BLOOD

“classified as a liquid connective tissue”

FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD BLOOD PLASMA

● Protection ● Composed of approximately

● Transportation 91.5 percent water, 8.5 percent
● Regulation solute most of which are
protein (7% by weight)
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
BLOOD

● Color range
● Oxygen-rich blood is scarlet
red
● Oxygen-poor blood is dull
red
● pH must remain between
7.35–7.45
● Blood temperature is slightly
higher than body
temperature

COMPONENTS OF BLOOD

● Blood Plasma - a watery liquid

extracellular matrix that
contains dissolved FORMED ELEMENTS
substances
● Formed elements - are cells ● Red blood cells
and cell fragments. ● White blood cells
● Platelets

RED BLOOD CELLS

(ERYTHROCYTES)

● Contain the
oxygen-carrying
protein
hemoglobin which
is a pigment that
gives whole blood
its red color.
● RBCs are biconcave discs with a
diameter of 7-8 micrometer.
 BLOOD
“classified as a liquid connective tissue”
● RBC are highly specialized for
their oxygen transport function.
● Lives only about 120 days
because of the wear and tear
their plasma membranes
undergo as they squeeze
through blood capillaries.
PRODUCTION OF RBC
Erythropoiesis
● it is the production of RBCs
● starts in the red bone marrow
with a precursor cell called a
proerythroblast
● a cell near the end of the
development sequence ejects
its nucleus and becomes a
reticulocyte
WHITE BLOOD CELLS
(LEUKOCYTES)
● have nuclei and do not
contain hemoglobin.
● classified into granular and
agranular
Granular – granules in their
cytoplasm can be stained
Agranular – Lack visible
cytoplasmic granules
GRANULAR LEUKOCYTES
EOSINOPHIL
● Has a large,
uniform sized
granules
● They stain red-orange with
acidic dyes
● The granules usually do not
cover or obscure the nucleus,
which most often has two
lobes connected by a thick
strand of chromatin.
● Found in response to
allergies and parasitic worms
BASOPHIL
-The round, variable-sized granules
of a basophil are basophilic
● they stain
blue-purple
with basic dyes
● have
histamine- containing
granules
● initiate inflammation
NEUTROPHIL
-The granules of a neutrophil are
smaller, evenly distributed, and pale
lilac in color
● The nucleus has
two to five
lobes,
connected by
very thin
strands of chromatin.
● Act as phagocytes at active
sites of infection
AGRANULOCYTES MONOCYTES
● -are 12–20 μ m in diameter
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“classified as a liquid connective tissue”

The nucleus of a develop into precursor cells

monocyte is usually called megakaryoblasts
kidney shaped or ● Platelets help stop blood loss
horseshoe shaped, and from damaged blood vessels
the cytoplasm is blue by forming a platelet plug.
gray and has a foamy appearance. ● Their granules also contain
chemicals that, once released,
The color and appearance are due
promote blood clotting.
to very fine azurophilic granules,
Platelets have a short life
which are lysosomes.
span, normally just 5 to 9
● Largest of the white blood days.
cells
HEMATOPOEISIS
● Function as macrophages
● Important in fighting chronic ● Blood cell formation
infection ● Occurs in red bone marrow
● All blood cells are derived
LYMPHOCYTES
from a common stem cell
The nucleus is round (hemocytoblast)
or slightly indented ● Hemocytoblast
and stains darkly. differentiation
o Lymphoid stem cell produces
The cytoplasm stains
lymphocytes
sky blue and forms a
o Myeloid stem cell produces
rim around the nucleus
other formed elements
The larger the cell, the more
CONTROL OF ERYTHROCYTE
cytoplasm is visible.
PRODUCTION
May be as small as 6–9 μ m in
● Rate is controlled by a
diameter or as large as 10–14 μ m in
hormone (erythropoietin)
diameter.
● Kidneys produce most
● Nucleus fills most of the cell erythropoietin as a response
● Play an important role in the to reduced oxygen levels in
immune response the blood
● Homeostasis is maintained by
PLATELETS
negative feedback from blood
● Myeloid stem cells develop oxygen levels
into mega karyocytecolony-
forming cells that in turn
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“classified as a liquid connective tissue”
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF
BLOOD
Sites of blood cell formation
● The fetal liver and spleen are
early sites of blood cell
formation
● Bone marrow takes over
hematopoiesis by the seventh
month
● Fetal hemoglobin differs from
hemoglobin produced after
birth
● muscles to spasms
HEMOSTASIS
● Stoppage of blood flow
● Result of a break in a blood
vessel
● Hemostasis involves three
phases
o Platelet plug formation
o Vascular spasms
o Coagulation
PLATELET PLUG FORMATION
● Collagen fibers are exposed
by a break in a blood vessel
● Platelets become “sticky” and
cling to fibers
● Anchored platelets release
chemicals to attract more
platelets
● Platelets pile up to form a
platelet plug
VASCULAR SPASMS
● Anchored platelets release
serotonin
● Serotonin causes blood vessel
● Spasms narrow the blood
vessel, decreasing blood loss
COAGULATION
● Injured tissues release
thromboplastin
● PF3 (a phospholipid) interacts
with thromboplastin, blood
protein clotting factors, and
calcium ions to trigger a
clotting cascade
● Prothrombin activator
converts prothrombin to
thrombin (an enzyme)
● Thrombin joins fibrinogen
proteins into hair-like fibrin
● Fibrin forms a meshwork (the
basis for a clot)
BLOOD CLOTTING
● Blood usually clots within 3 to
6 minutes
● The clot remains as
endothelium regenerates
 BLOOD
“classified as a liquid connective tissue”
● The clot is broken down after
tissue repair
UNDESIRABLE CLOTTING
Thrombus
● A clot in an unbroken blood
vessel
● Can be deadly in areas like
the heart
Embolus
● A thrombus that breaks away
and floats freely in the
bloodstream
● Can later clog vessels in
critical areas such as the brain
BLEEDING DISORDER
Thrombocytopenia
● Platelet deficiency
● Even normal movements can
cause bleeding from small
blood vessels that require
platelets for clotting
Hemophilia
● Hereditary bleeding disorder
● Normal clotting factors are
missing
BLOOD GROUPS AND
TRANSFUSION
● The surfaces of erythrocytes
contain a genetically
determined assortment of
antigens composed of
glycoproteins and glycolipids.
● These antigens, called
agglutinogens occur in
characteristic combinations.
Based on the presence or
absence of various antigens,
blood is categorized into
different blood groups.
● Within a given blood group,
there may be two or more
different blood types.
● Large losses of blood have
serious consequences
o Loss of 15 to 30 percent
causes weakness
o Loss of over 30 percent
causes shock, which is fatal
● Transfusions are the only way
to replace blood quickly
● Transfused blood must be of
the same blood group
HUMAN BLOOD GROUPS
● Blood contains genetically
determined proteins
● A foreign protein (antigen)
may be attacked by the
immune system
● Blood is “typed” by using
antibodies that will cause
blood with certain proteins to
clump (agglutination)
ABO BLOOD GROUPS
Based on the presence or absence of
two antigens
● Type A
● Type B
 BLOOD
“classified as a liquid connective tissue”
The lack of these antigens is called
● Type O
The presence of both A and B is
called type AB
The presence of either A or B is
called types A and B, respectively
Rh BLOOD GROUP
● Named because of the
presence or absence of one of
eight Rh antigens
(agglutinogen D)
● Most Americans are Rh+
● Problems can occur in mixing
Rh+ blood into a body with
Rh– blood
Rh DANGERS DURING
PREGNANCY
● Danger is only when the
mother is Rh– and the father
is Rh+ , and the child inherits
the Rh+ factor
● The mismatch of an Rh–
mother carrying an Rh+ baby
can cause problems for the
unborn child
● The first pregnancy usually
proceeds without problems
● The immune system is
sensitized after the first
pregnancy
● In a second pregnancy, the
mother’s immune system
produces antibodies to attack
the Rh+ blood (hemolytic
disease of the newborn)
BLOOD TYPING
● Blood samples are mixed with
anti-A and anti-B serum
● Coagulation or no
coagulation leads to
determining blood type
● Typing for ABO and Rh
factors is done in the same
manner
● Cross matching – testing for
agglutination of donor RBCs
by the recipient’s serum, and
vice versa TRANSFUSION
Is the transfer of whole blood or
blood components into the
 BLOOD
“classified as a liquid connective tissue”
bloodstream or directly into the red
bone marrow.
A transfusion is most often given to
alleviate anemia, to increase blood
volume (for example, after a severe
hemorrhage), or to improve
immunity.
Agglutination - is an antigen–
antibody response in which RBCs
become cross linked to one another.
TYPING AND CROSS MATCHING
BLOOD FOR TRANSFUSION
● To avoid blood-type
mismatches, medical
technologists type the
patient’s blood and then
either cross-match it to
potential donor blood or
screen it for the presence of
antibodies.
● Blood typing use antisera
● Cross-match - the possible
donor RBCs are mixed with
the recipient’s serum. If
agglutination does not occur,
the recipient does not have
antibodies that will attack the
donor RBCs.
HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES
-Anemia is a condition in which the
oxygen-carrying capacity of blood is
reduced. All of the many types of
anemia are characterized by
reduced numbers of RBCs or a
decreased amount of hemoglobin in
the blood.
● Inadequate absorption of
iron, excessive loss of iron,
increased iron requirement,
or insufficient intake of iron
causes iron deficiency anemia
● Inadequate intake of vitamin
B12 or folic acid causes
megaloblastic anemia
● Insufficient hemopoiesis
resulting from an inability of
the stomach to produce
intrinsic factor, which is
needed for absorption of
vitamin B12 in the small
intestine, causes pernicious
anemia.
● RBC plasma membranes
rupture prematurely in
 BLOOD
“classified as a liquid connective tissue”

● hemolytic anemia in red bone marrow interferes

● Deficient synthesis of with the production of red
hemoglobin occurs in blood cells, white blood cells,
● thalassemia and platelets.
● Destruction of red bone
marrow results in aplastic
anemia.

The RBCs of a person with sickle-

cell disease (SCD) contain Hb-S, an
abnormal kind of hemoglobin.
When Hb-S gives up oxygen to the
interstitial fluid, it forms long, stiff,
rodlike structures that bend the
erythrocyte into a sickle shape

LEUKEMIA

-Refers to a group of red bone

marrow cancers in which abnormal
white blood cells multiply
uncontrollably.

● The accumulation of the

cancerous white blood cells