source.
The type of load may be resistive, capacitive or non-linear load. The type of load has no role in
the above equation. When the load connected is capacitor then it will get charge or discharge at a
steady rate. Due to this reason, the converter circuit is used for the production of saw tooth and
triangular wave forms.

2. Voltage to Current Converter with Ground Load

This V to I converter is also known as Howland Current Converter. Here, one end of the load is
always grounded. For the circuit analysis, we have to first determine the voltage, VIN and then
the relationship or the connection between the input voltage and load current can be achieved.

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For that, we apply Kirchhoff’s current law at the node V1

For a non-inverting amplifier, gain is

Here, the resistor, .

So, . Hence the voltage in the output will be

Thus, we can conclude from the above equation that the current IL is related to the voltage, VIN
and the resistor, R.

Applications of V to I converter
Low voltage ac and dc voltmeters

Diode match finders

LED and Zener diode testers

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VOLTAGE REGULATORS
Introduction

A Voltage Regulator is a device or a circuit that is responsible for providing a steady DC Voltage
to an electronic load.

Need for Regulators

The purpose of a voltage regulator is to keep the voltage in a circuit relatively close to a desired
value. Voltage regulators are one of the most common electronic components, since a power
supply frequently produces raw current that would otherwise damage one of the components in
the circuit. Voltage regulators have a variety of specific functions, depending on their particular
application.

Thus, a voltage regulator is used for two reasons: -

1. To regulate or vary the output voltage of the circuit.

2. To keep the output voltage constant at the desired value in-spite of variations in the supply
voltage or in the load current.
Working principle

The job of a DC Power Supply is to take AC power from mains outlets (typically, 240V @ 50Hz)
and convert it into steady DC Output. In this process, the AC voltage from the mains is first
rectified with the help of a rectifier circuit to produce a pulsating DC voltage.

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This pulsating DC is then filtered to produce a relatively smooth voltage. Finally, a Voltage
Regulator produces a constant output voltage.

The ac voltage (230 V , 50 Hz) is applied to the primary of a step down transformer .The
transformer steps down the ac voltage, to the level desired for the desired dc output, with the help
of a suitable turns ratio.

Rectifier circuit converts as voltage into pulsating dc voltage. A pulsating dc voltage means a
unidirectional voltage containing large varying components called ripples in it.

Filter is used to reduce the fluctuation in the rectified output voltage or ripple. This provides a
steadier dc voltage

Regulator is used to produce a constant dc output voltage by reducing the ripple to negligible
amount. Regulator are designed to keep the output voltage of power supply nearly constant, under
the varying input voltage conditions and varying load conditions.

Voltage regulators find their applications in computers, alternators, power generator plants where
the circuit is used to control the output of the plant. Voltage regulators may be classified as
electromechanical or electronic.

Factors affecting the load voltage:

The various factors which affect the load voltage in a power supply are mentioned below.
1.Load current (IL):
Ideally the output voltage should remain constant inspite of changes in the load current; but
practically the power supply without regulator the load voltage decreases as load current, IL
increases.
For practical power supply with regulator the load voltage must be constant through load
changes from no load to full load condition.
2. Line voltage:
The input to the rectifier is AC (230V) i.e. line voltage. This input decides the output voltage
level. If input changes output also changes. So this affects the performance of power supply. So
ideally the dc output voltage must remains constant irrespective of any changes in the line
voltage.

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3. Temperature:
In the power supply, the rectifier unit is used which uses p-n junction diode. As the diode
characteristics are temperature dependent, the overall performance of the power supply is
temperature dependent.

Performance parameters of a power supply:

The performance parameters of the overall power supply is judged by specifying some
parameters called as performance parameters. There are six performance parameters.
1. Line regulation:
If the input to the rectifier unit i.e. 230V changes, the output dc voltage of rectifier will also
change and since the output of rectifier is applied to the regulator, the output of regulator will
also vary. Thus the source cause changes in output. This is called as source regulation or line
regulation. It is defined as the change in regulated dc output voltage for a given change in input
(line) voltage. Ideally the source regulation should be zero and practically it should be as low as
possible.
2. Load regulation:
It is defined as the change in the regulated output voltage when the load current is changed from
(no load) zero to maximum value (full load) The load regulation ideally should be zero but
practically it should be as small as possible. The following figure shows the load regulation
characteristics.

3. Voltage stability factor (SV):

This is another factor which shows the dependency of output voltage on the input line voltage is
called as voltage stability factor It is defined as the percentage change in the output voltage
which occurs per volt change in input voltage with load current and temperature are assumed

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constant. Smaller the value of this factor, better is the performance of power supply.
4. Temperature stability factor (ST):
As in the chain of power supply we are using semiconductor devices (diodes in rectifier block)
the output voltage is a temperature dependent. Thus the temperature stability of the power supply
will be determined by temperature coefficients of various temperature sensitive semiconductor
devices.
So it is better to choose the low temperature coefficient devices to keep output voltage constant
and independent of temperature. Zener diodes are having breakdown voltages between 5V to 8V
have very low temperature coefficients and hence are always preferred and used in the power
supply circuits.
The value of this factor must be as small as possible and ideally it should be zero for a power
supply.
5. Ripple rejection (RR):
The output of rectifier and filter consists of ripples. It is defined as a factor which shows how
effectively the regulator circuit rejects the ripples and attenuates it from input to output. As
ripples in the output are small compared to input, the RR is very small and in dB, it is in negative
value. Practically all the performance parameters should be small for the better performance of
power supply.

Example 1

Two power supplies A and B are available in the market .Power supply A has no-load and full-
load of 40 V and 30 V respectively where as these values are 30 V and 29 V for power supply B.
Which do you think is better power supply?

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Supply A

VNL =40 VFL=30

% Voltage regulation = [(VNL – VFL) /VFL] * 100

=[40-30)/30]*100 = 30%

SUPPLY B

VNL =30 VFL=28

% Voltage regulation = [(VNL – VFL) /VFL] * 100

=[30-28)/28]*100 = 14%

Therefore, regulation value is 14% in B. It is better than power supply A.

Types of voltage Regulator

Depending upon the type of connection, there are two type of voltage regulators. They are

Series voltage regulator

Shunt regulator

ADJUSTABLE VOLTAGE REGULATOR

The power supply received at the load end or consumer end has fluctuations in the voltage levels
due to irregular loads or based condition of the local power grid. These voltage fluctuations may
lead to the reduction of the lifespan of the electrical and electronic appliances of the consumer or
damage to the loads. So, it is required to protect loads from over and under voltages or need to
provide a constant voltage to the loads and to maintain stability in system voltage using the
regulation technique. Voltage regulation can be defined as maintaining constant voltage or
maintaining the voltage level of a system within acceptable limits over a wide range of load
conditions and thus, voltage regulators are used for voltage regulation.

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The LM317T is an adjustable three-terminal positive-voltage regulator. This regulator IC capable

of supplying more than 1.5 A over an output-voltage range of 1.25 V to 37 V. To set the output
voltage it requires only two external resistors.

Resistors R1 and R2 set the output to any desired voltage over the adjustment range 1.2v to 37v.
It has current limiting, thermal overload protection, and safe operating area protection. Overload
protection remains functional even if the ADJUST terminal is disconnected. This device can also
be used as a programmable output regulator, or by connecting a fixed resistor between the
adjustment and output, the LM317 can be used as a precision current regulator.

The LM317 develops and maintains a nominal 1.25 V between its output and adjustment terminals
called reference voltage (Vref) . This reference voltage is converted to a programming current
(IPROG) by R1 , and this constant current flows through R2 to ground. The output voltage desired
can be calculated using.

(Iadj) represents an error Current from the adjustment terminal , With Typical LM317 IC value
Iadj is to less than 100μ A and keep it constant. Vref= 1.25V. If the load current is less than this
minimum, the output voltage will rise. Since the LM317 is a floating regulator, it is only the
voltage differential across the circuit which is important to performance, and operation at high
voltages with respect to ground is possible.

Iadj is very small amount and it can be ignored in practical application

The voltage across the feedback resistor R1 is a constant 1.25V reference voltage, Vref produced
between the “output” and “adjustment” terminal. The adjustment terminal current is a constant
current of 100uA. Since the reference voltage across resistor R1 is constant, a constant
current i will flow through the other resistor R2, resulting in an output voltage of:

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Then whatever current flows through resistor R1 also flows through resistor R2 (ignoring the
very small adjustment terminal current), with the sum of the voltage drops
across R1 and R2 being equal to the output voltage, Vout.

Example

Determine the Regulated output voltage of a circuit which haveR1=240 Ω and R2=2.4KΩ

Solution= We know that Vout= 1.25(1+2.4KΩ/240Ω)

= 13.75V

For 12v output- R1=220Ω, R2=1.8k

For 8v output- R1= 220Ω, R2= 1.2k
For 9v output – R1 = 220Ω, R2 = 1.3k
For 5v output- R1= 220Ω, R2=680Ω
For 3v output- R1=220Ω , R2= 330Ω

If we know the value of the required output voltage, Vout and the feedback resistor R1 is say 240
ohms, then we can calculate the value of resistor R2 from the above equation. For example, our
original output voltage of 9V would give a resistive value for R2 of:

R1.((Vout/1.25)-1) = 240.((9/1.25)-1) = 1,488 Ohms

or 1,500 Ohms (1k5Ω) to the nearest preferred value.
Advantages of adjustable voltage regulators:

1) Improved line and load regulation by a factor 10 or more

2) High value of load current can be drawn over a specific temperature range.
3) Improved system reliability under the 100% thermal overloading.
4) It has Adjustable output voltage from 1.2 to 57 V
5) Output current 0.10 to 1.5 A
6) Better load and line regulation

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Disadvantages of the LM317

The main disadvantage of LM317 is the voltage is that as much as 2.5 volts is dropped or lost
as heat across the regulator. for example, if we need to 9v at output then the input voltage will
need to minimum 12 volts or more if the output voltage is to remain stable under maximum load
conditions. This voltage drop across the regulator is called “dropout”. A heatsinking is required
to keep the regulator cool.

Questions

1. What do you understand by Dc regulated power supply?

2. With block diagram explain the operation of voltage regulated power supply.
3. What is the need for regulated power supply in electronic systems?
4. With circuit diagram explain adjustable voltage regulators.
5. Explain the different performance parameters of voltage regulator.

D TO A & A TO D CONVERTER

Introduction

In real world most data variables are analog in nature and can take on any value within a continuous
range of values. Examples include temperature, pressure, light intensity, audio signals, position,
rotational speed, and flow rate. In many systems it is convenient to record and/or process these
signals within a digital circuit, which may be within a programmable device such as a
microcontroller, microprocessor or a computer. Digital systems perform all of their internal
operations using digital circuitry and digital operations. Any information that has to be inputted to
a digital system must first be put into digital form. Similarly, the outputs from a digital system are
always in digital form. . We have two types of converters analog to digital converter(ADC) and
digital to analog converter(DAC).

For example, an ADC converts the analog data collected by audio input equipment such as a
microphone (sensor), into a digital signal that can be processed by a computer. The computer may
add sound effects. Now a DAC will process the digital sound signal back into the analog signal
that is used by audio output equipment such as a speaker.

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A/D Converter Applications

Digital Audio: Digital audio workstations, sound recording, pulse-code modulation

Digital signal processing: TV tuner cards, microcontrollers, digital storage oscilloscopes

Scientific instruments: Digital imaging systems, radar systems, temperature sensors

D/A Converter Applications

Digital Audio：CD, MD, 1-bit Audio

Digital Video：DVD, Digital Still Camera.

PCs：Audio, video cards

Measurement instruments：Programmable power supplies, etc.

Typical A/D and D/A converter

Analog-to digital converter (ADC) and digital-to-converter (DAC) are used to interface a
computer to the analog world so that the computer can monitor and control a physical variable
Analog signals may be obtained from sensors or transducer. A transducer is a device that
converts the physical variable to an electrical variable. Some common transducers include
thermistors, photocells, photodiodes, flow meters, pressure transducers, and tachometers. The
electrical output of the transducer is an analog current or voltage that is proportional to the
physical variable it is monitoring. For example, the physical variable could be the temperature
of water.
This analog signal is band limited by anti-aliasing filter. The signal is then sampled with the
Minimum sampling rate should be at least twice the highest data frequency of the analog signal.
Holding signal benefits the accuracy of the A/D conversion. The discrete signal from sample
and hold is fed to ADC

TRANSDUCER ANTIALISING SAMPLE & ADC

HOLD DSP
SENSOR FILTER
/Comparator

SMOOTHING DAC
FILTER
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The ADC converts this analog input to a digital output. The digital representation of the analog
vales is transmitted from the ADC to the digital computer, which stores the digital value and
processes it according to a program of instructions that it is executing.

This digital output from the computer is connected to a DAC, which converts it to a proportional
analog voltage or current. The output of DAC is usually a staircase wave form which is passed
through smoothing filter to reduce the quantization noise.

Digital to Analog Converter (DAC)

A Digital to Analog Converter (DAC) converts a digital input signal into an analog output
signal. The digital signal is represented with a binary code, which is a combination of bits 0 and
1. In general, the number of binary inputs of a DAC will be a power of two.

The bn is the least significant bit, LSB, whereas b1 is the most significant bit, MSB. The DAC
output can be either voltage or current.
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For a voltage output DAC, the conversion characteristic can e expressed by:

Vo = k VFS(b1 2 -1 + b2 2 -2 + b3 2 -3 +…… bn 2 -n )
Where Vo = output voltage

VFS =full scale output voltage

k=Scaling factor usually adjusted to unity

b1 b2.. bn = n bit binary fractional word with decimal point located at the left

b1= MSB with a weight = VFS /2

bn= LSB with weight = VFS /2

In general,

Analog output = K × digital input

where K is the proportionality factor and it is constant value for a given DAC.

The analog output can of course be a voltage or current.

When it is a voltage, K will be in voltage units, and when the output is current, K will be in
current units.

Example problem 1

What is the largest value of output voltage from an 8-bit DAC that produces 1.0V for a digital
input of 00110010?

Solution 001100102 = 5010 1.0 V = K× 50

Therefore, K = 20 mV

The largest output will occur for an input of 111111112 = 25510.

VOUT (max) = 20mV×255 = 5.10 V

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Performance parameters of DAC

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Setting time:-
The time required to settle the analog o/p within 1/2 LSB of the final value, after the change in
digital i/p is called a settling time.

Stability:

As performance of converter changes with parameters such as temperature, power supply

variations and also due to ageing, it is important to note the relevant parameters such as offset,
gain linearity error variations.

There are several DAC techniques. Some are listed below:

1.Binary weighted resistor DAC

2. R-2R ladder network
3.Serial DAC converter
4.BCD DAC
5.Bipolar DAC

This discusses about these two types of DACs in detail: Binary weighted resistor DAC

R-2R ladder network.

Binary Weighted Resistor D/A Converter

The binary weighted resistor DAC uses an op-amp to sum n binary weighted currents derived
from a reference voltage VR via current scaling resistors 2R, 4R, 8R ….. 2nR. This circuit
arrangement is shown in the figure.

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Switch positions are controlled by the digital inputs. When digital input is logic 1, it connects the
corresponding resistance to the reference voltage VR; otherwise, it leaves resistor open. Hence,

Here, operational amplifier is used as a summing amplifier. Due to high input impedance of
opamp, summing current will flow through Rf. Hence the total current through RF can be given
be

The above equation indicates that the analog output voltage is proportional to the input digital
word. The simplicity of the binary weighted DAC is offset by drawbacks associated with it.

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DrawBacks

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R-2R Ladder / Current Mode R-2R Ladder D/A Converter

R/2R ladder D/A converter uses only two resistor values. This avoids resistance spread drawback
of binary weighted D/A converter. Fig.4.13 shows R/2R ladder DAC. Like binary weighted
resistor DAC, it also uses shunt resistors to generate n binary weighted currents; however it uses
voltage scaling and identical resistors instead of resistor scaling and common voltage reference
used in binary weighted resistor DAC. Voltage scaling requires an additional set of voltage
dropping series resistances between adjacent nodes, as shown in the figure

Here, each bit of the binary word connects the corresponding switch either to ground or to the
inverting input terminal of the op-amp which is at the virtual ground. Since both the positions of
switches are at ground potential, the current flowing through resistances is constant and it is
independent of switch position. These currents can be given as

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Vo expression indicates that DAC works on the principal of summing i.e. output Vo of DAC is
analog and is proportional to digital inputs.

The inverting R/2R ladder DAC works on the principle of summing currents and it is also said to
operate in the current mode. An important advantage of the current mode is that all ladder node
voltages remain constant with changing input codes, thus avoiding any shutdown effects by stray
capacitances

Advantages of R/2R ladder DACs:

• Easier to build accurately as only two precision metal film resistors are required.
• Number of bits can be expanded by adding more sections of same R/2R values.
• In inverted R/2R ladder DAC, node voltages remain constant with changing input binary words.
This helps in avoiding slow down effect by stray capacitance.

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EXERCISE

1. The digital input for a 4 bit DAC is D=0111.Calculate its output voltage take V0FS =15
2. A 8 bit DAC having resolution of 22mv/LSB. Calculate V0FS and output if the input is
10000000
3. Calculate output voltage produced by DAC, when output range is between 0 and 10 V for
input binary numbers :
a. 10(2 bit DAC)
b. 0011
4. Calculate the values of the LSB and full scale output for 4 bit DAC for 0 to 10 range.

A – D CONVERTER.

Analogue to Digital (A/D) conversion is the process whereby an analogue signal is converted
into a corresponding binary number, the digital output.

ADC is provided with two control pins start and end of conversion. Here start input initiates the
conversion and end of conversion (EOC) output indicates the end of conversion.

Depending upon the applications type, ADC’s are designed for micro-controller/microprocessor
interfacing or to drive LCD/LED display.

Classification of ADC

There are a wide variety of methods used for A/D converters

Examples are:
– Flash (Parallel)

– Successive Approximation

– Sigma-Delta

– Dual Slope Converter

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FLASH (Comparator) TYPE ADC

Also called the parallel A/D converter, this circuit is the simplest to understand. It is formed of a
series of comparators, each one comparing the input signal to a unique reference voltage. The
comparator outputs connect to the inputs of a priority encoder circuit, which then produces a
binary output.

A comparator compares two voltage values on its two inputs: Vin connected with 2N
comparators in parallel , Comparators connected to resistor string VREF

Va

VR

Input voltage Logic output(X)

Va > VR X=1

Va < VR X=0

Va = VR Previous value

• If the voltage on the + input (Vin ) is greater than the voltage on the – (VREF )input, the output
will be a logic high

• If the voltage on the +(Vin ) input is less than the voltage on the - (VREF )input, the output will
be a logic low

A flash A/D converter compares an input voltage to a large number of reference voltages. A 2-bit
ADC requires 3 comparators, 3-bit ADC needs 7, whereas 4.bit requires 15 comparators. In
general, n-bit flash converter uses 2n -1 comparators. The output of the A/D converter is
determined by which of the two reference voltages the input signal is between.

Figure shows 3 bit flash A to D converter. The circuit here consists of a resistive divider
network, 8 op-amp comparator and 3 bit priority encoder.

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Y2 Y1 Y0

Vref is a stable reference voltage provided by a precision voltage regulator as part of the
converter circuit, not shown in the schematic. As the analog input voltage exceeds the reference
voltage at each comparator, the comparator outputs will sequentially saturate to a high state. The
priority encoder generates a binary number based on the highest-order active input, ignoring all
other active inputs. VR /8

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Input Voltage X7 X6 X5 X4 X3 X2 X1 X0 Y2 Y1 Y0

0 TO VR /8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
VR /8 to VR /4 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1

VR /4 to3 VR /8 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0

3 VR /8 to VR /2 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1

VR /2 to 5VR /8 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0

5 VR /8 to 3VR /4 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1

3 VR /4 to 7VR /8 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0

7 VR /8 to VR 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Advantages:
1)It is the fastest type of ADC because the conversion is performed simultaneously through a set
of comparators, hence referred as flash type ADC. Typical conversion time is 100ns or less.
2)The construction is simple and easier to design.

Disadvantages:
1)It is not suitable for higher number of bits.
2)To convert the analog input voltage into a digital signal of n-bit output, (2n – 1) comparators
are required. The number of comparators required doubles for each added bit.

EXERCISE

Design of a two bit flash ADC and give truth table for the same.

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SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATION TYPE ADC

The successive approximation technique uses a very e1ient code search strategy to complete n-
bit conversion in just n-clock periods. An eight bit converter would require eight clock pulses to
obtain a digital output.

Includes a D/A (digital to analog) converter and a comparator. An internal analog signal is
generated by turning on successive bits in the D/A converter.

The circuit uses a successive approximation register (SAR) to find the required value of each bit
by trial and error.

The circuit operates as follows.

With the arrival of the START command, the SAR sets the MSB d1 = 1 with all other bits to zero
so that the trial code (OUTPUT of SAR) is 1000. The output Va of the DAC is now compared
with analog input Vin. If V is greater than the DAC output Va then 1000 is less than the correct
digital representation. The MSB is left at ‘1’ and the next lower significant bit is made ‘1’ and
further tested.

However, if Vin is less than the DAC output, then 1000 is greater than the correct digital
representation. So reset MSB to ‘0’ and go on to the next lower significant bit.

This procedure is repeated for all subsequent bits, one at a time, until all bit positions have been
tested. Whenever the DAC output crosses Va , the comparator changes state and this can be taken
as the end of conversion (EOC) command.

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Process

Figure below shows a typical conversion sequence

The conversion time for n-bit ADC of this type is(n+2) clock periods n-clocks for Pn-bit digital
conversion one clock digital readout, other clock is to clear the approximation input at DAC
before next conversion.

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Advantages

Capable of high speed and reliable

Medium accuracy compared to other ADC types
Good tradeoff between speed and cost

Disadvantages

Higher resolution successive approximation ADC’s will be slower

Speed limited to ~5Msps

Applications

Almost any measurable quantity present as a voltage can be digitized by an A/D converter and
displayed. A/D converters are the heart of digital voltmeters and digital MultiMate’s. Analog voice
signals are converted to digital form for transmission over long distances. At their destination they
are reconverted to analog. In digital audio record- the analog audio signal produced by a
microphone is digitized (using an ADC), then stored on some medium such as magnetic tape,
magnetic disk or optical disk. Later the stored data are played back by sending them to a DAC to
reconstruct the analog signal, which is fed to the amplifier and speaker system to produce the
recorded sound.

REFERENCES

1/Analog & Digital electronics , Charles H Roth

2.www.circuit globe.com

3.www.eeeguide.com

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