College of Social Sciences and Humanities

Department: Geography and Environmental Studies

Specialization: Climate Change and Sustainable Development (MSc)

Course Title: Climate Change Mitigation and Disaster Risk Management

Course code: GeCC 5026

Term Paper on “Climate Change Mitigation and Strategies: Global

Perspectives”

By: Kirubel Tesfaye (CLA/MW/006/12)

Submitted to: Befikadu Esayas (PhD)

July, 2020

Wolaita Sodo

i
 Table of Contents
1. Introduction..............................................................................................................................1
2. Rational of the Term Paper......................................................................................................2
3. Objectives.................................................................................................................................3
4. Scope of the Term-paper..........................................................................................................4
5. Organization of the Term Paper...............................................................................................4
6. Methodology............................................................................................................................4
7. Main Body of the Term-Paper..................................................................................................4
7.1. What causes Green House Gases (GHG) emissions?.......................................................4
7.2. Impacts of Climate Change...............................................................................................5
7.3. International Institutions and Agreements........................................................................7
7.4. Climate Change Mitigation Strategies..............................................................................8
7.4.1. Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA).............................................................................8
7.4.2. Renewable Biomass.................................................................................................11
7.4.3. Renewable Energy (OECD, 2011)..........................................................................12
7.4.4. Lower Carbon and Efficient Energy Generation (OECD, 2011)............................12
7.4.5. Energy Efficiency (OECD, 2011)............................................................................12
7.4.6. Agriculture, Forestry and Land Use (OECD, 2011)................................................13
7.4.7. Non-Energy GHG Reductions (OECD, 2011)........................................................14
7.4.8. Waste and Wastewater (OECD, 2011)....................................................................14
7.4.9. Transport (OECD, 2011).........................................................................................14
7.4.10. Low-Carbon Technologies (OECD, 2011)..............................................................15
7.4.11. Cross-Cutting Issues (OECD, 2011)........................................................................15
7.5. The Kyoto Mechanisms..................................................................................................16
8. Conclusion..............................................................................................................................17
9. References..............................................................................................................................18

i
1. Introduction
There has been a heated discussion on climate change in recent years, with a particular focus on
global warming. Over the last several million years, there have been warmer and colder periods
on Earth, and the climate fluctuates for a variety of natural reasons as data from tree rings,
pollen, and ice core samples have shown. For instance, in the Pleistocene, the geological epoch
which lasted from about 2,588,000 to 11,700 years ago, the world saw repeated glaciations (“ice
age”). More recently, “Little Ice Age” and the “Medieval Warm Period” occurred (Maximilian
Lackner, 2012). Several causes have been suggested such as cyclical lows in solar radiation,
heightened volcanic activity, changes in the ocean circulation, and an inherent variability in
global climate. As to recent climate change on Earth, there is evidence that it is brought about by
human activity and that its magnitude and effects are of strong concern.

In 2001, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) stated, “An increasing body of
observations gives a collective picture of a warming world and other changes in the climate
system. . . There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last
50 years is attributable to human activities” (IPCC, 2007). Furthermore, in its fourth assessment
report of 2007, the IPCC stated that human actions are “very likely” the cause of global
warming. More specifically, there is a 90 % probability that the burning of fossil fuels and other
anthropogenic factors such as deforestation and the use of certain chemicals have already led to
an increase of 0.75oC in average global temperatures over the last 100 years and that the increase
in hurricane and tropical cyclone strength since 1970 also results from man-made climate
change. In its fifth assessment report of 2013, the IPCC confirms their findings as “Warming of
the climate system is unequivocal, and since the 1950s, many of the observed changes are
unprecedented over decades to millennia. The atmosphere and ocean have warmed, the amounts
of snow and ice have diminished, sea level has risen, and the concentrations of greenhouse gases
have increased” (IPCC 2013).

According to (IPCC, 2014), mitigation is a human intervention to reduce the sources or enhance
the sinks of greenhouse gases. Mitigation, together with adaptation to climate change,
contributes to the objective expressed in Article 2 of the United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change (UNFCCC):

1
The ultimate objective of this Convention and any related legal instruments that the Conference
of the Parties may adopt is to achieve, in accordance with the relevant provisions of the
Convention, stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that
would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. Such a level
should be achieved within a time frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to
climate change, to ensure that food production is not threatened and to enable economic
development to proceed in a sustainable manner.

Since climate change is a global problem, decisions with respect to both mitigation and
adaptation involve actions or choices at all levels of decision-making, from the most local and
community level (including families and individuals) to the broadest international levels,
involving all national governments and many transnational bodies as well (Ian Burton, Jan F.
Feenstra, Joel B. Smith, 1998).

Understanding the possible impacts of climate change is of utmost importance for ensuring its
mitigation at global level. The purpose of this paper is to overview climate change mitigation
strategies and provide insights on different components to apply or implement at global level
through synthesis of secondary data from books and journals.

2. Rational of the Term Paper

Climate change is the burning issue of today's world. Climate change itself as a natural process
but in recent years it will lead to changes in rainfall pattern, variation in temperature, sea level
rises, increasing severity and various extreme weather events (Rijal, 2019). Anthropogenic
activities all over the world related to production, consumption and use of energy are responsible
for global climate change. Substantial variation in temperature, precipitation, snow cover, sea
level and extreme weather events provide anecdotal evidence of global climate change.
Increasing concentration of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere are expected to bring
about several changes in climate. Impact can be expected in terms of greater incidence and
magnitude of hurricanes, floods, and droughts (IPCC, 2001), affecting productivity, natural
ecosystems, agriculture, rangelands, forestry and the society. According to IPCC (2007), global
surface temperatures have augmented by 0.8oC over the 20th century; and Earth’s mean
temperature is predicted to increase by 1.4-5.8oC during the twenty-first century. Besides sea-
level rise of 15-23 cm, there have been substantial shifts in ecosystems. With the Industrial

2
revolution, atmospheric GHGs and their radioactive forces have progressively increased.
Activities like combustion, deforestation, biomass burning and some agricultural land use pattern
have either increased emissions from global carbon stocks and/or decreased the capacity of
global carbon sinks to absorb these gases (IPCC, 2007). Furthermore, methane and nitrous oxide,
two of the most important greenhouse gases in the atmosphere after water vapor and CO 2, have
also increased gradually.

Since climate change is a global problem, decisions with respect to both mitigation and
adaptation involve actions or choices at all levels of decision-making, from the most local and
community level (including families and individuals) to the broadest international levels,
involving all national governments and many transnational bodies as well (Ian Burton, Jan F.
Feenstra, Joel B. Smith, 1998).

The consequences of unchecked climate change for humans and natural ecosystems are already
apparent and increasing. The most vulnerable systems are already experiencing adverse effects.
Past GHG emissions have already put the planet on a track for substantial further changes in
climate, and while there are many uncertainties in factors such as the sensitivity of the climate
system many scenarios lead to substantial climate impacts, including direct harms to human and
ecological wellbeing that exceed the ability of those systems to adapt fully. Because mitigation is
intended to reduce the harmful effects of climate change, it is part of a broader policy framework
that also includes adaptation to climate impacts. Mitigation, together with adaptation to climate
change, contributes to the objective expressed in Article 2 of the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) to stabilize “greenhouse gas concentrations in the
atmosphere at a level to prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system
within a time frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt to ensure that food production is not
threatened and to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner” (IPCC,
2014).

Hence, this paper overviews climate change mitigation and strategies at global level through the
synthesis of secondary data obtained from books, internet, and journals.

3. Objectives

3
  To provide overview of climate change mitigation and strategies through global
perspectives

4. Scope of the Term-paper

The contents of this term-paper focus only on the general overview of climate change mitigation
and strategies in global perspectives. Secondary data and sources from books, journals and the
internet were used for the synthesis of the results. The time scope of this paper was from April to
July 2020.

5. Organization of the Term Paper

The term-paper is organized into nine sections:
• Introduction: describes the background and the purpose of the term-paper,
• The rationale of the term-paper: presents the reason for conducting the term-paper,
• Objectives: lists the objectives of the term-paper,
• Scope of the term-paper: states the coverage and limitations of the paper,
• The methodology of the term-paper: describes the types and sources of data, their collection
and synthesis method, and how to report the results of the paper,
• The main body of the term-paper: discusses the results obtained in line with the stated
objectives,
• Concluding remarks summarizes the term-paper based on the results obtained, and
• The references part lists and acknowledges the books, journals and internet sites used for the
term-paper preparation.

6. Methodology
For this term-paper, the secondary data and sources were used for the general overview of
climate change mitigation and strategies in global perspectives. Those secondary data were
collected from books, journal articles and different supporting documents. The sources for data
were obtained from internet and libraries. Then the collected data were synthesized on the
evidences obtained from the sources in line with the set objectives. The results of this term-paper
are presented in the form of evidence based essay or statements following the standard report
format.

4
7. Main Body of the Term-Paper
7.1. What causes Green House Gases (GHG) emissions?

Anthropogenic GHGs come from many sources of carbon dioxide (CO 2), methane (CH4), nitrous
oxide (N2O), and fluorinated gases (HFCs, PFCs and SF 6). CO2 makes the largest contribution to
global GHG emissions; fluorinated gases (F-gases) contribute only a few per cent. The largest
source of CO2 is combustion of fossil fuels in energy conversion systems like boilers in electric
power plants, engines in aircraft and automobiles, and in cooking and heating within homes and
businesses. While most GHGs come from fossil fuel combustion, about one third comes from
other activities like agriculture (mainly CH4 and N2O), deforestation (mainly CO2), fossil fuel
production (mainly CH4) industrial processes (mainly CO2, N2O and F-gases) and municipal
waste and wastewater (mainly CH4).

Table 1. Anthropogenic greenhouse gases and gas classes, and sources. Source: Kyoto Protocol,
Annex A; IPCC (2001).

7.2. Impacts of Climate Change

Climate change is not only something of the future, but the climate has already changed
significantly over the last 30 years. The average temperature around the globe has increased by
0.75 °C over the last 100 years. Eleven of the 12 hottest years on the instrumental record
occurred during the last 12 years. The 1990’s were probably the hottest decade of the last
millennium (IPCC 2007). The IPCC (2007) concluded that at least part of the increase in
temperature is caused by human emissions of greenhouse gases. However, global warming has
not been uniform. Since 1979, warming has been most intense in North America, Europe and
Northern Asia while developing countries have generally seen less of a warming trend than the
developed world. Not only temperatures have changed but also rainfall patterns. Due to a higher

5
variability in rainfall compared to temperatures, trends are often harder to detect and it is more
difficult to link them to human greenhouse gas emission. However it is still likely that human
activity has contributed to the increase in the number of droughts, heat waves, extreme rainfall
events and more intense cyclone activity. These kinds of extreme events particularly affect
developing countries (Ludwig et al., 2007).

Mendelsohn (2012) stated that the concentration of climate change damages in developing
countries raises serious equity issues. Most of the world’s poor live in developing countries. The
fact that these people will bear the brunt of climate damages is a particularly troublesome aspect
of climate change. This is exacerbated by the observation that developing countries have low
greenhouse gas emissions. Developing countries are responsible for only 7% of global emissions,
versus emissions from developed (45%) and emerging (48%) countries. The 2.3 billion people in
developing countries are consequently bearing a disproportionate share of the damages caused by
the emission behavior of other people in developed (1.2 billion) and emerging (3.0 billion)
countries.

The IPCC (2007) report stated that Sahel ecological zones have shifted due to a dry and warmer
climate which has also caused reduction in run-off. In Southern Africa a longer dry season and
more uncertain rainfall has reduced agricultural production and has forced people to adapt
through switching crops, diversifying livelihoods and planting trees. In Africa, lower lake levels
have been observed in Zimbabwe, Zambia and Malawi. In Latin America and Asia, important
observed changes are linked to changing glaciers. Due to higher temperatures glaciers and
mountain snow packs are disappearing and both in the Andes and the Himalaya, the risks of
Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOF) are increasing. Changes in melting patterns of glaciers
due to global warming also have an impact on stream flows. River stream flows tend to increase
during the spring with a peak earlier in the season. Where glaciers are starting to disappear
stream flows are reduced especially during dry seasons. Especially, in the Andes smaller glaciers
have already disappeared or will do so in the near future. These glaciers are often important
sources of freshwater (IPCC 2007).

A study by Kompas et al. (2018) also provides a worrisome picture of the social impacts (e.g., on
environment and health) of climate change in the developing world. The loss from global
warming, here, includes climate-related deaths from worsening floods and droughts,

6
malnutrition, the spread of malaria, and heat-related ailments. The study also showed that the
current global warming process already causes 300,000 deaths and $US125 billion in economic
losses annually. The developing and poorer countries in the ‘rest of Asia’ and the ‘Middle East
and North Africa’ lose -10.3% to -12.6% of their GDP when the global temperature increases by
4.79oC in 2100. The larger dimensional model shows, instead, that if global surface temperature
increases by 4oC, countries in South East Asia can lose up to 21% of their GDP per year. The
picture for developing countries in Africa is even more grim with the GDP losses as high as -
26.6% per year (Roson and van der Mensbrugghe as cited in Kompas, Pham, & Che, 2018).

Generalizing the impacts of climate change in Africa is impossible, as regions will be affected
differently and there is considerable uncertainty, particularly in West Africa. Water stress will be
an even larger problem than currently in northern and southern Africa, and in the same regions,
agricultural production—and thereby food security—is likely to be negatively affected (Mertz et
al., 2009). In general, climate problems, such as recurrent drought, exacerbate the many existing
problems in the region. In southern Africa, Gregory et al., (2005) found climate to be among the
most frequently cited drivers of food insecurity. The developing countries of the Asia-Pacific
region will also experience climate change very differently. Key future impacts were identified
by the IPCC and included increased water stress in India, loss of mangroves and other coastal
lands in Southeast Asia due to sea level rise, and disturbance of forests and agriculture due to the
possibility of more intense El Niño events (IPCC, 2007). Melting of glaciers in the Himalayas
and resulting floods and water availability issues are also likely become important impacts. The
small island states of the Pacific are even more vulnerable and impacts of possibly more
intensive cyclones, sea level rise, drought, and coral reef degradation will be very important.

Increases in mean temperature and precipitation, rise in sea level and extreme weather events due
to climate change would make developing countries more exposed to disasters (Mirza, 2003).

7.3. International Institutions and Agreements

For more than two decades formal intergovernmental institutions have existed with the task of
promoting coordination of national policies on the mitigation of emissions. In 1992, diplomats
finalized the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), which
entered into force in 1994. The first session of the Conference of the Parties (COP) to that
Convention met in Berlin in 1995 and outlined a plan for new talks leading to the Kyoto Protocol

7
in 1997, which entered into force in 2005. The main regulatory provisions of the Kyoto Protocol
concerned numerical emission targets for industrialized countries during the years 2008 to 2012.
When 4th assessment report (AR4) concluded in 2007, diplomats were in the early stages of
negotiations for possible amendment of the Kyoto treaty while also exploring other mechanisms
to encourage additional long-term cooperation on mitigation. The regulatory targets of the
original Kyoto treaty would expire at the end of 2012. Those negotiations had been expected to
finish at the COP 15 meeting in Copenhagen in 2009, but a wide number of disagreements made
that impossible. Instead, talks continued while, in tandem, governments made an array of pledges
that they solidified at the 2010 COP meeting in Cancun. These ‘Cancun pledges’ concern the
policies they would adopt to mitigate emissions and other related actions on the management of
climate risks; some of those pledges are contingent upon actions by other countries. The 91
countries that adopted these pledges account for the vast majority (about 80 %) of world
emissions (UNFCCC, 2011, 2012a; b; UNEP, 2012). If fully implemented, the pledges might
reduce emissions in 2020 about one-tenth below the emissions level that would have existed
otherwise—not quite enough to return emissions to 2005 levels—and it would be very hard to
attain widely discussed goals of stabilizing warming at 1.5 or 2 degrees without almost
immediate and full participation in international agreements that coordinate substantial emission
reductions (IPCC, 2014).

Many institutions are now actively addressing particular aspects of climate change mitigation,
such as the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), which focuses on renewable
energy; the Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC), which focuses on how limits on short-
lived pollutants such as black carbon can help slow climate change, the International Atomic
Energy Agency (IAEA), which focuses on nuclear power, the International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) and the International Maritime Organization (IMO) that have focused on
emissions from bunker fuels, and many others with expertise in particular domains. The
International Energy Agency (IEA) is now extensively engaged in analyzing how developments
in the energy sector could affect patterns of emissions (IEA, 2011). Looking across these many
different activities, international institutions that have engaged the climate change topic are
highly decentralized rather than hierarchically organized around a single regulatory framework.

7.4. Climate Change Mitigation Strategies

8
7.4.1. Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA)

Climate-smart Agriculture (CSA) is an approach that moves away from unstable, conventional
agriculture practices and systems and helps to restore degraded agro-ecosystems. Climate-Smart
Agriculture contributes to the goals of making sustainable development tangible. By seeking
synergies wherever possible Climate-Smart Agriculture aims to improve food security and help
communities adapt to climate change and contribute to climate change mitigation (e.g. reduce
GHGs) by adopting appropriate practices, developing enabling policies and institutions and
mobilizing needed finances (Fisheries Integration of Society and Habitats, 2016). The concept
was first launched by FAO in 2010 in a background paper prepared for the Hague Conference on
Agriculture, Food Security and Climate Change (FAO, 2010), in the context of national food
security and development goals.

To address the specific challenges climate change poses to sustainable food and agriculture, FAO
promotes CSA as an approach that can transform and reorient agricultural systems to effectively
support development and ensure food security in a changing climate (McCarthy, Lipper, Branca,
& Security, 2011). In this new international landscape, the three interlinked objectives of CSA
are more relevant than ever. These objectives are:

 Sustainably increasing agricultural productivity and incomes; from crops, livestock,

and fish without having a negative impact on the environment. This, in turn, will raise
food and nutritional security. A key concept related to raising productivity is
sustainable intensification by increasing food production from existing farmland
while minimizing pressure on the environment.
 Adapting and building resilience to climate change; Adaptation can reduce
vulnerability by altering exposure, reducing sensitivity and increasing adaptive
capacity.
 Reducing and/or removing greenhouse gas emissions, where possible. Mitigation
activities promote “efforts to reduce or limit GHG emissions or to enhance GHG
sequestration” including “technological changes that reduce resource inputs and
emissions per unit of output”. There are three major options to mitigate climate
change: reducing, displacing and removing emissions.

9
Figure 1. The three objectives of climate-smart agriculture. Source FAO (2017)

According to Lipper et al. (2014), the overall aim of CSA is to support efforts from the local to
global levels for sustainably using agricultural systems to achieve food and nutrition security for
all people at all times, integrating necessary adaptation and capturing potential mitigation. Three
objectives are defined for achieving this aim: (1) sustainably increasing agricultural productivity
to support equitable increases in incomes, food security and development; (2) adapting and
building resilience to climate change from the farm to national levels; and (3) developing
opportunities to reduce GHG emissions from agriculture compared with past trends. Although
CSA aims to attain all three objectives, it does not imply that every practice applied in every
location should generate ‘triple wins’. CSA requires consideration of all three objectives, from
the local to the global scales and over short and long time horizons, to derive locally acceptable
solutions. The relative importance of each objective varies across locations and situations, as do
potential synergies and trade-offs between objectives. Recognition of trade-offs is particularly
important in developing countries, where agricultural growth and adaptation for food security
and economic growth are a priority, and where poor farmers are the most affected by—but have
contributed least to—climate change. Mitigation can often be a significant co-benefit of actions
to improve food security and adaptation, but realizing this benefit may involve additional costs.
Identification of the costs of low-emission growth strategies compared with conventional high-
emission growth paths can help to link agricultural development efforts that generate mitigation
co-benefits to sources of climate finance.

10
The main features of the CSA concept is that it calls for meeting three objectives: sustainably
increasing food security through increases in productivity and incomes, building resilience and
adapting to climate change, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions compared to a business as
usual or baseline scenario (Lipper, McCarthy, Zilberman, Asfaw, & Branca, 2018). From its
inception, recognition of possible trade-offs between the three objectives, and the potential to
increase synergies amongst them through policies, institutions and financing was a key feature of
the CSA concept (FAO, 2009). The need for locally specific solutions was also an important
component. A general framework for assessing trade-offs and synergies was provided in FAO
(2010), along with several examples of sustainable land management practices and “modern”
inputs. However, no specific guidance was provided on how to define a CSA practice, or
prioritize amongst objectives, to develop the site specific solutions. A clear conceptual framing
of the link between sustainable agriculture and CSA was also missing, hindered by the
complexity of tying together the three main objectives.

7.4.2. Renewable Biomass

Carbon sequestrations in terrestrial ecosystems with renewable biomass constitute a major C

sink. This is one of the vital component of natural global carbon cycle of the terrestrial
ecosystem in which plants harness the energy of the sun and accumulate carbon from the
atmosphere to produce biomass on which the rest of the biota depend (Dhillon & Wuehlisch,
2012). The great innovation of agriculture 10,000 years ago was to manage the photosynthesis of
plants and ecosystems so as to dependably increase yields. With 5 billion hectares of Earth’s
surface used for agriculture (69 percent under pasture and 28 percent in crops) in 2002, and with
half a billion more hectares expected by 2020, agricultural production systems and landscapes
have to not only deliver food and fiber but also support biodiversity and important ecosystem
services, including climate change mitigation (FAO, 2008). Therefore, a major strategy for
achieving this is to increase the role of perennial crops, shrubs, and trees, so that carbon is
absorbed and stored in the biomass of roots, trunks, and branches while crops are being
produced. Owing to its numerous ancillary benefits, the terrestrial C sequestration is often
termed as win-win or no-regrets strategy. It offers multiple benefits even without the threat of
global climate change. Ability of forests, agroforestry, agricultural crops and other vegetation as

11
terrestrial carbon sinks to absorb CO 2 emissions and mitigate the climate change, has attracted
worldwide attention.

7.4.3. Renewable Energy (OECD, 2011)

This can be achieved by

 Electricity Generation through Wind power Geothermal power (only if net emission
reductions can be demonstrated), Solar power (concentrated solar power, photovoltaic
power), Biomass or biogas power that does not decrease biomass and soil carbon pools
(only if net emission reductions can be demonstrated), Ocean power (wave, tidal, ocean
currents, salt gradient, etc.) and Hydropower plants (only if net emission reductions can
be demonstrated).
 Heat Production or other renewable energy application- Solar water heating and other
thermal applications of solar power in all sectors, thermal applications of geothermal
power in all sectors, wind-driven pumping systems or similar, thermal applications of
sustainably/produced bioenergy in all sectors, incl. efficient, improved biomass stoves,
etc.
 Transmission systems, Greenfield- New transmission systems (lines, substations) or new
systems (e.g., new information and communication technology, storage facility, etc.) and
mini-grid to facilitate the integration of renewable energy sources into the grid,
renewable energy power plant retrofits, improving existing systems to facilitate the
integration of renewable energy sources into grid, etc.

7.4.4. Lower Carbon and Efficient Energy Generation (OECD, 2011)

 Transmission and distribution systems- retrofit of transmission lines or substations and/or

distribution systems to reduce energy use and/or technical losses, excluding capacity
expansion
 Power Plants- thermal power plant retrofit to fuel switch from a more GHG intensive fuel
to a different, less GHG-intensive fuel type, conversion of existing fossil-fuel based
power plant to cogeneration technologies that generate electricity in addition to providing
heating/cooling, waste heat recovery improvements, energy-efficiency improvement in
existing thermal power plant, etc.

12
7.4.5. Energy Efficiency (OECD, 2011)

 Energy efficiency in industry- industrial energy-efficiency improvements though the

installation of more efficient equipment, changes in processes, reduction of heat losses
and/or increased waste heat recovery, installation of co/generation plants that generate
electricity in addition to providing heating/cooling, more efficient facility replacement of
an older facility (old facility retired)
 Energy efficiency in commercial, public and residential sectors (buildings)- Energy-
efficiency improvement in lighting, appliances and equipment, substitution of existing
heating/cooling systems for buildings by co/generation plants that generate electricity in
addition to providing heating/cooling, retrofit of existing buildings: Architectural or
building changes that enable reduction of energy consumption
 Energy efficiency in public services- Energy-efficiency improvement in utilities and
public services through the installation of more efficient lighting or equipment,
rehabilitation of district heating systems, utility heat loss reduction and/or increased
waste heat recovery, improvement in utility scale energy efficiency through efficient
energy use, and loss reduction
 Vehicle energy efficiency fleet retrofit through existing vehicles, rail or boat fleet retrofit
or replacement (including the use of lower-carbon fuels, electric or hydrogen
technologies, etc.)
 Energy audits Energy- audits to energy end-users, including industries, buildings, and
transport systems

7.4.6. Agriculture, Forestry and Land Use (OECD, 2011)

 Agriculture- reduction in energy use in traction (e.g. efficient tillage), irrigation, and
other agriculture processes and agriculture projects that do not deplete and/or improve
existing carbon pools (Reduction in fertilizer use, rangeland management, collection and
use of bagasse, rice husks, or other agricultural waste, low tillage techniques that increase
carbon contents of soil, rehabilitation of degraded lands, etc.)
 Afforestation and reforestation, and biosphere conservation- afforestation (plantations) on
non-forested land, reforestation on previously forested land Sustainable forest
management activities that increase carbon stocks or reduce the impact of forestry

13
 activities, biosphere conservation projects (including payments for ecosystem services)
targeting reducing emissions from the deforestation or degradation of ecosystems
 Livestock- livestock projects that reduce methane or other GHG emissions (manure
management with bio-digesters, etc.)
 Biofuels- production of biofuels (including biodiesel and bioethanol)

7.4.7. Non-Energy GHG Reductions (OECD, 2011)

 Fugitive emissions- reduction of gas flaring or methane fugitive emissions in the oil and
gas industry, coal mine methane capture
 Carbon capture and storage- projects for carbon capture and storage technology that
intend to prevent release of large quantities of CO2 into the atmosphere from fossil fuel
use in power generation, and process emissions in other industries
 Air conditioning and refrigeration- retrofit of existing industrial, commercial and
residential infrastructure to switch to cooling agent with lower global warming potential
 Industrial processes- reduction in GHG emissions resulting from industrial process
improvements and cleaner production (e.g. cement, chemical), excluding carbon capture
and storage

7.4.8. Waste and Wastewater (OECD, 2011)

 Treatment of wastewater if not a compliance requirement (e.g. performance standard or

safeguard) as part of a larger project that reduce methane emissions(only if net emission
reductions can be demonstrated)
 Waste management and waste-to-energy projects that reduce methane emissions and
generate energy (e.g. incineration of waste, landfill gas capture, and landfill gas
combustion)
 Waste-recycling projects that recover or reuse materials and waste as inputs into new
products or as a resource (only if net emission reductions can be demonstrated).

7.4.9. Transport (OECD, 2011)

 Urban transport modal change- urban mass transit, non-motorized transport (bicycles and
pedestrian mobility)

14
  Transport oriented urban development- integration of transport and urban development
planning (dense development, multiple land-use, walking communities, transit
connectivity, etc.), leading to a reduction in the use of passenger cars, transport demand
management measures to reduce GHG emissions (e.g., speed limits, high-occupancy
vehicle lanes, congestion charging/road pricing, parking management, restriction or
auctioning of license plates, car-free city areas, low emission zones)
 Inter-urban transport Railway transport ensuring a modal shift of freight and/or passenger
transport from road to rail (improvement of existing lines or construction of new lines)

7.4.10. Low-Carbon Technologies (OECD, 2011)

 Products or equipment- projects producing components, equipment or infrastructure

dedicated for the renewable and energy efficiency sectors
 Research and development of renewable energy or energy efficiency technologies

7.4.11. Cross-Cutting Issues (OECD, 2011)

 Support to national, regional or local policy, through technical assistance or policy

lending, fully or partially dedicated to climate change policy or action- mitigation
national, sectorial or territorial policies/planning/action plan policy/planning/institutions,
energy sector policies and regulations (energy efficiency standards or certification
schemes; energy efficiency procurement schemes; renewable energy policies), systems
for monitoring the emissions of greenhouse gases Efficient pricing of fuels and electricity
(subsidy rationalization, efficient end-user tariffs, and efficient regulations on electricity
generation, transmission, or distribution), education, training, capacity building and
awareness raising on climate change mitigation/sustainable energy/sustainable transport;
mitigation research, other policy and regulatory activities, including those in non-energy
sectors, leading to climate change mitigation or mainstreaming of climate action
 Other activities with net greenhouse gas reduction- any other activity not included in this
list for which the results of an ex-ante greenhouse gas accounting (undertaken according
to commonly agreed methodologies) show emission reductions
 Financing instruments- Carbon Markets and finance (purchase, sale, trading, financing
and other technical assistance. Includes all activities related to compliance-grade carbon

15
 assets and mechanisms, such as CDM, JI, AAUs, as well as well-established voluntary
carbon standards like the VCS or the Gold Standard

7.5. The Kyoto Mechanisms

The core commitment under the Kyoto Protocol, contained in Article 3, paragraph 1, requires
each Annex I Party to ensure that its total emissions from GHG sources listed in Annex A to the
Kyoto Protocol over the commitment period do not exceed its allowable level of emissions
(Annex A covers GHG emissions from the energy, industrial processes, solvent and other
product use, agriculture and waste sectors). The allowable level of emissions is called the Party’s
assigned amount. Each Annex I Party has a specific emissions target inscribed in Annex B to the
Kyoto Protocol, which is set relative to its emissions of GHGs in its base. The Annex B
emissions target and the Party’s emissions of GHGs in the base year determine the Party’s initial
assigned amount 1 for the Kyoto Protocol’s five-year first commitment period (2008 – 2012).
The quantity of the initial assigned amount is denominated in individual units, called assigned
amount units (AAUs), each of which represents an allowance to emit one metric tons of carbon
dioxide equivalent (t CO2 eq).The Kyoto Protocol allows Annex I Parties (Developed Countries)
to add to or subtract from their initial assigned amount, thus raising or lowering the level of their
allowed emissions over the commitment period, by trading Kyoto units with other Parties
(UNFCCC, 2008). These additions and subtractions are carried out in accordance with the so-
called Kyoto mechanisms:

 Emissions trading under Article 17: Under this mechanism, an Annex I Party may
transfer Kyoto units to or acquire units from another Annex I Party. Emissions trading
does not affect the total assigned amount of Annex I Parties collectively; rather, it re-
distributes the assigned amount among them.
 Joint implementation (JI) under Article 6: is a project-based mechanism by which one
Annex I Party can invest in a project that reduces emissions or enhances sequestration in
another Annex I Party, and receive credit for the emission reductions or removals
achieved through that project. The unit associated with JI is called an emission reduction
unit (ERU). ERUs are converted from existing AAUs and RMUs before being
transferred. JI does not affect the total assigned amount of Annex I Parties collectively;

16
 rather it redistributes the assigned amount among them (Kollmuss, Schneider, &
Zhezherin, 2015).
 Clean development mechanism (CDM) under Article 12: is also a project-based
mechanism. CDM credits may be generated from emission reduction projects or from
afforestation and reforestation projects in non-Annex I Parties. Unlike emissions trading
and JI, projects under the CDM create new Kyoto units and their acquisition by Annex I
Parties increases both the total assigned amount available for those Annex I Parties
collectively and their allowable level of emissions. CDM projects result in three types of
Kyoto units. Certified emission reductions (CERs) are issued for projects that reduce
emissions, while temporary CERs (tCERs) and long-term CERs (lCERs) may be issued
for projects that enhance removals through afforestation and reforestation projects
(Kollmuss et al, 2015).

8. Conclusion
The risk of global climate change as a result of rising greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions presents
a profound challenge to the international community. Emissions of carbon dioxide, the principal
greenhouse gas, have risen more than ten-fold since the start of the industrial revolution.
Atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide have risen more than 30 percent as a result and, at
present emission rates, are projected to reach twice the pre-industrial level by the middle of this
century. Although there is no consensus on a safe concentration level, stabilizing concentrations
at any given target will ultimately require reducing net emissions to zero.

Effective mitigation will not be achieved if individual agents advance their own interests
independently. Climate change has the characteristics of a collective action problem at the global
scale, because most greenhouse gases (GHGs) accumulate over time and mix globally, and
emissions by any agent (e.g., individual, community, company, country) affect other agents.4
International cooperation is therefore required to effectively mitigate GHG emissions and
address other climate change issues. Furthermore, research and development in support of
mitigation creates knowledge spillovers. International cooperation can play a constructive role in
the development, diffusion and transfer of knowledge and environmentally sound technologies.

17
9. References
Dhillon, R. S., & Wuehlisch, G. Von. (2012). Mitigation of global warming through renewable
biomass. Biomass and Bioenergy, 48, 75–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2012.11.005

FAO (2008). Expert meeting on climate change adaptation and mitigation, 5-7. Rome: Italy

FAO. (2009a). Food Security and Agricultural Mitigation in Developing Countries: Options for
Capturing Synergies. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 82. Retrieved
from http://www.fao.org/docrep/012/i1318e/i1318e00.pdf

FAO. (2010). Climate-smart agriculture: policies, practices and financing for food security,
adaptation and mitigation. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Rome,
Italy.

FAO. (2017). Climate-Smart Agriculture Sourcebook: Summary. Food and Agriculture

Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. Retrieved from www.fao.org/climate-smart-
agriculture-sourcebook.

Fisheries Integration of Society and Habitats (FISH). (2016). A Guide to Climate-Smart

Agriculture Volume 1: For Extension Workers. Lilongwe, Malawi, and Washington, D.C.,
United States.

Gregory PJ, Ingram JSI, Brklacich, M. (2005). Climate change and food security. Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society: Biological Sciences, 360:2139–2148

Ian Burton, Jan F. Feenstra, Joel B. Smith, R. S. J. T. (1998). Handbook on Methods for Climate
Change Impact Assessment and Adaptation Strategies. UNEP. Nairobi, Kenya.

IEA (2011). CO2 emissions from fuel combustion-Highlights. Available at www.iea.org

IPCC (2001). Climate change 2001: impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. Report of the working
group II. UK: Cambridge University Press; p. 967

18
IPCC (2014). Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working
Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
[Edenhofer, O., R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, E. Farahani, S. Kadner, K. Seyboth, A. Adler, I.
Baum, S. Brunner, P. Eickemeier, B. Kriemann, J. Savolainen, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow, T.
Zwickel and J.C. Minx (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and
New York, NY, USA.

IPCC (2013a). Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis: Working Group I
Contribution to the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change [T.F. Stocker, D. Qin, G.-K. Plattner, M. Tignor, S.K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y.
40 Xia, V. Bex, P.M. Midgley, (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New
York, NY USA. 1535pp.

IPCC (2013b). Summary for Policy Makers. In: Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science
Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change [T.F. Stocker, D. Qin, G.-K. Plattner, M. Tignor, S.K. Allen, J.
Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. 40 Xia, V. Bex, P.M. Midgley, (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, UK and New York, USA.

Kollmuss, A., Schneider, L., & Zhezherin, V. (2015). Has Joint Implementation reduced GHG
emissions ? Lessons learned for the design of carbon market mechanisms. Stockholm
Environment, Stockholm, Sweden.

Kompas, T., Pham, V. H., & Che, T. N. (2018). The Effects of Climate Change on GDP by
Country and the Global Economic Gains from Complying With the Paris Climate Accord.
Earth’s Future, 6(8), 1153–1173. https://doi.org/10.1029/2018EF000922

Lipper, L., Thornton, P., Campbell, B.M., Baedeker, T. (2014). Climate-smart agriculture for
food security. Nature Climate Change, 4(12), 1068–1072. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2437

Lipper, L., McCarthy, N., Zilberman, D., Asfaw, S., & Branca, G. (2018). Climate Smart
Agriculture: Building Resilience to Climate Change. In Natural Resource Management and
Policy (Vol. 52). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-61194-5_13

19
Ludwig, F., Catharien Terwisscha van Scheltinga, J., Verhagen, Bart Kruijt, Ekko van Ierland, R.
D., & Karianne de Bruin, K. de B. and P. K. (2007). Climate change impacts on Developing
Countries - EU Accountability. Public Health, 04.

Maximilian Lackner, T. S. and W.-Y. C. (2012). Introduction to Climate Change Mitigation. In

Handbook of Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation (pp. 0–10).
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-6431-0

McCarthy, N., Lipper, L., Branca, G., & Security, F. (2011). Climate-Smart Agriculture :
Smallholder Adoption and Implications for Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation. In
Organization. https://doi.org/FAO Mitigatiion of Climate Change in Agriculture Series 4

Mendelsohn, R. (2012). The Economics of Adaptation to Climate Change in Developing

Countries. Climate Change Economics, 3(2), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1142/S2010007812500066

Mertz, O., Halsnæs, K., Olesen, J. E., & Rasmussen, K. (2009). Adaptation to climate change in
developing countries. Environmental Management, 43(5), 743–752.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-008-9259-3

Mirza, M. M. Q. (2003). Climate change and extreme weather events: can developing countries
adapt? Climate Policy, 3(3), 233–248. https://doi.org/10.3763/cpol.2003.0330

OECD (2011). Common Principles for Climate Mitigation Finance Tracking. Available at
http://www.oecd.org/env/cc.

Rijal, S. (2019). Agroforestry System : Approaches for Climate Change Mitigation and
Adaptation. Big Data in Agriculture, 1(2), 23–26. https://doi.org/10.26480/bda.02.2019.23.25.

UNFCCC (2008). Kyoto Protocol Reference Manual on Accounting of Emissions and Assigned
Amount. Climate Change Secretariat (UNFCCC), Bonn, Germany.

UNFCCC (2011). Compilation of Information on Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions to

Be Implemented by Parties Not Included in Annex I to the Convention. United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change. Available at:
http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2011/awglca14/eng/inf01.pdf.

20
UNFCCC (2012a). Appendix I—Quantified Economy-Wide Emissions Targets for 2020. United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Available at:
http://unfccc.int/meetings/copenhagen_dec_2009/items/5264.php.

UNFCCC (2012b). Appendix II—Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions of Developing

Country Parties. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Available at:
http://unfccc.int/meetings/cop_15/copenhagen_ accord/items/5265.php.

UNEP (2012). The Emissions Gap Report 2012. United Nations Environment Programme,
Nairobi, Kenya, ISBN: 978-92-807-3303-7.

21