Ex.

1
1) Speech community - is a term used to describe a group of people who live in
the same community and share the same language, speech characteristics, and
ways of interpreting communication.
2) Genderlect - a speech variety or communication style particularly associated
with one sex (a kind of dialect).
3) Aetalect - age differences in languages.
4) Sociolect – the way we speak that is individual to a social group.
5) Repertoire - he set of skills and knowledge a person has of one or more
languages, as well as their different varieties/
6) Mutual intelligibility - a situation in which two or more speakers of
a language (or of closely related languages) can understand each other.
7) Hierarchy - the classification of a group of people according to ability or to
economic, social, or professional standing.
8) linguistic situation - a system for the expression of thoughts, feelings, etc.,
by the use of spoken sounds or conventional symbols.
9) types of lingual situations:
(mono-component / multi-component, monolingual - knowing or able to use
only one language/ multilingual - using or able to speak several or many languages
with some facility, homogeneous - composed of parts or elements that are all of the
same kind; homomorphic - form or structure, with the prefix homo- meaning
similar structure. / heterogeneous - the quality of being diverse and not comparable
in kind; heteromorphic endoglossic - Occurring in two or more different forms,
especially at different stages in the life cycle./ exoglossic - Describing a non-
indigenous language that is the main or the official language of a region or
country., diglossic - a situation in which two languages are used under different
conditions within a community, often by the same speakers / monoglossic -
autonomous skill that functions independently from the context in which it is
used.)
10)harmonious (equilibrium) - a state of emotional balance or calmness; and
disharmonious (nonequilibrium) - absence or lack of equilibrium or balance.
11)the community of language (varieties) usage - a group of people who share a
set of linguistic norms and expectations regarding the use of language.
12)mode of language usage - a broad category of literary moods and methods
that are not assigned to a specific form or genre.
13)the way of interaction - helping understanding how languages are shaped
through interaction.
14)Code - medium through which signs are created.
15)code-switching – the concurrent use of more than one language.
16)code-mixing – refers to the use of one or more languages for consistent
transfer of linguistic units from one language into another.
17)multilingualism
18)diglossia – refers to a situation in which 2 dialects or languages a re used by
a single language community.
 19)language policy - a body of ideas, laws, regulations, rules and practices
intended to achieve the planned language change in the societies, group or system.
20)language planning - defined as the planning. of deliberate changes in the
way or the implementation of the variety of languages and is seen as a
sociolinguistic sub-discipline.

Ex. 2
2)
1. Difference between the definitions:
 “all of whose members share at least a single speech variety and the norms
for its appropriate use”
 “Participation in a set of shared norms; these norms may be observed in
overt types of evaluative behavior, and by the uniformity of abstract patterns
of variation which are invariant in respect to particular levels of usage"
 “any human aggregate characterized by regular and frequent interaction by
means of a shared body of verbal signs and set off from similar aggregates
by significant differences in language usage”. Later he revised it as”
 the Speech community is “not a naive attempt to use language to compass a
social unit”, but rather “an object defined for purposes of linguistic inquiry”
 “linguistic similarities among the various codes in use”, and to “agreement
on the social meaning of various linguistic parameters”

2. Scientific concerns:
 Lyons (definition was rather simple and general with the focus on a given
language or dialect.);
 Fishman (In this definition, he put forward the concept of speech variety and
norms of usage which was a great step forward);
 Labov (He proposed the first definition of speech community, and his
perspective was most influential in that it emphasized on linguistic
production, social perception and evaluation. It gave an insight to the
essence of this term and has been followed by all the subsequent scholars.);
 Gumperz (He focused on the aspect of interaction and multilingual which is
very important feature of the speech community);
 Hymes (proposes to divide the speech community into individual
communities and groups, which is considered a descriptive theory including
two aspects: a community that shares "rules for the conduct and
interpretation of speech and rules for the interpretation of at least one
linguistic variety");
  Kerswill (He took the perception and motivation of the individual speaker as
primary.).
3. Each in one way or another mentions a group of people or members of a group
who have some common characteristics, be it norms, culture or communication
style.
3)
1.
 Presidents J. F. Kennedy and Lyndon Johnson – social class
 Indira Gandhi and Margaret Thatcher - occupation
 The Pope and the Archbishop of Canterbury - religion
 Professor Henry Higgins and Eliza Doolittle – education
 Elizabeth II and John Lennon – social class
 Geoffrey Chaucer and George Bernard Shaw – occupation

2.
 Kennedy (46, upper class, male, politician, catholic, Irish ethnicity, Harvard
Uni) / Lyndon Johnson (64, upper class, male, politician, Christian,
Caucasian ethnicity, the University of Mary Hardin-Baylor)
 Indira Gandhi (66, upper class, female, politician, Hinduism, Indian,
Oxford) / Margaret Thatcher (87, upper class, female, politician, Methodist,
Oxford)
 The Pope (85, upper class, male, priest, Catholic, Italian, Milltown Institute
of Theology and Philosophy) / Archbishop of Canterbury (66, upper class,
Archbishop, Catholic, Durham Uni)
 Professor Henry Higgins (40, upper class, male, fictional character (a
professor of phonetics) / Eliza Doolittle (19, lower class, female, flower girl)
 Elizabeth II (96, upper class, female, queen, protestant, educated at home) /
John Lennon (40, upper class, male, singer, reject religion, Irish, High
School)
 Geoffrey Chaucer (60, upper class, male, author/poet, Christian, Inner
Temple) / George Bernard Shaw (94, upper class, male, playwright, atheist,
Irish, Wesley College)
3. I belong to lower speech community, English and Ukrainian sociolects are
different grammatically and phonologically (like Ukrainian is more gentle for
speaking, our words are simple to write etc)
Ex. 3
2.
1) The author describes the situation between men and women and pointed out
both must listen to each other. My personal experience proves it, we have different
views, but we must compromise.
2) Males and females are different, because:
 Men need to process their problems in their head while women want verbal
communication;
 Women need to feel loved, whereas men like the sense that they are useful;
 Men and women may use similar words but mean different things.
3) Differences between male and female speech:
 Female speech: soft, gently, using many words such as “so pretty” in polite
way etc., smaller vocabulary (I mean, men use difficult word combinations
or terms);
 Male speech: more jokes and humor, direct messages, more swearing.
4.
1) a “boy” type behavior – try to be in the center of attention (by telling jokes and
by proving your coolness). They try to jump over their male speaker.
2) a “girl” type behavior – NOT to be in the center of attention. Little girls (in the
video) just repeat after them, to prove that they’re the same even if they’re not.
3) I suppose that these conversational rituals of men and women will continue until
adulthood because my experience show that all men are the same, they try to show
their best in all way (but not all ofc)
4) Conversations between women and men can be regarded, metaphorically, as
cross-cultural communication. Boys and girls learn ways of speaking as children at
play with other children of the same sex, with the result that as adult’s men and
women have different senses of how to use language in interaction. Differences
include physical orientation (in informal conversations, women tend to sit face to
face and lean toward each other, while men tend to sit at angles or parallel and look
around the room); women tend to give more listener cues, such as “mhm, yeah,
uhuh.” Both these patterns result in women feeling men aren’t listening and, in the
case of listener cues, men feeling women are rushing them along; women tend to
value having their experience validated while men tend to focus more quickly on
what actions they should take. All these patterns, and many more, differ by cultural
background as well as gender. Understanding how gender differences in
communication affect doctor-patient interaction is crucial to understanding and
improving diagnosis, outcomes and compliance in interactions in medical contexts
5) It’s not a stereotype, it’s a truth about men’s and women’s conversational way
(men are speaking directly, they perceive facts and without any questions, but
female start to ask a lot, saying emotionally)
And the scientist’s arguments hold true right now.

Ex. 4
1. The most multilingual are: Latvia, Serbia, Romania, Italy
2. Population aged 25-64 reporting they knew one or more foreign languages. So,
female and male both know one or more foreign language in countries such as
Sweden, Latvia, Denmark, Lithuania, Norway, Switzerland. The age reaches more
than 95%.
3. Read
4.
1) Multilingualism on this scale clearly brings problems both on governmental and
individual levels: the biggest problem they have to face is educational.
2) Children learn to read and write in and are taught through the medium of their
native language in the initial stages of their schooling, with the majority language
being introduced later on.
3) The effects of the attempted imposition of an alien national language such as
English or Turkish may be very serious. The attempted replacement of one
language by another entails an effort to obliterate whole cultures; it may be
indicative of illogical ethnic attitudes and it can very seriously impair the
educational progress of children who have to learn a new language before they can
understand what the teacher is saying, let alone read and write.
4) This approach was also for many years the policy in the United States, where
the rapid assimilation of minority language groups to the English-speaking
majority was practiced. Today, considerable provision is made for some minority
groups, notably Spanish-speakers and Native American Indians, to be educated in
their own language.
5) the fact that language can act as a focus of discontent for minorities wanting
more power, independence, or annexation by a neighboring state many
governments regrettably regard as a problem.
6) Where governments do not regard this as threatening or undesirable, they may
well regard linguistic minorities benevolently.
7) In extreme cases the minority language may be forbidden or disapproved of in
school, and children punished or actively discouraged from using it there.
8) In very many cases activities of this kind can be regarded as both necessary and
commendable (e.g. in countries which are faced with the problem of having to
select a national language or languages and, subsequently, of developing and
standardizing it/them).
9) communication problems in many areas are not necessarily as serious as one
might think.
10) Language is a defining characteristic of a minority ethnic group wanting
independence, particularly where other characteristics are not significant, linguistic
factors are likely to play an important role in any separatist movement they might
undertake.

Ex. 5
The types of linguistic situation in:
1) Britain: English is the most widely spoken language in the UK; even though
accents can vary so much that it might sometimes sound like you are hearing
a totally different language. Given the UK’s long and incredibly dense
history, it is hardly surprising that you will discover pockets of other
indigenous languages here and there, too. The de facto official language of
the United Kingdom is English, which is spoken by approximately 59.8
million residents, or 98% of the population, over the age of three. An
estimated 900,000 people speak Welsh in the UK, an official language in
Wales and the only de jure official language in any part of the UK.
Approximately 1.5 million people in the UK speak Scots—although there is
debate as to whether this is a distinct language, or a variety of English.
2) The USA: The United States has never had an official language at the
federal level, but English is typically used at the federal level and in states
without an official language. Outside of Puerto Rico, English is the primary
language used for legislation, regulations, executive orders, treaties, federal
court rulings, and all other official pronouncements. Nonetheless, laws
require documents such as ballots to be printed in multiple languages when
there are large numbers of non-English speakers in an area.
3) Canada: there’s just two official languages – English for the main part of
Canada and French for Quebec which doesn’t have any separatist
movements. It’s heterogenous, diaglossic, balanced. US – English all the
way, even though it’s not official.
4) Ukraine: There are approximately 20 languages spoken in Ukraine.
According to the 2001 census, 67% of the population speak Ukrainian and
30% speak Russian as their first language. Ukrainian, the official language,
belongs with Russian and Belarusian to the East Slavic branch of the Slavic
language family.

Ex. 6
1) No
2) The only difference is that native English speakers learning a foreign
language don’t receive the same social shame that an immigrant would when
they learn English as a second or even third language.
3) Being overwhelming.
4) The lack of understanding by monolingual community – an ability to convey
your thoughts in many different ways.
5) I think that it’s wonderful to know many languages, it’s the mirror of your
intelligent and mind. Code-switching is a good idea for our society, but we
mustn’t forget our native language.