Multi-Engine Manual (Vol 2)

ACAST - Multi-Engine Training Manual PAGE: 1
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Multi-Engine Aerodynamics & Performance Considerations DATE: 09/20/13
CONTENT
Page
RECORDS OF CHANGE 3
INTRODUCTION 5
1. MULTI-ENGINE AERODYNAMICS 7
This section describes the aerodynamics specific to multi-engine airplanes.
(a) Induced Airflow 7

(b) Turning Tendencies 8
Asymmetrical Propeller Loading (P-Factor) 8
Torque Reaction 10
Spiraling Slipstream 10
Effects of Counter-Rotating Propellers 11
(c) Engine-Out Aerodynamics 11
Loss of Directional Control due to Engine Failure 12
VMC and Factors affecting VMC 13
2. PERFORMANCE CONSIDERATIONS
This section describes the general considerations related to multi-engine 41
climb performances.
(a) Multi-Engine Climb Performance – All Engines

41
Operating
Back to Basics 41
Rate of Climb 45
Angle of Climb 46
Factors Affecting Climb Performance 47
(b) Multi-Engine Climb Performance – One Engine
49
Inoperative
The Facts 49
Maximizing the Climb Performance with One Engine 51
Inoperative
In Conclusion 60
3. TAKE-OFF CONSIDERATIONS: “To Go Or Not To Go”

This section presents the elements related to Go/No Go decision-making 63
following an engine failure during take-off on a “light” twin-engine airplane.
(a) Requirements, Data and Definitions 63

Performance Requirements 63
Data Source and Factoring 64
Definitions 65
(b) Take-off Profile 68
(c) Take-off Briefing 70
FOR TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY - REFER TO FAA PUBLICATIONS

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name of institution

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INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this volume is to provide a better understanding of aerodynamic principles

related to the multi-engine airplane, the performance characteristics of multi-engine airplanes
when flying with two engines operating or with one engine inoperative.
Additionally, this volume has been designed to help pilots in understanding more the
performance characteristics of multi-engine airplanes when flying with two engines operating or
with one engine inoperative.
Finally, it provides a discussion about the takeoff considerations related to multi-engine

operations - more specifically, light twin-engine operations, and the planning preparation
involved.
I firmly believe that in order to become a better pilot one must understand thoroughly the
airplane he or she flies.
I hope that this manual will be a step in the right direction.
Welcome aboard,
Pierre F. Lavial,
Chief Pilot
Aviator College of Aeronautical Science and Technology

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1. Multi-Engine Aerodynamics
The principles of aerodynamics governing the flight of single-engine airplanes also apply to
those with more than one engine. Multi-engine airplanes respond to the four forces of flight
just as any other airplane, regardless of the amount of powerplants.
The primary aerodynamic differences between a single-

engine airplane and a multi-engine airplane results from
the locations of the engines and the direction of the
thrust forces in relation to the aircraft’s longitudinal axis.
In a conventional “light” twin-engine airplane, thrust

forces are not directed along the centerline as it is in
airplanes with one engine. Conventional twin-engine
airplanes have one engine mounted on each wing,
producing thrust parallel to their longitudinal axis.
Therefore their thrust vectors are displaced from the
airplane’s centerline (see figure 1-1).
Fig. 1-1: Thrust Comparison
(a) Induced Airflow

The most important advantage of wing-mounted engines is that a substantial amount of lift is
derived from the propeller slipstream. This induced airflow generated by the propeller, also
called accelerated slipstream, adds up to the relative airflow striking the wing and thus
increases the amount of lift generated by the wing area located in the vicinity of the engine
nacelles (see figure 1-2).

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Fig. 1-2: Induced Airflow
 Induced Airflow
 Distribution of Lift
The amount of lift generated by the induced airflow is an important consideration during
landing and imminent stall recoveries. A sharp or abrupt power reduction will cause an
instantaneous loss of induced airflow and a corresponding loss of total lift and a nose down
pitching moment. This could result in a high sink rate or even a stall if power is reduced
suddenly during a slow final approach or a flare to a landing (see figure 1-3).
On the other hand, rapid addition of power when an imminent stall has been identified could
prevent further stall development. However, induced airflow should never be relied on as the
sole factor in stall recovery. The addition of power in combination with other normal stall
recovery techniques should be utilized.
Fig. 1-3: Effect of abrupt throttle closure during the approach to a landing
(b) Turning Tendencies

In single-engine airplanes, turning tendencies (usually to the left) are caused by
asymmetrical propeller loading or P-factor, torque reaction, spiraling propeller slipstream,
and gyroscopic precession (which is essentially a concern for tail-wheel airplane).
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Conventional twin-engine airplanes have an even greater tendency to turn during climbs or
other high angle of attack maneuvers due to the additional engine and propeller.
Since most conventional light twin-engine airplanes are now equipped with a tricycle landing
gear, the following discussion will not include the effects of gyroscopic precession.
Asymmetrical Propeller Loading (P-Factor)
As long as the propeller plane of rotation is perpendicular to the relative airflow, the thrust it
produces is uniform about the plane of rotation. However, if it is held at an angle to the
direction in which it is moving through the air, as in a nose-high climb, significantly greater
thrust is produced on the right side of its plane of rotation.
At higher angles of attack of the aircraft and hence the axis of the engines, the down-going
blade produces more thrust than the up-going blade because it is at a higher angle of attack
to its relative airflow (see figure 1-4).
At a low angle of attack the thrust produced by the propellers is uniform to the plane of
rotation…
…at higher angles of attack of the aircraft and hence the axis of the engines the
down-going blades produce more thrust than the up-going blade therefore significantly
greater thrust is produced on the right side of their plane of rotation. This generates a
left turning tendency.
Fig. 1-4: Asymmetrical Propeller Loading (P-Factor)

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This asymmetrical propeller loading or P-factor generates a

noticeable turning tendency when the airplane is flown at high
angles of attack (left turning tendency for the conventional
twin). See figure 1-5.
Fig. 1-5: Left Turning Tendency
Torque Reaction
Newton’s third law of motion states: for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
With a rotating propeller this is called torque reaction, or torque effect. Simply put, torque
effect refers to the tendency of an aircraft to rotate in a direction opposite to the rotation of
the propeller.
Torque effect is greatest at high propeller rpm and high power settings and is most
noticeable with rapid power changes. In addition, the effect of torque is usually greater in
multi-engine airplanes because of the more powerful engines.
In a conventional twin, propellers turn clockwise, which in

terms of torque effect is then translated into a tendency for
the airplane to roll to the left or counter-clockwise (see
figure 1-6).
Fig. 1-6: Effects of torque
Spiraling Propeller Slipstream

A rotating propeller imparts its rotation to the airflow it generates. If the propeller is rotating
clockwise, for example, it creates rearward airflow rotating the same direction. In most
aircraft with clockwise rotating propellers this causes asymmetrical airflow to strike the
vertical stabilizer and rudder, pushing the tail to the right and making the airplane yaw to the
left.
Due to the location of the engines on the multi-engine airplanes, the effects of the spiraling
slipstream are not so significant than in a single-engine airplane. However, it remains a
factor, which may create turning tendencies.

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Typically, in normal flight, most of the spiraling (or

helical) slipstream misses the vertical tail, as
shown in figure 1-7. However, because it spreads
out on its way from the engine to the tail area,
some fraction of the spiraling slipstream does
manage to hit the tail. The effect may be large or
small, depending on the size and shape of the
airplane, the amount of power output and the
airspeed.
Fig. 1-7: Spiraling slipstream
You need to apply right rudder to compensate, just like in single-engine planes. If your
airplane requires right rudder during the initial takeoff roll, it must be due to spiraling
slipstream; it can't be due to P-factor (because the prop disks are not inclined).
Effects of Counter-Rotating Propellers
Some multiengine airplanes, like the Beechcraft BE-76 Duchess or the Piper Seminole are
equipped with engines turning in opposite directions; that is, the left engine and propeller
turn clockwise and the right engine and propeller turn counterclockwise.
With this arrangement, the thrust line of either engine is the same distance from the
centerline of the fuselage, no matter what is the angle of attack. Therefore, this counter-
rotating engine and propeller configuration eliminates the turning moment due to
asymmetrical propeller loading (p-factor). See figure 1-8.
Fig. 1-9: Effect of Torque with Counter-Rotating

Fig. 1-8: Effect of P-Factor with Counter-Rotating Propellers Propellers
Similarly, the effect of torque is eliminated since the torque from one engine cancels the
effect of the other (see figure 1-9 above).
(c) Engine-Out Aerodynamics

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The major difference between flying a twin-engine and a single-engine airplane is to know
how to manage the flight if one engine loses power for any reason. Safe flight with one-
engine-out requires an understanding of the basic aerodynamics involved – as well as
proficiency in engine-out procedures.
The following will first discuss the effects of an engine failure to the airplane’s controllability,
the loss of directional control due to the engine failure and its consequences if nothing is
attempted to correct the situation.
More importantly, an emphasis will be made on the Minimum Control Speed or VMC at
which the airplane is controllable when one engine becomes suddenly inoperative; and the
factors affecting VMC.
All engine-out procedures will be discussed in the chapter 3 of the manual.
Loss of Directional Control due to Engine Failure

Now let’s consider the case of engine failure. When an engine suddenly fails on a twin-
engine airplane, there is an immediate reduction of thrust and an increase in drag on the
side of the failed engine due to its windmilling propeller. This affects the balance between
total thrust and total drag and therefore the aircraft will immediately decelerate.
The loss of thrust causes the nose to drop

and the airspeed to decay. The loss in total lift
and reducing airspeed will cause the aircraft
to descend. The descending flight path plus
the loss of slipstream over the horizontal
stabilizer in most twins causes a nosedown
pitching moment (see figure 1-10).
Fig. 1-10: Nose down pitching moment

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The difference in thrust produced by the

operating engine and the drag generated by
the windmilling propeller of the “dead engine”
causes an immediate yawing moment towards
the dead engine (see figure 1-11). The yaw
causes an immediate sideslip and the vertical
surfaces of the airplane battle to keep the
airplane pointing to the relative airflow. At high
airspeed, this stabilizing force is powerful. At
low airspeed, it is overwhelmed by the yaw
due to the asymmetric thrust.
Additionally, there is an immediate reduction
in lift on the side of the failed engine due to
the sudden reduction in induced airflow over
the wing (see figure 1-12). This generates a
rolling moment towards the “dead engine”.
Fig. 1-11: Yawing moments
Fig. 1-12: Rolling Moment

 Induced Airflow
 Distribution of Lift
As the yaw rate is allowed to develop, the roll due to the yaw combined with the roll due to
the asymmetrical lift distribution now causes a pronounced roll towards the left engine.
The aircraft descends more rapidly now. It enters what is effectively a steep spiral dive with
asymmetric thrust, drag and lift overcoming its natural directional, longitudinal and lateral
stability. All these factors when allowed to develop further will lead to the loss of control to
the aircraft (see figure 1-13).

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Fig. 1-13: Loss of control following an engine failure
To prevent the loss of control, the pilot’s immediate and most vital task on engine failure is to
stop the yaw. The ability to stop the yaw only depends on the amount of rudder deflection
and the effectiveness of that rudder.
The aerodynamic power of all of the pilot’s controls depends on indicated airspeed. The
more airspeed, the more control power.
In this specific case, if airspeed is reduced with maximum thrust set on the “live engine”, a
point is reached where full rudder deflection is required to prevent the yaw. This condition
defines the Minimum Control Speed or VMC. During an engine failure, it is then important that
the pilot’s maintains an airspeed at or above V MC. The following is a discussion on VMC and
the factors affecting VMC.
VMC and Factors Affecting VMC

(1) Definitions
VMCA - Minimum control speed with one engine inoperative (in flight). The
minimum airspeed in flight at which directional control can be maintained, when one
engine is suddenly made inoperative.
VMCG - Minimum control speed with one engine inoperative (on the ground). The
minimum airspeed on the ground at which directional control can be maintained, when
one engine is suddenly made inoperative, using only aerodynamic controls.
For the purpose of the following discussion, VMCA will be generally referred as VMC since
VMCG relates more to the operation of larger multi-engine airplanes.
(2) VMC for Certification
VMC for airplane certification is based on the critical engine becoming inoperative and
windmilling, up to 5o of bank towards the operative engine, takeoff power on operative
engine, landing gear up, flaps in takeoff position, most unfavorable weight condition(*),
and most rearward center of gravity (CG). The method used to simulate critical engine
failure must represent the most critical mode of power-plant failure expected in service
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with respect to controllability.
(*) Remark: This is only correct for newer multi-engine airplane certified prior to February 1996. For
airplanes certified prior to that date, such as the Beechcraft BE-76 Duchess, the airplane was usually
certified for VMC at maximum gross weight.
Under some conditions of weight and altitude, a stall can be encountered at speeds
above VMC as established by the certification procedure described above, in which event
the stall speed is regarded as the limit of effective directional control.
An airplane with “sea-level” engines will normally not be able to produce rated takeoff
power at the higher test altitudes. Under these circumstances, V MC should be determined
at several power settings and a plot of VMC versus power will allow extrapolation to
determine VMC at maximum takeoff power (sea-level condition). If tests are conducted at
less than approximately 3,000 feet of density altitude, no corrections to V MC are normally
necessary.
The Code of Federal Regulations (CFR’s) under which the airplane was certificated (see
next page) stipulate that at VMC the certificating test pilot must be able to:
Stop the turn that results when the critical engine is suddenly made inoperative within
20o of the original heading, using maximum rudder deflection defined by a maximum
limit of 150 lbs of pressure, and not more than 5o of bank into the operative engine.
After recovery, maintain the airplane in straight flight with not more than a 5o of bank
towards the operating engine. This does not mean that the airplane is required to be
able to climb or even hold altitude. It only means that the heading can be maintained.
Once established, VMC will be marked on the

airspeed indicator with a red radial line and will
figure as well as a calibrated airspeed in the
Airplane Flight Manual (AFM) or the Pilot’s
Operating Handbook (POH). See figure 1-14.
Fig. 1-14: Airspeed Indicator
Finally, VMC should not exceed 1.2xVS1.
14 CFR § 23.149 Minimum control speed.

{New-96-2 Revised Feb. 9, 1996, effective March 11, 1996}
(a) VMC is the calibrated airspeed at which, when the critical engine is suddenly made inoperative, it is
possible to maintain control of the airplane with that engine still inoperative, and thereafter maintain
straight flight at the same speed with an angle of bank of not more than 5 degrees. The method used to
simulate critical engine failure must represent the most critical mode of power-plant failure expected in
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service with respect to controllability.
(b) VMC for takeoff must not exceed 1.2 VS1, where VS1 is determined at the maximum takeoff weight. VMC
must be determined with the most unfavorable weight and center of gravity position and with the
airplane airborne and the ground effect negligible, for the takeoff configuration(s) with -
(1) Maximum available takeoff power initially on each engine;
(2) The airplane trimmed for takeoff;
(3) Flaps in the takeoff position(s);
(4) Landing gear retracted; and
(5) All propeller controls in the recommended takeoff position throughout.
(c) For all airplanes except reciprocating engine powered airplanes of 6,000 pounds or less maximum
weight, the conditions of paragraph (a) of this section must also be met for the landing configuration
with -
(1) Maximum available takeoff power initially on each engine;
(2) The airplane trimmed for an approach, with all engines operating, at V REF, at an
approach gradient equal to the steepest used in the landing distance demonstration
of § 23.75;
(3) Flaps in the landing position;
(4) Landing gear extended; and
(5) All propeller controls in the position recommended for approach with all engines
operating.
(d) A minimum speed to intentionally render the critical engine inoperative must be established and
designated as the safe, intentional, one engine inoperative speed, VSSE.
(e) At VMC, the rudder pedal force required to maintain control must not exceed 150 pounds and it must not
be necessary to reduce power of the operative engine(s). During the maneuver, the airplane must not
assume any dangerous attitude and it must be possible to prevent a heading change of more than 20
degrees.
(f) At the option of the applicant, to comply with the requirements of § 23.51(c)(1), VMCG may be
determined. VMCG is the minimum control speed on the ground, and is the calibrated airspeed during
the takeoff run at which, when the critical engine is suddenly made inoperative, it is possible to
maintain control of the airplane using the rudder control alone (without the use of nosewheel steering),
as limited by 150 pounds of force, and using the lateral control to the extent of keeping the wings level
to enable the takeoff to be safely continued. In the determination of VMCG, assuming that the path of the
airplane accelerating with all engines operating is along the centerline of the runway, its path from the
point at which the critical engine is made inoperative to the point at which recovery to a direction
parallel to the centerline is completed may not deviate more than 30 feet laterally from the centerline at
any point. VMCG must be established with -
(1) The airplane in each takeoff configuration or, at the option of the applicant, in the
most critical takeoff configuration;
(2) Maximum available takeoff power on the operating engines;
(3) The most unfavorable center of gravity;
(4) The airplane trimmed for takeoff; and
(5) The most unfavorable weight in the range of takeoff weights.
Fig. 1-15: FARs Part 23, § 23.149 Minimum control speed

What is important to understand through this discussion is the fact that the primary
concern after an engine failure is to maintain directional control of the airplane and
stabilize its attitude for the best performance.
Maintaining the airspeed at VMC does not guaranty that the airplane can climb or even
maintain altitude, but only that the pilot can maintain heading.
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Control effectiveness in any flight situation depends on the velocity of the airflow over the
control surfaces (in this case the rudder). At airspeed below V MC, full control deflection
does not provide sufficient aerodynamic forces to overcome the yawing and rolling
tendencies induced by the failure of one of the power-plants.
Moreover we will see in the following discussion that the actual VMC varies as any of the
certification conditions change…
(3) Factors affecting VMC
VMC is not a static number like the maximum flap-operating speed or the never-exceed
speed. It changes with various conditions.
Under some circumstances, the actual VMC may increase or decrease which could lead
the inexperience pilot to his grave in the event of an engine failure.
Suppose a pilot gets himself in the unhappy situation of being 50 feet in the air, gear
down, with one engine out, full power on the good side and full rudder to keep the nose
from swinging. He doesn’t like the look of the trees in front of him so he decides to make
a go for it. He reaches the gear handle to get rid of his drag, hoping that will enable the
aircraft to accelerate to a climb speed. Suddenly he is looking at the trees through the top
of the windshield. Why? Because he was at the edge of V MC and raised the gear, which
increased VMC costing him control of the aircraft.
The Part 23 test and certification process described above show us that the airplane is
always configured following very specific conditions (the worst most probable conditions)
in order to define this “Red Radial” or VMC.
Let’s imagine now that for some reason, the test pilot would not have configured the
airplane as required by §23.149 when trying to define the V MC. He would probably have
come up with a different value than the published VMC for that airplane.
The catch is that as pilots when encountering the engine failure we do not always fly our
airplane in the specific conditions required by §23.149. This is why it is important to
understand how would this affect our actual VMC.
The following is a description of the main factors affecting VMC...
 Factors affecting VMC:
Based on the conditions of certification described in §23.149 of the FARs, we can

then defined a list of the main factors affecting VMC…
Propeller condition: Windmilling or Feathered

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Critical engine
Power condition on operative engine
Density Altitude
Location of the center of gravity (C.G.)
Flaps condition
Landing gear position
Sideslip condition
Weight
Before starting the explanation of each one of these factors and how they affect VMC,
it is important to understand the following principle.
The asymmetrical thrust created by the loss of one of the engines induces a yawing
tendency, which induces as well a rolling tendency towards the inoperative engine.
This yawing tendency or yawing moment can be explained by the law of lever.
Each force applied away from the center of gravity creates a moment. This moment
can be defined by the product of this force and the distance separating its application
point to the center of gravity (i.e. Arm).
LAW OF LEVER:
FORCE x ARM = MOMENT
Therefore, the yawing tendency is equal to the product of thrust and the thrust arm
(see figure 1-16).
To counteract this yawing tendency and keep directional control, the rudder has to be
deflected in the opposite direction.
This deflection of the rudder, along with the aerodynamic pressures created by the
airflow generates a rudder force, which associated with the arm of the rudder will
create a counteracting moment.
The amount of counteracting moment created is directly related to the amount of

airflow striking the rudder surface.
In other words, the more airspeed, the more airflow, the more rudder force therefore
the more counteracting moment. Directional control is reached when the
counteracting moment equals the yawing moment. The minimum airspeed at which
the airplane becomes directionally controllable is then defined as VMC.
Fig. 1-16: Yawing Moment vs Counter-Acting Moment

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Counter-Acting
Moment
Yawing
Moment
Rudder Force
Vertical Axis
Rudder Arm
Thrust Arm
C.G.
Lateral Axis
Thrust
Longitudinal Axis
Propeller condition: Windmilling Versus Feathered
Propeller Windimiling
When an engine fails in flight, the movement of the airplane through the air tends
to keep the propeller rotating, much like a windmill.
Since the failed engine is no longer delivering power to the propeller to produce
thrust but instead, may be absorbing energy to overcome friction and compression
of the engine, the drag of the windmilling propeller is then significant. This causes
an increase in the tendency of the airplane to yaw toward the failed engine by
adding an additional moment to the existing yawing moment created by the
asymmetrical thrust.
To counteract this increase in the yawing tendency, additional rudder force is now
required to produce the proper counteracting moment, which will bring directional
stability.
If maximum rudder deflection is already being applied, only an increase of the
amount of airflow will induce an increase in the rudder force. This only means that
in order to reach directional stability airspeed has to be increased. In other words,
VMC increases. See figure 1-17.

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Fig. 1-17: Propeller Windmilling versus Propeller Feathered
Propeller Windmilling Propeller Feathered
Propeller Feathered
Most multi-engine airplanes are equipped with “full-feathering propellers” to

eliminate the parasite drag and therefore minimize the yawing tendency induced
by the propeller windmilling in the case of an engine failure.
In this feathered position, the blades act as powerful brakes to assist engine
friction and compression in stopping the windmilling rotation of the propeller. This
is of particular advantage in case of damaged engine, since even further damage
may be caused by a windmilling propeller.
The blades of a feathering propeller may be positioned by the pilot to such a high
angle that they are streamlined in the direction of flight.
This causes a decrease in the tendency of the airplane to yaw toward the failed
engine by removing the additional moment to the existing yawing moment created
by the asymmetrical thrust.
Less rudder force is now required to produce the proper counteracting moment,
which means that a lower airspeed will create the sufficient amount of airflow to
maintain directional stability.
In other words, VMC decreases. See figure 1-17.
Factor Increase in VMC  Decrease in VMC 

Propeller Condition Propeller Windmilling Propeller Feathered

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Critical Engine
The Critical Engine is the engine whose failure will most adversely affect the
airplane’s directional control.
In other words, if the critical engine fails VMC will be higher than if the non-critical
engine had failed.
On most US Conventional light twin-engine airplanes, the critical engine is usually
the left engine. But generally, the notion of critical engine can be determined
through the following factors:
 P-Factor (or Asymmetrical Propeller Loading)
 Accelerated Slipstream
 Spiraling Slipstream
 Torque Reaction
P-Factor
The P-factor determines the critical engine because at low airspeeds and therefore
high angles of attack, the down-going blade causes the center of thrust to be
displaced to the right of the propeller shaft (see paragraph 1-b of this chapter).
For a US conventional twin-engine airplane, if the left engine fails, and the airplane
is flying at high angle of attack, the distance from the longitudinal axis to the thrust
line of the live engine (right engine) increases due to the P-factor. In other words,
the thrust arm increases which in turns, according to the law of lever, increases
the yawing moment. This increase in yawing moment requires an increase in
counteracting moment to maintain directional control. This means more rudder
force, and therefore more airflow striking the rudder. VMC increases.
Inversely, if the right engine fails, and the airplane is flying at high angle of attack,
the distance from the longitudinal axis to the thrust line of the live engine (left
engine) decreases due to the P-factor. If now the thrust arm decreases, the
yawing moment decreases, which means that less rudder force is required to
maintain directional control. Therefore VMC decreases. See figure 1-18.
Fig. 1-18: Effect of P-factor
In this specific case, the critical engine is by definition the left engine.
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Accelerated Slipstream
Accelerated slipstream is a factor that comes in conjunction with P-factor. As the

airplane (a conventional twin-engine airplane) is flying at higher angles of attack
and the line of thrust due to the P-factor is being displaced to the right for each
powerplants, so is the accelerated slipstream. This situation results in an
asymmetrical distribution of the lift resultants along the wings plan form (see figure
1-19), where the resultant of lift on the right wing originates at a point further to the
right of the longitudinal axis when the resultant of lift on the left wing is now closer
to the longitudinal axis.
Fig. 1-19: Effect of Accelerated Slipstream in

conjunction with P-factor
 Induced Airflow (low angle of attack)
 Distribution of Lift (low angle of attack)
Increase in Rolling Moment

 Induced Airflow (higher angle of attack)
 Distribution of Lift (higher angle of
attack)
Additionally, we have seen that in the event of an engine failure there is an

immediate reduction in lift on the side of the failed engine due to the sudden

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reduction in induced airflow over the wing, which in turns generates a rolling
moment towards the “dead engine”.
For a US conventional twin-engine airplane, if the left engine fails, and the airplane
is flying at high angle of attack, the increased distance between the originating
point of the lift resultant on the right wing and the airplane’s longitudinal axis
increases in turn its the rolling moment. This increase in rolling moment requires
an increase in counteracting moment to maintain directional control. This means
more rudder force, and therefore more airflow striking the rudder. V MC increases.
Inversely, if the right engine fails, and the airplane is flying at high angle of attack,
the distance from the longitudinal axis to the thrust line of the live engine (left
engine) decreases due to the P-factor. If now the thrust arm decreases, the
yawing moment decreases, which means that less rudder force is required to
maintain directional control. Therefore VMC decreases. See figure 1-18.
Spiraling Slipstream
As described previously in paragraph 1-b, most of the spiraling (or helical)

slipstream misses the vertical tail. However, because it spreads out on its way
from the engine to the tail area, some fraction of the spiraling slipstream does
manage to hit the tail. The effect may be large or small, depending on the size and
shape of the airplane, the amount of power output and the airspeed.
Usually, for a US conventional twin-engine airplane, most of the spiraling
slipstream hitting the tail area originates from the left engine.
If the right engine fails, the spiraling slipstream coming from the left engine still hits
the tail surfaces, pushing the tail to the right, which tends to counteract the yawing
tendency generated by the left engine.
Inversely, if the left engine fails most of the spiraling slipstream which was hitting
the tail disappears. With no counteracting tendency being generated by the
spiraling slipstream of the operating engine, the airplane would tend then to loose
directional control at a higher airspeed. VMC increases.
Torque Reaction
As we discussed previously in paragraph 1-b of this chapter, torque reaction (or

torque effect) refers to the tendency of an aircraft to rotate in a direction opposite
to the rotation of the propeller.

REVISION: R-1
In a conventional twin, propellers turn clockwise,

which in terms of torque effect is then translated
into a tendency for the airplane to roll to the left or
counter-clockwise (see figure 1-6).
Fig. 1-6: Effects of torque
If the right engine fails, the asymmetrical distribution of lift due to the loss of that
engine will generate a rolling moment to the right. The tendency for the airplane to
roll to the left due to the torque reaction tends to counteract the rolling tendency
generated by the loss of the engine. This condition tends to reduce the V MC.
Inversely, if the left engine fails, the combined effects of the asymmetrical
distribution of lift due to the loss of that engine and torque on the operating engine
will generate a more important rolling moment. This condition tends to increase
VMC.
In conclusion, the critical engine is usually the left engine (for a US conventional
twin engine airplane at least) and the loss of that engine will always generate an
increase in VMC.

Critical Engine Loss of Critical Engine Loss of Non-Critical Engine
Remark:
Some multiengine airplanes, like the Beechcraft BE-76 Duchess are equipped with
engines turning in opposite directions; that is, the left engine and propeller turn
clockwise and the right engine and propeller turn counterclockwise. With this
arrangement, the thrust line of either engine is the same distance from the
centerline of the fuselage, so there will be no difference in yaw effect between the
losses of left or right engine. In this case, there is not an engine designated as
critical.

REVISION: R-1
Power Condition on the Operating Engine
According to the law of lever, the yawing tendency or yawing moment that follows
the loss of an engine is equal to the product of thrust generated by the operating
powerplant and the thrust arm.
Since thrust is directly proportional to the amount of power (thrust horsepower)

generated by the engine for a given airspeed, an increase in power will generate
an increase in thrust and therefore the yawing moment will increase. See figure 1-
20.
To counteract the additional yawing moment created by the increase in power

input on the operating engine and maintain directional control of the airplane,
additional rudder force is now required. The increase of rudder force, in
conjunction with the rudder arm will generate an additional counteracting moment.
To obtain sufficient rudder force more airflow needs to strike the rudder, thus V MC
increases.
Additionally, if power is reduced on the operating engine, the yawing moment now
decreases. Less counteracting moment is required, which means also less rudder
force. VMC decreases.
Fig. 1-20: Power Condition on the Operating Engine –

High Power versus Low Power Setting
ADDITIONAL YAWING MOMENT

CREATED BY INCREASE IN POWER
YAWING MOMENT YAWING MOMENT

CREATED BY THRUST CREATED BY THRUST
THRUST THRUST
THRUST ARM THRUST ARM

CG CG
RUDDER ARM ADDITIONAL COUNTERACTING RUDDER ARM

MOMENT
COUNTERACTING MOMENT COUNTERACTING MOMENT
RUDDER FORCE RUDDER FORCE
Low Power High Power

Power Condition on
High Power Setting Low Power Setting
Operating Engine
REVISION: R-1
Density Altitude
Power (or more specifically thrust horsepower) is a function of density altitude: the
higher the density altitude the less power is produced by the engine and therefore
the less thrust is generated.
In conjunction to the effect of the power condition on the operating engine

described previously, we can deduct that, for a given power setting, an increase of
density altitude will then decrease the amount of power generated by the operating
engine and therefore lower our VMC.
Inversely, a decrease of density altitude with the same power setting on the
operating engine, will increase the amount of power produced by this engine and
therefore increase our VMC. See figure 1-21.
Fig. 1-21: Density Altitude –

High Density Altitude versus Low Density Altitude
ADDITIONAL YAWING MOMENT

CREATED BY INCREASE IN POWER
FOLLOWING A DECREASE IN DENSITY ALTITUDE

THRUST THRUST

CG CG

MOMENT
High Density Altitude Low Density Altitude

Density Altitude Low Density Altitude High Density Altitude
Critical Density Altitude
The indicated airspeed at which the aircraft stalls is nominally constant for a given
weight and configuration of the airplane in level flight.
In this specific case we are looking at our single-engine power on stall speed
(clean configuration), this indicated stall speed does not change with density
altitude and can be represented by a straight line on a graph.
REVISION: R-1
If we plot the same graph the curve showing variation of V MC in relation to density
altitude, we can see that at a certain density altitude the curve intersects the
straight line that represents our single-engine power on stall speed. See figure 1-
22. Beyond this density altitude, the stalling speed is higher than V MC.
The significance of this, is that if we are slowing down with an engine failure and
full power on the operating engine above this density altitude, we may think we
have a safe margin above VMC and we have but we could end up stalling with full
power on one engine, almost full rudder deflection and the other engine
windmilling (or feathered) which could lead us into spin.
This density altitude is called then the Critical Density Altitude.

Fig. 1-22: Critical Density Altitude
For this reason, when practicing VMC Demonstrations at higher altitudes, recovery
should be initiated promptly when directional control cannot be maintained or at
the first indication of a stall.
Additionally, to reduce the accident potential from loss of directional control and
stall/spin situations after engine cuts at or near minimum control speed, the FAA
and the airplane manufacturer have defined VSSE as being the minimum intentional
single-engine speed. This speed lies at or above our indicated single-engine
power on stall speed and should be use as a reference for defining our critical
density altitude when not provided in the Airplane Flight Manual (AFM) or the
Pilot’s Operating Handbook. (POH).

REVISION: R-1
CG Location
According to the law of lever, the yawing tendency or yawing moment that follows
the loss of an engine is equal to the product of thrust generated by the operating
powerplant and the thrust arm.
Yawing Moment = Thrust x Thrust Arm
To counteract this yawing tendency and keep directional control, the rudder has to
be deflected in the opposite direction.
This deflection of the rudder, along with the aerodynamic pressures created by the
airflow generates a rudder force, which associated with the arm of the rudder will
create a counteracting moment.
Counteracting Moment = Rudder Force x Rudder Arm
The amount of counteracting moment created is directly related to the amount of

airflow striking the rudder surface. In other words, the more airspeed, the more
airflow, the more rudder force therefore the more counteracting moment.
Directional control is reached when the counteracting moment equals the yawing
moment. The minimum airspeed at which the airplane becomes directionally
controllable is then defined as VMC.
If the CG is shifting aft, the amount of rudder arm is now decreased as well. In
order to maintain directional control, the rudder force as to be increased in since it
has to overcome the decrease in rudder arm.
Therefore VMC increases. See figure 1-23.
When the CG is shifting forward, the thrust arm is now decreasing and the rudder
arm is increased. Less rudder force will now be required to overcome the yawing
moment since it now has more “power” with a longer arm and the yawing tendency
has decreased in intensity with the decrease in the thrust arm on the operating
engine.
VMC decreases.
In conclusion, VMC increases with an Aft CG location and decreases with a

Forward CG.

CG Location Aft C.G. Forward C.G.

REVISION: R-1
Fig. 1-23: CG Location

THRUST THRUST

CG CG
CG

MOMENT
Forward CG Aft CG
Flaps Configuration
As we discussed previously, one characteristic of multi-engine airplanes with wing-

mounted engines is that a substantial amount of airflow is being generated by the
propeller slipstream in the vicinity of the engine nacelles. This additional airflow is
called induced airflow or accelerated slipstream.
Additionally, on most light twins, the flaps are usually located behind the engine
nacelles, and therefore will also receive a substantial additional amount of airflow
due to the accelerated slipstream.
In the event of one engine becoming (suddenly) inoperative, only the wing
supporting the operating engine is now getting that accelerated slipstream.
When the flaps are being lowered, due to the asymmetrical distribution of
accelerated slipstream, the flap located on the wing supporting the operating
engine is being stroke by a much larger amount of airflow than the other flap is.
Since the flaps, when lowered to their full down position, do tend to produce more
drag than lift; this situation will generate a condition of asymmetrical drag where
more drag will be created by the flap located behind the operating engine than the
flap located behind the inoperative engine.

REVISION: R-1
This asymmetrical distribution of

drag generates a moment that
tends to oppose the yawing
moment created by the thrust on
the operating engine. This
additional counter-acting moment
adds up to the counter-acting
moment developed by the rudder
force. The result of this is that less
rudder force is now required to
balance the yawing moment, thus
less airflow on the rudder. VMC
decreases. See figure 1-24.
If we raise the flaps to their up

position, we loose the benefit of
that asymmetrical drag and
therefore VMC increases.
Fig. 1-24: Effect of Flaps
Effect of Flaps on P-factor
An other effect of lowering the flaps is that it decreases the amount of P-factor
generated on conventional twins.
When flaps are lowered, the chord

line changes following the change of
camber being created.
Also, as we lower the flaps, the
airplane tends to seek the airspeed it
was trimmed for and thus will tend to
maintain the same angle of attack it
had. See figures 1-25 and 1-26.
Fig. 1-25: Flaps Up

REVISION: R-1
Fig. 1-26: Flaps Down
This combination results in the fact

that with wing-mounted engines, the
axis of the engine is being lowered,
which in turns reduces the angle of
attack of the down-going blade
hence less P-factor.
On a conventional twin, if the critical engine becomes (suddenly) inoperative, and

the flaps are being lowered, less P-factor is now generated by the down-going
blade of the operative engine. This condition reduces also VMC.

Flaps Configuration Flaps Up Flaps Down
Landing Gear Position
In the event of one engine becoming (suddenly) inoperative, as the landing gear is
lowered, it affects the airplane’s lateral and directional stability to some extent.
The impact of this change of configuration depends highly on the actual design of
the airplane, its landing gear and the direction of movement of that same landing
gear when extended or retracted.
The general idea is that the extension of the landing gear contributes in an
increase of directional control at a lower airspeed, thus a decrease in VMC.
This contribution is due to two main effects:
The Keel effect, which acts in regards to the lateral stability of the airplane
The Fin Effect, which acts in regards to the directional stability of the airplane.

REVISION: R-1
The Keel Effect
Generally speaking, most high wing airplanes are laterally stable simply because
the wings are attached in a high position on the fuselage and because the weight
is therefore low. When the airplane is disturbed and one wing dips, the weight acts
as a pendulum returning the airplane to its original attitude.
Respectively, on our multi-engine airplane,

when the landing gear is lowered, the Center
of Gravity shifts down as well. The relative
distance in between, the center of pressure
and the CG is therefore increased. As the
airplane tends to roll towards the “dead
engine” due to the asymmetric distribution of
lift on its wings (see figure 1-12), the weight
acts also as a pendulum trying to return the
airplane to its original attitude and
counteracting to some extent the rolling
moment that follows the engine failure (see
figure 1-27).
Fig. 1-27: Keel Effect
The Fin Effect
An airplane has the tendency always to fly head-on into the relative airflow. This
tendency which might be described as weather vaning is directly attributable to the
vertical tail fin and to some extent also the vertical side areas of the fuselage.
If the airplane yaws away from its course, the airflow strikes the vertical tail surface
from the side and forces it back to its original line of flight. In order for the tail
surfaces to function properly in this weather vaning capacity, the side area of the
airplane aft of the center of gravity must be greater than the side area of the
airplane forward of the C.G. If it were otherwise, the airplane would tend to rotate
about its vertical axis.
On a conventional twin-engine airplane with a common tricycle retractable landing

gear, the natural tendency of the airplane is also to “weather vane” into its relative
airflow for the same reasons described above.
REVISION: R-1
In the event of an engine failure, we can use rudder pressure to prevent the yaw
associated with the loss of that engine and we can maintain the wings level with
aileron. This is called the wings-level method, but the airplane is purposely set in a
sideslip condition. This method works but we are not making best use of our
control power, as the rudder has to fight against the directional stability generated
through the fin effect (In this case the natural tendency of the airplane is to
“weather vane” towards the relative wind, which would generate an additional
tendency to yaw towards the inoperative engine).
Fig. 1-28: Fin Effect
When lowering the landing gear, extra vertical surfaces are being added to our
airplane (landing gears, gear doors, wheels). The main gear does not affect the
existing fin effect due to its relative position to the C.G. but the nose gear, once
deployed, creates an additional side area forward of the C.G. which in turns
decreases the fin effect or weather vaning tendency of the airplane. Since the
airplane tends less to yaw into the relative wind and therefore the inoperative
engine, more rudder power is now available (see figure 1-28).

Landing Gear Position Landing Gear Up Landing Gear Down

REVISION: R-1
Sideslip Condition
In the event of an engine failure, we can use rudder pressure to prevent the yaw
associated with the loss of that engine and we can maintain the wings level with
aileron. This is called the wings-level method.
When the airplane is flying with wings level, and the ball is centered, the
combination of the thrust force on the live engine and the rudder force will
generate a sideslip towards the dead engine (see fig. 1-29).
Fig. 1-29: Sideslip (Wings level)
 Forces Creating Sideslip

 Direction of Flight
 Relative Wind
In this case, the natural tendency of the

airplane is to “weather vane” towards the
relative wind, which generates an additional
tendency of the airplane to yaw towards the
inoperative wind. This tendency is best
described as the fin effect. See figure 1-30.

REVISION: R-1
Then again, this method works but we are

not making best use of our control power,
as the rudder has to fight against the
inherent directional stability created through
the fin effect. In other words, more rudder
force is required to maintain directional
control, therefore VMC increases.
Fig. 1-30: Sideslip and Fin Effect
If we could find a way to get rid of the sideslip condition, we could then maximize the
use of our rudder and therefore decrease VMC.
It appears that the source of this sideslip is the rudder force. Removing that force by
relaxing the pressure on the rudder would only aggravate the situation and cause the
lost of our directional control.
The idea then is to generate an additional force that would counteract the “side effect
of the rudder force.
If we create now a slight bank towards the live engine, with rudder against the yaw.
due to the weight being shifted in relation to the vertical and lateral axis of the
airplane, we generate a horizontal componant: the horizontal component of weight.
See figure 1-31.
Fig. 1-31: Bank towards the Operating Engine
 Forces Creating Sideslip  Direction of Flight

Horizontal Component of
 Weight  Relative Wind

REVISION: R-1
This component balances the action of the rudder force

which causes the sideslip: there is now zero sideslip. This
condition of zero sideslip results in an increase in rudder
effectiveness and therefore a decrease in VMC.
It is called the angle of bank method or zero sideslip method

and offers the best performance. The maximum
recommended bank is generally around 5° (see fig. 1-32).
Finally, it is possible to increase the bank into the live engine,

which will contribute to an increase in directional control (V MC
decreasing). Unfortunatelly, this situation will create a
sideslip into the live engine, which causes a significant
reduction in the vertical component of the lift and so requires
a higher angle of attack. (see fig. 1-33).
Fig. 1-32: Zero

sideslip condition
Fig. 1-33: More than 5° of Bank into the live engine

 Horizontal Component of Weight
 Relative Wind
 Drag
Additionally, because ailerons have to be deflected further to maintain this

condition, this creates an additional amount of aileron drag.
REVISION: R-1
Too much bank into the live engine may also create a condition of possible cross-
control stall due to the large blanketed area of the wing supporting the dead
engine and the increased angle of attack (too much sideslip angle).
There is also a risk of rudder stall. The rudder is an airfoil and as such can be
stalled if its angle of attack is too great. In this case, the angle of sideslip defines
that specific angle of attack. At about 16° of sideslip, it will stall just like a wing and
directional control will be lost (See Fig. 1-34).
Fig. 1-34: Rudder Stall
This situation is to be avoided since it offers the greatest loss of performance and
could be risky if too much sideslip angle was to be used. In some aircraft the roll
due to the yaw in a condition of assymetrical thrust is so pronounced that the pilot
perceives the roll before any noticeble yaw rate can develop and reacts to it by
deflecting the ailerons further and then by applying rudder pressure as the yawing
tendency starts to develop. This last situation would definitely create a rudder stall
and control would be lost.
Sideslip towards the Sideslip towards the operating
Sideslip Condition
inoperative engine engine
Weight
Fig. 1-35: Components of Weight
 Weight
 Horizontal and Vertical Components of Weight

REVISION: R-1
Weight has no effect on VMC when the wings are level. Since weight always
acts downward toward the center of the earth, when we bank the airplane into the
operative engine, we can break the weight into two components as shown above
in figures 1-35 and 1-36. One of these components acts down the wing toward the
operative engine. This horizontal component of the weight has 2 main purposes:
1. It helps to prevent the airplane to sideslip towards the inoperative engine
and therefore to generate a zero sideslip condition which is adding
directional controllability as we saw earlier.
2. It helps to overcome some of the yaw caused by the assymetrical thrust
condition. With this added help from the component, the rudder doesn’t
have to work as hard, therefore increasing also our directional
controllability.
As we increase weight, we increase its horizontal component acting toward the

operating engine hence more effective rudder is available to control the airplane.
Therefore ,as weight increases, VMC decreases.
Fig. 1-36: Effect of Increase in Weight

 Weight
 Horizontal and Vertical Components of Weight
 Increase in Weight

REVISION: R-1
Additionally, as weight is increased, the

moment generated by the weight tends to
counteract the rolling moment generated
by the asymetrical distribution of lift that
follows the engine failure therefore more
effective aileron is available to prevent the
airplane to roll towards the inoperative
engine (see figure 1-37).
Fig. 1-37: Effect of Weight versus Rolling Moment

Weight Decreased Gross Weight Increased Gross Weight

REVISION: R-1
In Conclusion:
We can summarize in a table the main factors that affect VMC and their effects.
Factors affecting VMC – Summary Table:

Propeller Condition Propeller Windmilling Propeller Feathered
Critical Engine Loss of Critical Engine Loss of Non-Critical Engine

Power Condition on Operating
High Power Setting Low Power Setting
Engine
Density Altitude Low Density Altitude High Density Altitude
C.G. Location Aft C.G. Forward C.G.
Flaps Configuration Flaps Up Flaps Down
Landing Gear Position Landing Gear Up Landing Gear Down
Sideslip towards the inoperative Sideslip towards the operating

Sideslip Condition
engine engine
Weight Condition Decreased Gross Weight Increased Gross Weight

REVISION: R-1
THIS PAGE
IS
INTENTIONALLY
LEFT
BLANK

REVISION: R-1
2. Climb Performance Considerations

(a) Multi-Engine Climb Performance – All Engines Operating
The unique characteristics of an aircraft, compared to a land-based vehicle, is that it can
move in a third dimension. That dimension is vertical to the surface of the earth. The
performance of the airplane in that dimension is, therefore, an important mark of the
achievement of its intended purpose.
Vertical motion away from the surface is referred to as a climb. How well the airplane
performs in this direction is usually determined by its rate or its angle of climb.
Maximum climb performance in a multi-engine airplane is not a result of excess lift as one
may think, but the result of excess power (more precisely, thrust horsepower) and/or thrust.
The rate of climb is a function of thrust horsepower, while the angle of climb is a function of
thrust.
Back to Basics
In order to understand the behavior of the airplane in climbing, it is first necessary to discuss
drag, thrust and power and their relationship.
(4) Drag
Aerodynamic drag is the resistance of the air, which tends to retard the airplane in forward
flight. For a low-speed airplane (below Mach 0.7) there are two major types of drag:
Parasite Drag
Induced Drag
 Parasite Drag:
Parasite drag is the resistance of any body to the air through which it is moving. Since
parasite drag is caused by the dynamic pressure of the air, and dynamic pressure
(PD) is proportional to the square velocity (PD=½ρv², where ρ stands for the density of
the air), it follows that parasite drag is also proportional to the square of velocity .
DParasite=K1v²
 Induced Drag:
Induced drag is an entirely different type of drag and applies only to the wing and the
surfaces that create lift.
Induced Drag is proportional to the downwash generated by the wing moving through
the air and this increases at high angles of attack associated with low speeds. It
actually works out that induced drag is inversely proportional to the square of velocity.
K2
DInduced=
v²

REVISION: R-1
 Total Drag:
In Figure 2-1, the plot of drag versus velocity (airspeed) shows these opposite trends
for parasite and induced drag. The total drag is the sum of parasite and induced and
results in the characteristic curve as shown. This curve represents a plot of the drag
equations:
K2
DTotal = DParasite+ DInduced = K1v² +
v²
Notice that the minimum of amount of total drag is generated at one airspeed only, the
best glide speed.
Fig. 2-1
(5) Thrust and Power Required
 Thrust Required:
Drag, then, represents the force that must be overcome by the thrust of the
powerplants. In other words, the amount of thrust required to maintain level flight in
our multi-engine airplane is equal to the amount of drag generated by that same
airplane at any given speeds:
K2
Thrust Required= DTotal = K1v² +
v²
This is why a typical curve representing the amount of thrust required is identical to
the one representing the amount of total drag (see Fig. 2-1).

REVISION: R-1
 Power Required:
Power is by definition equal to a force times a velocity. Thus, the power required to
overcome the amount of drag generated by our airplane is equal to the thrust required
multiplied by velocity.
K2
Power Required = Thrust Required x Velocity (v) = K1v³ +
v
When plotted, this equation yields a typical curve, commonly known as the power
curve. This curve represents the power that is required at any speed to maintain
steady, level flight (see fig. 2-2).
Remark: Power required is usually expressed in units of horsepower and therefore results in the same equation as provided
above except that the constants K1 and K2 have different values.
Fig. 2-2: Power Curve

Notice that the point of minimum drag
versus velocity can be identified on
this chart by drawing a tangent from
the origin of the chart axis to the
power curve. This point represents
the maximum range speed and
power required. Additionally, the
maximum endurance is obtained at
the very lowest point on the power
curve. This speed is usually
significantly lower than the maximum
range speed.
(6) Thrust and Power Available
 Power Available:
Whether the airplane can fly at a certain value of power required depends on whether
that power is available for the powerplant(s). The amount of power that can be
obtained by obtained from the powerplant(s) is termed power available. For any given
engine(s), this power can be varied with the throttle(s) and the propeller(s) pitch
settings. As well, the power available at a given setting will decrease with an increase
in density altitude.
For propeller-driven airplanes, with normally aspirated reciprocating engines (not

turbocharged), the power available is equal to the propeller efficiency times the
engine brake horsepower. Since power available is the amount of power that does
finally get converted into thrust it is referred also as thrust horsepower available.
Power (or Thrust horsepower) Available = Propeller Efficiency x Engine Brake Horsepower
Remark: If the engine is geared down to a lower speed at the propeller shaft, the power generated there at the propeller shaft is
called shaft horsepower and is relatively less than the engine brake horsepower if gearing is employed due to frictional losses.
For direct drive engines, however shaft horsepower is the same as engine brake horsepower.
REVISION: R-1
The propeller acts basically like a wing in creating lift. Its “lift”
vector however is pointed generally forward and the “lift” force
that it creates thus becomes thrust.
Since the propeller has an airfoil section and works like a
wing, it also creates drag. Hence some power is lost to the
drag of the propeller. The propeller will work most efficiently at
its maximum L/D ratio. The propeller, however, is moving
through the air at a forward velocity equal to the airplane, and
also at a relatively high rotational velocity (see fig. 2-3).
Various combinations of forward and rotational speeds give
different L/D ratios to the propeller, and consequently,
different values of efficiency.
Fig. 2-3
Fig. 2-4
A typical propeller efficiency chart (see fig. 2-4)

shows that up to a point, higher forward speeds
will increase the propeller efficiency. Past that
point the propeller efficiency decreases due to
the increase in its effective angle of attack. If the
propeller pitch can be varied, as with constant-
speed propellers, the peak of efficiency can be
maintained over a longer range of forward
speeds.
Since the brake horsepower (or shaft horsepower) is always a fixed value for a given
density altitude and power setting, the power available for thrust (or thrust
horsepower) varies proportionally to the way the propeller efficiency varies. Therefore
thrust horsepower available when plotted against forward velocity has the same
shape as the propeller efficiency curve. Such power is variable from zero up to the
maximum capacity of the engine(s) depending on the throttle(s) settings. Therefore,
the usual representation of the power available corresponds to the maximum power
available.
 Thrust Available:
Since the power available on a propeller-driven airplane with reciprocating, normally-
aspirated engines is easier to determine than the thrust generated by the
powerplants, and since power is always equal to a force times a velocity, thrust
available can be determined by dividing the power available by the velocity.
Power Available
Thrust Available =
Velocity
REVISION: R-1
A typical thrust available curve will show a decrease in thrust available with an
increase in airspeed (see fig. 2-5).
Fig. 2-5: Thrust Available
Rate of Climb
The airplane’s ability to climb at its best rate depends on the excess thrust horsepower
available over that required. If the maximum power available is plotted on the same chart as
the power required, the excess power available can easily be seen (see fig. 2-6). The excess
power is the difference between maximum power available and power required at any given
speed.
The rate of climb is directly proportional to the excess power. The maximum excess power
occurs at the velocity for best rate of climb, designated as VY.
At speeds both above and below VY, the

rate of climb will decrease. Where the
curves cross, the excess power becomes
zero and climb is not possible beyond
that speed. The airplane has reached is
maximum forward speed for straight and
level flight.
Fig. 2-6: Power Available Versus Power Required

REVISION: R-1
Angle of Climb
The airplane’s ability to climb at its best angle depends on the excess thrust available over
that required. If the maximum thrust available is plotted on the same chart as the thrust
required, the excess thrust available can easily be seen (see fig. 2-7). The excess thrust is
the difference between maximum thrust available and thrust required at any given speed.
The angle of climb is directly proportional to the excess thrust. The maximum excess thrust
occurs at the velocity for best angle of climb, designated as VX.
Fig. 2-7: Thrust Available Versus Thrust Required
Notice that the thrust available curve shows that propeller thrust is the highest at low
airspeeds and decrease as airspeed increases. The maximum excess thrust is, therefore,
available at an airspeed very close to the stall speed.

REVISION: R-1
Factors affecting climb performance

(1) Airspeed
Airspeed affects both the angle and the rate of climb. At a given airplane weight, a specific
airspeed is required for maximum performance. Generally, the larger the speed variation
from that required, the larger the performance variation.
(2) Weight
Weight also affects climb performance> A change in weight changes the drag and the power
required. Increases in weight reduce the maximum rate and angle of climb.
(3) Density Altitude
Increases in density altitude generally have the greatest effect on climb performance.
At higher density altitudes the maximum power and thrust available will decrease and the
power and thrust required curves will be altered because of changes in drag. Therefore, the
excess power and thrust becoming less, both rate and angle of climb will decrease (see
figures 2-8 and 2-9).
Fig. 2-8: Effects of Density Altitude on the best angle of climb speed

REVISION: R-1
Fig. 2-9: Effects of Density Altitude on the best rate of climb speed
Additionally, notice that the airspeed necessary to obtain the maximum angle of climb (V X)
increases with altitude, while the airspeed for best rate of climb (VY) decreases.
The point where these two airspeeds converge is referred

as the airplane’s absolute ceiling; neither excess nor
thrust is available to produce a climb. At the absolute
ceiling, the rate of climb becomes zero, and only one
airspeed results in steady, level flight (see fig. 2-10).
The service ceiling is the density altitude at which the

airplane’s climb ability is reduced to 100 ft/min.
Fig. 2-10: Absolute Ceiling

REVISION: R-1
(4) Drag
Finally, since both thrust and power required depend on the amount of drag generated by
the airplane, any increase in drag (such as in turns, the position of the landing gear and/or
the flaps, condition of sideslip, etc.) will decrease the amount of excess thrust and power
available over that required and thus will decrease the climb performance.
(b) Multi-Engine Climb Performance – One Engine Inoperative

The major difference between flying a twin-engine and a single-engine airplane is to know
how to manage the flight if one engine loses power for any reason. Safe flight with one
engine-out requires an understanding of the basic aerodynamics involved, the type of
performance to be expected, as well as proficiency in engine-out procedures.
Loss of power from one engine affects both controllability and performance of any light twin.
Flying a light twin with one engine becoming suddenly inoperative becomes a balancing act
between maintaining proper control of the airplane and obtaining maximum performance. In
any case, the golden rule is to always maintain directional control but in more specific
scenarios, being able to understand the performance factors will ensure safer operations.
The Facts
Climb performance depends on an excess of power over that required for level flight. Loss of
power from one engine obviously represents a 50% loss of power, but in virtually all light
twins, climb performance is reduced by at least 80%.
Fig. 2-11

REVISION: R-1
For example, let’s imagine that a light twin with both engines rated at 180hp (at sea level),
therefore a combined available power of 360hp, requires a combined power of 140hp just to
maintain a specific speed in straight and level flight, the excess power for that airplane is
about 220hp with both engines operating.
Let’s imagine now that one engine becomes suddenly inoperative, the available power for
that plane drops from 360hp down to 180hp (50% loss of power). To maintain the same
airspeed, the airplane is still required to produce 140hp in straight-and-level flight, which
reduces the excess power to only 40hp. The climb performance of our airplane is now
reduced by approximately 82%.
Power Condition Power Available Power Required Excess Power Rate of Climb
2 Engines Operating 360hp (2x180hp) 140hp 220hp +1,861ft/mn
1 Engine Inoperative 180hp 140hp 40hp +338 ft/mn
Ratios  - 50% ± 0% - 82% - 82%
Remark: If you are interested in the math behind this, an approximate formula for the rate of climb is:
Excess horse power (ehp) x 33,000
Rate of Climb =
Gross Weight
The amount of power required for level flight depends on how much drag must be overcome
to sustain level flight. It is obvious, that if drag is increased because the landing gear and/or
the flaps are down, the propeller is windmilling, or the airplane is in a bank, more power will
be required.
Not so obvious, however, is the fact that drag also
increases as the square of the airspeed while the
power required to maintain that speed increases as the
cube of that airspeed.
Fig. 2-12
In addition to this, available power is a function of airspeed and density altitude (at least on a
normally aspirated piston engine). If for example density altitude increases, the amount of
available power for a given airspeed will decrease meaning that the climb performance will
decrease (less excess power).
Finally, the lifting capability of an aircraft depends upon the airfoil design of the wing, the
speed at which the wing moves through the air, and the density of the air. It is the design of
the aircraft wing that limits the amount of available lift and it is the available power from the
engine(s) that likewise limits the speed at which the wing can be made to move through the
air. With a relatively high gross weight, an equal amount of lift is required to maintain the
airplane airborne. This only translates in more drag being generated therefore more power is
required in these conditions to maintain straight and level flight. Since again, climb
performance depends on an excess of power over that required for level flight, a higher
gross weight means more power required, less excess power therefore a lower climb rate.

REVISION: R-1
Thus, climb performance depends on 4 main factors:

 Airspeed – Too little or too much will decrease climb performance.
 Drag – Landing gear, flaps and cowl flaps position, propeller condition, sideslip
condition will affect climb performance.
 Power – amount available in excess of that needed for level flight.
 Weight – Passenger, baggage, cargo and fuel load greatly affect performance.
Maximizing the climb performance with one engine inoperative:

Remember, in any circumstances, control of the aircraft must be the first priority.
However, after gaining and maintaining control, we must consider the performance
consequences.
(1) Airspeed
Set the pitch attitude of the airplane to reach the best rate of climb speed with one engine
inoperative or VYSE. VYSE is that “magic” speed that will provide the maximum excess power
and therefore the best climb performance for your airplane. Once again, too little or too much
will decrease climb performance (see Fig. 2-11).
The published VYSE, which appears also as a blue radial on the airspeed indicator,
represents the best rate of climb speed with one engine inoperative at the airplane’s
maximum allowable gross weight under standard conditions of temperature and pressure at
sea level (15°C and 29.92 “ Hg). This is always a good target-airspeed to select, at least
initially. The fact is that VYSE, like VY, is a function of weight and density altitude. As density
altitude increases, VYSE decreases. Therefore, maximum climb performance can be achieved
by gently and carefully fine-tuning the pitch attitude of the airplane to reach the actual V YSE.
(2) Drag
Decrease as much as possible the amount of additional drag generated by the following
items.
 Drag from the “Dead Engine” (Propeller windmilling):
Drag from the dead engine contributes directly to the yawing moment but also to the
loss of climb performance. Drag from the windmilling propeller is very high. The
windmilling propeller is working in reverse. It is being driven by the relative airflow and
generating both drag and torque (to keep the propeller windmilling). The drag of a
windmilling propeller even exceeds the drag of a stationary propeller. When the
propeller is feathered the amount of drag generated by the propeller decreases
enormously therefore allowing better climb performance (see fig. 2-13 and 2-14).

REVISION: R-1
Fig. 2-13
Fig.2-14

REVISION: R-1
 Drag from the Cowl Flaps:

The cowl flaps directly increase drag but unlike flaps, they can be retracted
individually. Thus we can leave the cowl flap on the live engine open for cooling and
nursing and close the one on the failed engine. This will at least reduce the drag on
the “dead side” and possibly increase the climb performance slightly.
 Drag from the Extended Landing Gear:

The landing gear, when extended, symmetrically increases parasite drag and thus
directly affects the climb performance. Raising the landing gear will help to get rid off
the added parasite drag and therefore will contribute in the increase of climb
performance.
 Drag from the Extended Flaps:

Flap position affects total lift and drag, the nose down pitching moment and the
stalling speed. When fully extended, the flaps produce the most drag (both induced
and parasite). Carefully and slowly raising the flaps will help to get rid off the added
drag and therefore will contribute to a slow increase in climb performance. It is
important to understand that when raising the flaps to their up position, a nose up
pitching moment will appear as well as an increase in the stall speed, a decrease in
directional stability, and a decrease in lift. These conditions all combined could lead to
a catastrophic situation if control of the airplane is not the first priority. Actually, you
may initially expect a more important decrease in climb performance followed then by
a slow increase in climb performance.
For some light twins like the Beechcraft Duchess, there is no single-engine go-around
with the airplane in a full landing configuration (gear down, flaps down) on short final:
the increase in the rate of descent and the possible loss of altitude generated by
cleaning up the airplane when attempting a single-engine go-around would only get
you faster and closer to the scene of the accident.
 Drag in the Coordinated Turn:

REVISION: R-1
When in a level coordinated turn, the increase in load due to the bank condition
requires an increase in the amount of total lift generated by the airplane; that increase
in lift also results in an increase in induced drag. The more bank angle, the more drag
is generated therefore the more power is required to overcome this increase in drag
(see fig. 2-15 and 2-16). This results in less excess power available for the climb. To
increase single-engine climb performance, turns should be limited as much as
possible until the airplane has reached a safe altitude to return to the airport (except
to avoid obstructions). When it becomes necessary to perform a turn, use a bank
angle between 10° to 15° to minimize the loss of climb performance.
Fig. 2-15: Effects of Bank Angle on Load Factor, Stall Speed and Amount of Induced Drag.
PERCENTAGE
PERCENTAGE
BANK ANGLE LOAD INCREASE IN
INCREASE IN
(Degrees of Bank) FACTOR INDUCED DRAG
STALL SPEED
(At Constant Velocity)
0° 1.0000 0.0% 0.0%
5° 1.0038 0.2% 0.8%
10° 1.0154 0.7% 3.1%

15° 1.0353 1.7% 7.2%
20° 1.0642 3.2% 13.3%
25° 1.1034 5.0% 21.7%
30° 1.1547 7.5% 33.3%

35° 1.2208 10.5% 49.0%
40° 1.3054 14.3% 70.4%
45° 1.4142 18.9% 100.0%
60° 2.0000 41.4% 300.0%
Fig. 2-16

REVISION: R-1
 Drag from the Sideslip Condition:
When the airplane is flying with wings level, and the ball centered, the combined
thrust force on the live engine and the rudder force will generate a sideslip towards
the dead engine (see fig. 2-17). This sideslip generates a measurably high amount of
drag.
Fig. 2-17: Sideslip (Wings level)

 Relative Wind
 Drag due to Sideslip

REVISION: R-1
If we create now a slight bank towards the live engine, with rudder against the yaw,
due to the weight being shifted in relation to the vertical and lateral axis of the
airplane, we generate a horizontal componant: the horizontal component of weight.
This component balances the action of the rudder force which causes the sideslip:
there is now zero sideslip. This condition of zero sideslip results in minimum drag. It is
called the angle of bank method or zero sideslip method and offers the best
performance. The maximum recommended bank is generally around 5° (see fig. 2-
18).

REVISION: R-1
Fig. 2-18: Zero Sideslip

 Relative Wind
 Drag
Finally, it is possible to increase the bank into the live engine, which will contribute to
an increase in directional control (VMC decreasing). Unfortunatelly, this situation will
create a sideslip into the live engine, which will increase drastically the amount of drag
and therefore decrease greatly the climb performance (see fig. 2-19).
Additionally, because ailerons have to be deflected further to maintain this condition,

this creates an additional amount of aileron drag.
Too much bank into the live engine may also create a condition of possible cross-
control stall due to the large blanketed area of the wing supporting the dead engine
(too much sideslip angle).

REVISION: R-1
Fig. 9: More than 5° of Bank into the live engine

 Relative Wind
 Drag
There is also a risk of rudder stall. The rudder is an airfoil and as such can be stalled
if its angle of attack is too great. In this case, the angle of sideslip defines that specific
angle of attack. At about 16° of sideslip, it will stall just like a wing and directional
control will be lost (See Fig. 2-20).
Fig. 2-20: Rudder Stall
This situation is to be avoided since it offers the greatest loss of performance and
could be risky if too much sideslip angle was to be used. In some aircraft the roll due
to the yaw in a condition of assymetrical thrust is so pronounced that the pilot
perceives the roll before any noticeble yaw rate can develop and reacts to it by
deflecting the ailerons further and then by applying rudder pressure as the yawing

REVISION: R-1
tendency starts to develop. This last situation would definitely create a rudder stall
and control would be lost.
In conclusion, the pilot will have to fine tune the amount of bank angle in order to get
the best compromise between maintaining directional control of the aircraft and
optimizing the amount of climb performance (see fig. 2-21).
BEST
ZERO SIDESLIP
(APPROX 3° OF BANK)
CLIMB
PERFORMANCE
WINGS LEVEL
(CENTERED BALL)
WORST
MORE THAN 5° OF BANK

INTO OPERATIVE ENGINE
WORST ADEQUATE BEST
DIRECTIONAL
CONTROL
Fig. 2-21: Performance versus Directional Control at Various Bank Angles
In general, it appears that the best method is to first control and stop the yaw with the
rudder, and to pitch for a suitable airspeed and then seek the airplane’s best climb
performance by adjusting the amount of aileron input towards the live engine.

REVISION: R-1
(3) Power – amount available in excess of that required for level flight
Power can be defined as the product of thrust and airspeed. Climb performance depends on
the amount of power available in excess of that required for level flight. In other words, it is
depending upon the ratio of thrust to drag. If drag exceeds thrust, climb is not possible and
the best rate-of climb speed will provide the least rate of descent.
 Density Altitude:
Thrust is a function of density altitude: the higher the density altitude the less thrust is
available therefore the less climb performance can be generated.
Figure 2-22 illustrates the thrust available on the same airplane at sea level and at
15,000 feet. Any thrust and airspeed combination that falls within the shaded area
represents a positive rate of climb on one engine. Conversely, any point outside the
shaded area will produce a descent. At 15,000 ft., drag exceeds thrust and a positive
rate of climb cannot be established.
Fig. 2-22
 Humidity:
Although humidity is normally not included in density altitude computations and/or
aircraft performance charts, it should be noted that water vapor would decrease climb
performance. The rated horsepower of an engine is determined in dry air and
standard atmospheric conditions. For this reason, as water vapor increases, air
density decreases and the engine’s power output decreases. This power loss can
be as high as 7% when the relative humidity is 100%.
 Single-Engine Ceilings:
The operating altitudes of multi-engine airplanes are lowered considerable during
single-engine flight. The engine loss reduces both total power and thrust available and
corresponding reductions of service ceiling and absolute ceiling result.
Single-Engine Service Ceiling:

The single engine service ceiling is the maximum density altitude at which the single-
engine best rate of climb (VYSE) will produce a 50 ft/min rate of climb.

REVISION: R-1
The ability to climb 50 ft/min in calm air is necessary to maintain level flight for long
periods in turbulent air. This ceiling assumes the airplane is in the clean configuration,
the critical engine inoperative (if appropriate) and the propeller feathered.
Remark: In comparison, the multi-engine service ceiling is the maximum density altitude at which the best rate of climb
(VY) will produce a 100 ft/min rate of climb.
Single-Engine Absolute Ceiling:

The single-engine absolute ceiling is the maximum density altitude the airplane is
capable of attaining or maintaining. This is also the density altitude at which V XSE and
VYSE meet each other.
This ceiling assumes the airplane is in the clean configuration, the critical engine
inoperative (if appropriate) and the propeller feathered.
Figure 2-23 illustrates an engine failure at a cruising altitude above the single-engine
absolute ceiling. In this situation the aircraft will drift down to the density altitude
equivalent to the single-engine absolute ceiling appropriate to the existing gross
weight. In turbulent air, the airplane may not be capable of maintaining the single-
engine absolute ceiling and may continue to descend to the single-engine service
ceiling or even lower.
Fig. 2-23
(4) Weight
The climb performance can be improved greatly by reducing operating gross weights. As
example, a typical multi-engine airplane’s single-engine rate of climb at sea level may
increase from 230 ft/min at 4,000 lbs gross weight to 420 ft/min at 3,400 lbs.
At the same time, the single-engine service ceiling may increase from 5,200 ft to 10,000 ft
under standard atmospheric conditions.

REVISION: R-1
Planning carefully a cross-country flight, increasing the stops for fuel and limiting the payload
to its minimum is a smart way to ensure acceptable climb performance on one engine
especially in a light twin.
In Conclusion
It is important for the pilot to become very familiar with the airplane and to know the kind of
climb performance to be expected with this airplane should an engine fail. During training, it
is extremely beneficial to be demonstrated the effects of various airspeeds and
configurations during engine inoperative climb performance. Ask your instructor about this
demonstration.
With regard to the above performance considerations, it is evident that the takeoff and climb
are the most critical phases of all multi-engine operations. During this time, the aircraft is the
slowest, the heaviest and the most dependent on excess power and thrust than it will be
throughout the entire flight.
The following is a discussion of performance considerations during the takeoff phase and the
procedures to follow in the event of an engine failure.

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3. Take-off Considerations: “To Go or Not To Go”

It is probably a very safe bet that almost everyone was, at sometime during their formal
schooling years, exposed to Shakespeare and the soliloquy from his play, Hamlet. Recall
how Hamlet stands on the balcony of his father’s castle, looking intently into the distance and
saying, “To be or not to be, that is the question”. Most students probably never fully
understood what this often-repeated quote referred to. However, there is no doubt it was a
moving and emotional plea. The manner in which the question was asked implied serious
consequences if the incorrect choice was selected.
Well in this modern day of aviation there is another more contemporary expression that
might be heard under certain trying conditions. This question will most likely be expressed
with great emotion and again the wrong reply can certainly result in dire circumstances. This
question does not come from a lovesick Prince standing on a balcony. This one comes from
the pilot of an airplane accelerating down a rapidly shortening runway as he experiences an
engine failure right at lift-off. This soliloquy would be “To go or not to go, that is the question”.
(It would normally be recited very rapidly in high-pitched tones with several non-so-
Shakespearean expletives thrown in.)
The higher the field elevation, the higher the ambient temperature, the heavier the airplane,
the shorter the runway, the more critical the answer to this question. The decision to go will
mean nursing an airplane around a traffic pattern on 50 percent of power (in the case of a
twin engine airplane). Opting to stop on a runway only as long as that required by
performance computations means that everything must be done correctly and all equipment
and systems must work properly. Otherwise, the pilot and his plane will surely run off the end
of the runway. Neither of these two options is desirable, but at that point they are
unfortunately the only two available. Therefore our goal must be, based on experience,
training, knowledge and the particulars of the current situation, to select the better of the two.
(a) Requirements, Data and Definitions
Performance Requirements
Manufacturers of the smaller recreational type airplanes and those airplanes certified under
FAR Part 23 have very little performance data in their airplane flight manuals. Part 23 does
not define any engine out takeoff requirements, reporting only the two-engine distance to an
altitude of 50 feet. Some manufacturers provide accelerate-stop and accelerate-go charts,
but usually none provide data on balanced field. Additionally, there is nothing in the FARs
governing the certification of light multi-engine airplanes (6,000lbs or less with a VS0 lower
than 61 kts), which specifies that they should demonstrate a positive single-engine rate of
climb in the take-off configuration (see figure 3-1). This is of major significance in the
operations of light twin-engine airplanes. With regard to performance (but not controllability)
in the takeoff or landing configuration, the light multi-engine aircraft is merely a single-engine
airplane with its power divided into two or more individual packages.

REVISION: R-1
The go-no go decision point in such airplanes is little bit more than a computed value, it is a
judgment based on data, experience, training and a lot of common sense.
Fig. 3-1: Performance Matrix requirements for airplane certification under FARs Part 23
(AC 23-8A Flight test guide for certification of part 23 airplanes)
26. SECTION 23.67 (as amended by amendment 23-34) CLIMB: ONE ENGINE INOPERATIVE.
a. Normal, Utility, and Acrobatic Category Airplanes.
(1) Performance Matrix. For all multiengine airplanes, §23.67 requires the
one-engine-inoperative climb performance be determined in the specified
configuration. The requirements of §23.67 are summarized in the following table:
Regulation §23.67(a) §23.67(b)(1) §23.67(b)(2) §23.67(c)
Eng. Type recip. recip. recip. turbine
Weight (lbs) over 6000 6000 or less 6000 or less (all)
VSO (kts) (all) over 61 61 or less (all)
Required R/C .027VSO2 .027VSO2 No minimum *

(fpm) at 5000 ft at 5000 ft Required, but
Must be
determined
*(i) 1.2% gradient or .027VSO2 if greater, at 5000 ft Hp and 41°F

(ISA) and
(ii) 0.6% gradient or .014VSO2 if greater, at at 5000 ft Hp and 81°F
(ISA+40°F)
(iii) The minimum climb gradients of (i) and (ii) must vary
linearly between 40°F and 81°F and must change at the same rate up to the
maximum operating temperature approved for the airplane.
Data Source and Factoring

The data used for computing takeoff performance comes from the airplane flight manual.
This data is developed by the manufacturer using information demonstrated during the
airplane testing and certification phases. This data is also certified by the Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA) confirming accuracy and conformance with applicable FAR
requirements.
There is however a caution that must be applied when using the maximum parameters of
this performance data. The data was developed with the airplane in perfect operating
condition under optimum testing conditions – new brakes, new tires, clean runway, dry
surfaces, etc., flown by a trained test pilot. Anything less than these optimum conditions
means actual performance less than the maximum performance achieved during
certification.

REVISION: R-1
Therefore, when planning a flight, it is a sensible precaution to factor the distances and data
collected through the Airplane Flight Manual by 1.2 to 1.3 (additional 20 to 30%). The reason
for factoring is to account for less than perfect performance by average and older aircraft and
less than perfect conditions.
Definitions
(1) Takeoff Distance and Takeoff Ground Roll
Takeoff distance usually corresponds to the distance required for our multi-engine
airplane to accelerate from 0kts (with power set to Takeoff and Maximum Continuous
before break release) to lift-off speed, VLOF, liftoff and using recommended climb and
takeoff procedures to clear a 50-foot obstacle.
The takeoff ground roll corresponds to the distance required to accelerate from 0kts
(with power set to Takeoff and Maximum Continuous before brakes release) to lift-off
speed, VLOF.
VLOF / VR Clearing Obstacle
50 ft
 TAKEOFF GROUND ROLL 

 TAKEOFF DISTANCE 
Fig. 3-2: Takeoff distance and ground roll
(2) Rate of Climb and Climb Gradient
Vertical motion away from the surface is referred to as a climb. How well the airplane
performs in this direction is usually determined by its rate of climb or its climb gradient.
The rate of climb corresponds to the vertical speed in feet/min at which the airplane
climbs.
The climb gradient corresponds to the ratio of the change in height during a portion of a
climb, to the horizontal distance traversed, during the same time interval.
For example, let’s imagine that you are planning to takeoff from a 5,000-foot long runway with a 100 feet
high obstacle at its departure end. The data collected from the Airplane Flight Manual provide you the
following values…
 Takeoff ground roll………………………….1,680ft
 Takeoff distance over a 50ft obstacle…….3,670ft
 Takeoff Climb Gradient…………………….6.0%
A 6.0% climb gradient is 60 feet of vertical height per 1,000 feet of horizontal distance.
Horizontal distance used to climb from 50 feet to 100 feet = (100-50) x 1 / 0.06 = 833 feet
Total Takeoff distance to clear an obstacle 100 feet = 3,670ft + 833ft = 4,503ft

REVISION: R-1
(3) Landing Distance, Landing Ground Roll and Notion of Usable Runway Remaining
Landing distance usually corresponds to the distance required for our multi-engine
airplane, using recommended procedures and techniques, to clear a 50-foot obstacle
during the approach on landing, flare and touch-down on the runway and using maximum
braking get to a complete stop.
The landing ground roll corresponds to the distance required for the airplane to
decelerate from touchdown to a complete stop using maximum braking.
Fig. 3-3: Landing distance and ground roll
Approach over
Obstacle Touchdown Point Complete Stop
50 ft
 APPROACH AND FLARE   LANDING GROUND ROLL 

 LANDING DISTANCE 
The usable runway remaining corresponds to that portion of the runway still usable for
a landing following an aborted takeoff. The usable runway remaining can be determined
using the data collected from the computation of the landing and landing ground roll
distances.
If an overrun or stopway is available then its length could be added to the runway length
and therefore taken in account in the decision-making process and evaluation of usable
runway remaining.
For example, let’s imagine that you are planning to takeoff from a 6,000-foot long runway. The data
collected from the Airplane Flight Manual provide you the following values…
 Takeoff ground roll………………………….1,680ft
 Takeoff distance over a 50ft obstacle…….3,670ft
 Landing ground roll…………………………1,050ft
 Landing distance over a 50ft obstacle……1,970ft
During the takeoff, and climb-out up to 50 feet, there would still be enough usable runway remaining to
make a landing if needed.
 Takeoff distance over a 50ft obstacle + Landing distance over a 50ft obstacle
= 3,670ft + 1,970ft = 5,640ft ≤ Runway length (6,000ft)
Passing 50ft during the climb-out, the chance to have still remaining runway usable decreases drastically.
For example, with a two-engine climb gradient of 5.0% the takeoff distance increases by another 1,000 ft
as the airplane reaches an altitude of 100ft above the ground. Additionally, the landing distance from an
altitude 100ft increases by another 920ft.
 Takeoff distance over 100ft + Landing distance from 100ft = 4,670ft + 2,890ft = 7,560ft
 7,560 ft > Runway length (6,000ft)
Of course, if the runway length had been of 4,000 feet, there would be no usable runway remaining upon
reaching 50 feet during the takeoff climb-out. The decision-making process corresponding to the possibility
to abort takeoff and return to landing should then be reevaluated.

REVISION: R-1
(4) Accelerate-Stop Distance
The accelerate-stop distance corresponds to the distance required to accelerate an

airplane to a specified speed, usually VLOF (lift-off speed) and, assuming failure of an
engine at the instant that speed is attained, to bring the airplane to a complete stop using
all recommended procedures and techniques.
Fig. 3-4: Accelerate-Stop Distance
Engine Failure

VLOF / VR Complete Stop
 ALL ENGINE ACCELERATION   STOPPING DISTANCE 

 ACCELERATE-STOP DISTANCE 
(5) Accelerate-Go Distance
The accelerate-go distance corresponds to the distance required to accelerate an

airplane to a specified speed, usually VLOF (lift-off speed) and, assuming failure of an
engine at the instant that speed is attained, immediately feather the propeller of the
inoperative engine and continue takeoff on the remaining engine to a height of 50 feet
using all recommended procedures and techniques.
Fig. 3-4: Accelerate-Go Distance
Engine Failure

VLOF / VR Clearing Obstacle
50 ft
 ALL ENGINE ACCELERATION   1 ENGINE ACCELERATION 

 ACCELERATE-GO DISTANCE 
When provided in the airplane flight manual, the validity of the accelerate-go distance for light-
twin engine airplane is usually associated with a takeoff weight graph or table that will specify
the maximum takeoff weight at which the accelerate-go procedure should be attempted. If that
maximum takeoff weight were to be exceeded, the airplane would most likely not be able to
achieve a positive rate of climb after lift-off, making the accelerate-go procedure a foolish
attempt.
REVISION: R-1
(b) Takeoff Profile

Every takeoff, regardless of the type, involves a very important consideration, which results
in safe multi-engine operations.
More specifically, every takeoff must be planned and executed with the anticipation of an
engine failure.
In order to do so, let’s have a closer look at the standard takeoff profile of a light-twin engine
airplane.
During a normal take-off, the airplane is allowed to accelerate to the recommended rotation
and liftoff speed. Generally this speed will be approximately, at or above V MC plus 5 knots.
Under no conditions should the airplane become airborne at a speed less than V MC.
After liftoff, the airplane is accelerated to the two-engine best rate of climb airspeed (VY) and
this speed is maintained until a safe maneuvering altitude is reached. V Y is used for this
portion of the climb because it provides an adequate rate of climb, which can be anticipated
during the preflight performance calculations, and its value is usually equal to or higher than
the single-engine best rate of climb speed (VYSE). Therefore if an engine failure occurs, the
airplane has already attained the airspeed, which will produce the best single-engine
performance.
Once the airplane is well clear of the runway, a positive rate of climb is established, and
there is no usable runway remaining for landing, the landing gear should be retracted.
The takeoff profile can be divided in 4 different segments when considering the event of an
engine failure at various stages of the takeoff. See figure 3-5.
Fig. 3-5: Takeoff Profile
On Brakes with VY/VYSE VY/VYSE

Power set to
Takeoff and Usable No Usable
Maximum VLOF / VR Runway Rem. Runway
Continuous VMC Decision Speed (Gear Down) (Gear Up)
VS0 VS1
 TAKEOFF ROLL   DECISION AREA  USABLE RWY   NO RWY

st nd rd th
Segment: 1 Segment 2 Segment 3 Segment 4 Segment
Req. Data: - Runway Length - Runway Length - Runway Length - SE Climb rate
- Take-off Roll Dist. - Takeoff Roll Dist. - Take-off Roll Dist. - SE Climb grad.
- Accelerate Stop Dist. - Usable Runway left - Usable Runway left - Obstructions
- Accelerate-Stop Dist.
- Accelerate-Go Dist.
- Max SE Takeoff Weight
Decision: NO GO GO / NO GO (*) NO GO GO
REVISION: R-1
The 1st segment corresponds to the initial acceleration to rotation and liftoff speed. In the
event of an engine failure, it is a no go. The takeoff will be aborted and the airplane will be
brought to a full stop. Good planning will have ensured that sufficient runway length (plus
overrun or stopway distance if available) can be used for an accelerate-stop.
 Accelerate-Stop distance ≤ Runway Length (+ Overrun/Stopway distance)
The 2nd segment corresponds to the 2 engines acceleration to V Y (therefore VYSE) following
the rotation and liftoff. In the event of an engine failure after liftoff and before reaching V YSE,
the decision to keep on going with one engine inoperative or to abort takeoff is based upon
several conditions and performance calculations. This is also called the decision area and
therefore VLOF (liftoff speed) will be called decision speed.
If the engine failure was going to happen exactly at our decision speed (V LOF), the go/no-go
decision is based on comparing several performance values…
At Decision Speed: Conditions and Comparison of Performance Values
 Accelerate-Stop distance ≤ Runway Length (+ Overrun/Stopway distance)
No Go
 Accelerate-Stop distance ≤ Accelerate-Go distance
 Accelerate-Stop distance > Runway Length (+ Overrun/Stopway distance)
(*)
Go  Accelerate-Go distance ≤ Runway Length (+ Clearway)
 Aircraft Weight ≤ Maximum allowable Single-Engine Takeoff Weight
(*) May be a No Go based on additional factors such as Pilot Experience, Aircraft and Runway Conditions and
Runway Obstructions.
If the engine failure was going to happen after our decision speed (VLOF), the go/no-go
decision is now based on comparing the following performance values…
After Decision Speed: Conditions and Comparison of Performance Values
No Go  Usable Runway Remaining (Landing Gear Down)
 No Usable Runway Remaining
(*)
Go  Accelerate-Go distance ≤ Runway Length (+ Clearway)
 Aircraft Weight ≤ Maximum allowable Single-Engine Takeoff Weight
(*) May be a No Go based on additional factors such as Pilot Experience, Aircraft and Runway Conditions and
Runway Obstructions. The clearway corresponds to the area free of obstruction located after the departure en
of a runway.
The 3rd segment starts at the point where the airplane has accelerated to V YSE and ends at
the point where there no usable runway remaining. If an engine failure occurs during this
segment of the takeoff profile, since there is still usable runway remaining (landing gear is
down), the decision is a no go, closing both throttles, maintaining directional control and
allowing the nose to drop to maintain airspeed and to descent to the runway for landing
using flaps if possible.
The 4th segment starts at the point where there is no usable runway remaining, the landing is
selected in the up position, and the airplane has accelerated to V YSE. If an engine failure
occurs during this segment of the takeoff profile, the decision is a go. Maintain control of the
airplane, lower the pitch attitude of the airplane to maintain V YSE and maximize the climb
performance, run through the engine-out procedures and feather the propeller on the

REVISION: R-1
inoperative engine. Depending if the airplane will climb or not on one engine can be easily
determined during the preflight preparation using the appropriate performance charts.
If the airplane cannot achieve a positive rate of climb at V YSE, than the takeoff should be
probably reconsidered or at least plans for an emergency landing should be made.
(c) Pre-Takeoff Briefing
If the habit to plan an execute every takeoff with the anticipation of an engine failure is
established early during flight training and the situation does occur, the pilot will be prepared
to perform the necessary procedures smoothly, accurately, and without any hesitation.
To obtain the proper level of alertness and to be well prepared for the eventuality of an
engine failure during the takeoff, a common technique is to summarize the actions to be
taken in a pre-takeoff briefing.
Using the takeoff profile and the various performance data required, a decision is being
made in advance for each segments of that takeoff and a decision point is being defined
clearly as the limit in between go or no go decision.
For example, based on the following conditions, let’s try to establish a pre-takeoff briefing.
Current conditions:
Airplane: Beechcraft BE-76 Duchess Airport / Runway: KFPR, Rwy 9

 Built in 1981 (SN#: ME-406)  Runway length: 6,492ft
 12,000 hrs TT on Airframe  Runway Heading: 095°
 Empty Weight: 2,582 lbs  No Stopway/Overrun
 C.G (Empty Condition): 110.32  Airport Elevation: 23ft
 Moment (Empty): 284,924 lbs.in  No major obstacles
Conditions of Flight: Local Weather:

 Training Flight  Wind: 070° at 13kts
 Pilot/Student: 185 lbs  Visibility: 8sm
 Co-Pilot/Instructor: 205 lbs  Sky: Clear
 Baggage: 25 lbs  Temp/Dewpoint: 34°C/22°C
 Fuel: 600 lbs (100 gal / Full)  Alt. Set. : 29.82 in Hg
(1) Establish the weight and balance to determine the conditions on takeoff (see fig. 3-6)
According to the weight and balance calculations our Takeoff Gross Weight is 3,582 lbs.
(2) Calculate Pressure Altitude

To determine pressure altitude, we can use the following approximation:
Pressure Altitude = [ (29.92-Current Altimeter Setting) x 1,000 ] + Airport Elevation
Pressure Altitude = [ (29.92-29.82) x 1,000 ] + 23
Pressure Altitude = 123 ft

REVISION: R-1
Fig. 3-6: Weight & Balance Table
Airplane Condition / Loaded Items Gross Weight CG / Arm Moment
Empty Condition 2582.8 110.32 284924

Pilot 185 106 19610
Crew
Copilot 205 108 22140

Basic Condition 2972.8 109.89 326674
Passenger #1 0 0 0
Payload
Passenger #2 0 0 0
Baggage 25 167 4175
Zero Fuel Condition 2997.8 110.37 330849
Fuel Load 100 gal 600 117 70200
Ramp Condition 3597.8 111.47 401049
Fuel Burned During Grnd Ops 2.7 -16.2 117 -1895.4
Takeoff Condition (Gear Down) 3581.6 111.45 399153.6
(3) Determine Headwind and Crosswind Components:

To determine headwind and crosswind components we can use the chart provided in the
Airplane Flight Manual or the flight computer.
 Wind speed of 13 kts
 Angle between wind direction and flight path (rwy heading): 95°-70°= 25°
 Headwind Component = 11 kts
 Crosswind Component = 5 kts
(4) Determine the following data:

 Takeoff Ground Roll
 Takeoff Distance over a 50-foot obstacle
 Landing Ground Roll
 Landing Distance over a 50-foot obstacle
 Accelerate-Stop Distance
 Accelerate-Go Distance
 Maximum takeoff weight to achieve a positive rate-of-climb at lift-off with one
engine inoperative
 Climb Rate and Climb Gradient with two engines operating
 Climb Rate with one engine inoperative
 Takeoff Climb Gradient with one engine inoperative
Takeoff Ground Roll = 950 ft Maximum Single-Engine Takeoff Weight = 3,310 lbs
Takeoff Distance over a 50ft obstacle = 2,050 ft Climb Rate– two engines = 1,340 ft/min
Landing Ground Roll = 875 ft Climb Gradient – two engines = 14.6%
Landing Distance over a 50-foot obstacle = 1,725 ft Climb Rate - one engine inoperative = 290 ft/min
Accelerate-Stop Distance = 2,250 ft Takeoff Climb Gradient - one engine inoperative =
Accelerate-Go Distance = 6,900 ft 3.1%

REVISION: R-1
(5) Use the factoring method (20%) to obtain more realistic data
After factoring by approximately 20% the new corrected data show the following values:
Takeoff Ground Roll = 1,140 ft Maximum Single-Engine Takeoff Weight = 3,310 lbs
Takeoff Distance over a 50ft obstacle = 2,460 ft Climb Rate– two engines = 1,072 ft/min
Landing Ground Roll = 1,050 ft Climb Gradient – two engines = 11.7%
Landing Distance over a 50-foot obstacle = 2,070 ft Climb Rate - one engine inoperative 232 ft/min
Accelerate-Stop Distance = 2,700ft Takeoff Climb Gradient - one engine inoperative =
Accelerate-Go Distance = 8,280 ft 2.5%
(6) Finally, use the data collected and the takeoff profile to generate a pre-takeoff briefing:
On this airplane, the decision speed is 71 kts (VLOF) and VYSE (Blue Line) is 85 kts (so is
VY).
“In the event of engine failure prior to 71 kts (decision speed), it’s a no-go. We shall abort
takeoff, close both throttles to idle, maintain directional control and bring the airplane to a
full stop using maximum braking.”
 Accelerate Stop Distance (2,700 ft) shorter than Runway Length (6,492 ft)
“In the event of an engine failure, at or after 71 kts (decision speed), prior to 85kts, it’s a
no-go. We shall abort the takeoff, closing both throttles to idle, maintaining directional
control and allowing the nose to drop to maintain airspeed and to descent to the runway
for landing using flaps if possible.”
 Accelerate Stop Distance (2,700 ft) shorter than Accelerate-Go Distance (8,280 ft)
 Takeoff Weight (3,581 lbs) higher than Maximum Single-Engine Takeoff Weight (3,310 lbs):
Unable to achieve a positive rate of climb on one engine at Liftoff.
 Landing distance over 50ft obstacle is 2,460 ft, Takeoff Ground Roll is 1,140 ft, and runway
length is 6,492 ft: Usable runway available for aborted takeoff.
“Our decision point is upon reaching 50 ft at or above V YSE, or crossing abeam taxiway
A2 during climb-out.” (See figure 3-7)
 Landing Distance over 50ft obstacle is 2,460 ft. Looking at the airport diagram, there is 3,000 ft
of runway usable from A2 taxiway feeder to the departure end of runway 9 at FPR.
 Positive rate of climb at VYSE (85kts), Positive Climb Gradient, No Obstacle higher than 50 ft
past the approach end of the runway
“Reaching VYSE, prior to decision point, it’s a no-go. We shall abort takeoff, closing both
throttles to idle, maintaining directional control and allowing the nose to drop to maintain
airspeed and to descent to the runway for landing using flaps if possible.”
“Past our decision point, the landing gear is selected in the up position, it’s a go. We shall
maintain control of the airplane, lower the pitch attitude of the airplane to maintain VYSE
and maximize the climb performance, run through the engine-out procedures and feather
the propeller on the inoperative engine. We will declare the emergency and circle back to
runway 9 for landing.”
(See figure 3-8)

REVISION: R-1
Fig. 3-7: Airport Diagram
Fig. 3-8: Takeoff Briefing
Decision
Point
VY/VYSE VY/VYSE
On Brakes with Usable Rwy No Usable
Power set to VLOF / VR Remaining Runway
Takeoff VMC Decision Speed (Gear Down) (Gear Up)
VS0 VS1
 TAKEOFF ROLL   USABLE RWY   NO RWY

Decision: NO GO NO GO NO GO GO

REVISION: R-1
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REVISION: R-1
Acknowledgements, Bibliography and References
U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, “Airplane Flying Handbook

(FAA-H-8083-3)”, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington DC, 1999.
U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, “Flight Test Guide for
Certification of Part 23 Airplanes (AC 23-8A)”, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington DC,
1989.
U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, “Federal Aviation Regulations –

Part 23 (14 CFR – Part 23)”, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington DC, 2003.
U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, “Pilot’s Handbook of

Aeronautical Knowledge (AC 61-23C)”, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington DC, 1997.
David Robson, “Transition to Twins”, Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc., Newcastle, WA, 2000.
Jeppesen Sanderson, “Multi-Engine Pilot Manual”, Jeppesen Sanderson, Englewood, CO, 1995.
Hubert C. “Skip” Smith, “Understanding Performance Flight Testing”, Mc Graw- Hill, NY, 2001.
Richard N. Aarons, U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, “Always

Leave Yourself an Out (FAA-P-8740-25)”, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington DC, 1987.
U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, “Flying Light Twins Safely
(FAA-P-8740-19)”, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington DC, 1987.

REVISION: R-1
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ACAST - Multi-Engine Training Manual PAGE: 1

(a) Induced Airflow 7

(a) Multi-Engine Climb Performance – All Engines

3. TAKE-OFF CONSIDERATIONS: “To Go Or Not To Go”

(a) Requirements, Data and Definitions 63

FOR TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY - REFER TO FAA PUBLICATIONS

FOR TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY - REFER TO FAA PUBLICATIONS

FOR TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY - REFER TO FAA PUBLICATIONS

FOR TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY - REFER TO FAA PUBLICATIONS

The purpose of this volume is to provide a better understanding of aerodynamic principles

Finally, it provides a discussion about the takeoff considerations related to multi-engine

I hope that this manual will be a step in the right direction.

FOR TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY - REFER TO FAA PUBLICATIONS

FOR TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY - REFER TO FAA PUBLICATIONS

The primary aerodynamic differences between a single-

In a conventional “light” twin-engine airplane, thrust

(a) Induced Airflow

FOR TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY - REFER TO FAA PUBLICATIONS

Fig. 1-2: Induced Airflow

(b) Turning Tendencies

Asymmetrical Propeller Loading (P-Factor)

FOR TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY - REFER TO FAA PUBLICATIONS

This asymmetrical propeller loading or P-factor generates a

Fig. 1-5: Left Turning Tendency

In a conventional twin, propellers turn clockwise, which in

Spiraling Propeller Slipstream

FOR TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY - REFER TO FAA PUBLICATIONS

Typically, in normal flight, most of the spiraling (or

Effects of Counter-Rotating Propellers

Fig. 1-9: Effect of Torque with Counter-Rotating

(c) Engine-Out Aerodynamics

FOR TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY - REFER TO FAA PUBLICATIONS

All engine-out procedures will be discussed in the chapter 3 of the manual.

Loss of Directional Control due to Engine Failure

The loss of thrust causes the nose to drop

Fig. 1-10: Nose down pitching moment

FOR TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY - REFER TO FAA PUBLICATIONS

The difference in thrust produced by the

Fig. 1-12: Rolling Moment

FOR TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY - REFER TO FAA PUBLICATIONS

Fig. 1-13: Loss of control following an engine failure

VMC and Factors Affecting VMC

with respect to controllability.

Once established, VMC will be marked on the

Fig. 1-14: Airspeed Indicator

Finally, VMC should not exceed 1.2xVS1.

14 CFR § 23.149 Minimum control speed.

service with respect to controllability.

Fig. 1-15: FARs Part 23, § 23.149 Minimum control speed

(3) Factors affecting VMC

The following is a description of the main factors affecting VMC...

 Factors affecting VMC:

Based on the conditions of certification described in §23.149 of the FARs, we can

Propeller condition: Windmilling or Feathered

FORCE x ARM = MOMENT

The amount of counteracting moment created is directly related to the amount of

Fig. 1-16: Yawing Moment vs Counter-Acting Moment

FOR TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY - REFER TO FAA PUBLICATIONS

Propeller condition: Windmilling Versus Feathered

FOR TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY - REFER TO FAA PUBLICATIONS

Fig. 1-17: Propeller Windmilling versus Propeller Feathered

Propeller Windmilling Propeller Feathered