KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, KUMASI

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

(PETROCHEMICAL ENGINEERING)

PCE 455 POLLUTION CONTROL

ASSIGNMENT 1

SOAP AND DETERGENTS INDUSTRIES

GROUP 10
No. NAMES INDEX NUMBERS
1 AFRIYIE BENEDICT DUODU 8364719
2 YEBOAH DAVID ANTWI 8372219
3 MANTEY JOSHUA KOJO. A 8369219
4 EDEM BLEPONY 8369119
5 POKU JOSHUA 8370819
7 ANSU SYLVESTER 8366119
8 ASANTE BISMARK 8370419
TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.0 INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................... 2

1.1 Definitions of soaps and Detergents ........................................................................ 3

1.2 Raw materials for the production of soaps and detergent .................................... 3

1.3 Uses of Soap and Detergents .................................................................................... 4

1.3 The Chemistry of Soaps and Detergents ................................................................. 5

2.0 HISTORY OF THE SOAP AND DETERGENTS INDUSTRY .......................... 6

3.0 SOAP AND DETERGENTS INDUSTRY DESCRIPTION ................................. 9

4.0 PROCESS DESCRIPTION OF SOAPS AND DETERGENTS ......................... 10

4.1 Soap Manufacturing Processes .............................................................................. 10

4.2 General production routes for soap and detergents production ........................ 11

6.0 TYPES OF POLLUTION IN THE SOAP AND DETERGENTS INDUSTRY 13

6.1 SOURCES OF POLLUTANTS FROM THE INDUSTRY ................................ 15

7.0 EFFECTS OF POLLUTANTS FROM SOAP AND DETERGENTS ............... 16

7.1 Occupational Effects and Diseases ........................................................................ 16

7.2 Environmental Effects of the various Pollutants in the Industry ....................... 17

8.0 MEASURES IN MITIGATING THE POLLUTANTS FROM THE INDUSTRY 18

9.0 CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................... 19

10. REFERENCES........................................................................................................ 20

1
1.0 INTRODUCTION

The soap and detergents industry is a significant sector that plays a vital role in the global economy.

It produces a wide range of products, including laundry detergents, dishwashing liquids, personal

care products, and industrial cleaners. The industry has undergone significant changes over the

years, with advancements in technology, changes in consumer preferences, and increasing

awareness about environmental issues. According to a report by Grand View Research, the global

soap and detergent market size was valued at USD 97.26 billion in 2020 and is expected to grow

at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 5.0% from 2021 to 2028 (Grand View Research,

2021). The increasing demand for household and personal care products, coupled with the growing

population and urbanization, are some of the factors driving the growth of the industry.

The soap and detergents industry is also facing several challenges related to pollution control, the

adoption of sustainable production practices, and the use of more sustainable raw materials (Singh

et al., 2020). The industry is working towards addressing these challenges by implementing

pollution control measures, adopting sustainable production practices, and using more sustainable

raw materials. The industry is also subject to various environmental and social concerns, such as

pollution, deforestation, and labor rights. Many companies in the industry are taking steps to

address these concerns, such as adopting sustainable sourcing practices, reducing waste and

emissions, and improving labor conditions. The soap and detergent industry have undergone

significant changes over the years, with manufacturers focusing on developing eco-friendly and

sustainable products. And it is precisely now, when we begin to wonder about the impact of soaps

and detergents on our planet, that its manufacturing is at its highest point.

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1.1 Definitions of soaps and Detergents

A detergent is a substance or a mixture containing soaps and/or surfactants (any organic

substance/mixture) intended for washing and cleaning processes.

Detergents may be in many forms, for example, traditional powders, unit dose tablets,

concentrated liquids, liquid capsules, pastes or cakes, and come in a range of variants to meet

consumers’ needs on cleaning, skincare, fabric care and fragrances. They may be for household,

institutional or industrial purposes.

Examples of everyday detergent products are laundry and fabric softeners, all-purpose cleaners

and mixtures intended for soaking (pre-washing) rinsing or bleaching. Detergents may also be

biocidal, e.g. disinfectants, bleaches.

1.2 Raw materials for the production of soaps and detergent

Mainly, four basic raw materials are involved in the manufacture of soap.

1. Oils and fats

2. Soda lye or potash lye

3. Brine (for glycerin recovery)

4. Additives (sodium carbonate, sodium silicate, dyes, perfumes, etc.) as secondary products.

5. Surfactants (sulphonic acid)

3
1.3 Uses of Soap and Detergents

Soap and detergents are cleaning agents that are used to remove dirt, grime, and other unwanted

substances from a variety of surfaces, such as clothes, dishes, floors, and countertops. Here are

some of the general uses of soap and detergents:

Personal hygiene: Soap is commonly used for personal hygiene purposes, such as washing

hands, face, and body.

Laundry: Detergents are used for washing clothes and removing dirt, stains, and odors.

Dishwashing: Dishwashing detergents are used for cleaning dishes and kitchenware.

Household cleaning: Soap and detergents are used for cleaning floors, walls, countertops, and

other surfaces in the home.

Car washing: Detergents are commonly used for washing cars and other vehicles to remove

dirt and grime.

Industrial cleaning: Soap and detergents are used in industrial cleaning applications to remove

dirt, grease, and other contaminants from machinery, equipment, and surfaces.

Agriculture: Detergents are used for cleaning farm equipment and animal enclosures.

4
1.3 The Chemistry of Soaps and Detergents

The Chemistry of Soap

Soap is made by hydrolyzing a triglyceride using an alkaline solution. Triglycerides are typically

triesters consisting of three long-chain aliphatic carboxylic acid chains appended to a single

glycerol molecule. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is commonly known as lye.

The process involves heating the animal or vegetable oil in the lye. Carboxylate salts and

glycerol then combine with the cations of the hydroxide compound to form a hydrolyze.

5
2.0 HISTORY OF THE SOAP AND DETERGENTS INDUSTRY

The history of the soap and detergent industry dates back to ancient times. The first evidence of

soap making was found in ancient Babylon, where a soap-like substance made from animal fat and

wood ash was used for washing and cleaning. The ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans also

used soap for personal hygiene, and soap-making became a popular trade in Europe during the

Middle Ages.

The industrial revolution of the 19th century brought significant changes to the soap and detergent

industry. In 1820, a French chemist named Eugene Chevreul discovered the chemical composition

of soap, which led to improvements in the soap-making process and the development of new soap

products. In the 20th century, the introduction of synthetic detergents revolutionized the industry.

In 1916, the German chemist Fritz Hofmann discovered the first synthetic detergent, which was

made from petrochemicals and could be produced more efficiently and at a lower cost than

traditional soap. By the 1930s, synthetic detergents had replaced soap as the preferred cleaning

agent for household use. In the decades that followed, the soap and detergent industry continued

to innovate and develop new products. In the 1950s, detergents containing enzymes were

introduced, which improved their effectiveness in removing tough stains (4). In the 1960s, liquid

detergents were introduced, which were more convenient and easier to use than traditional powder

detergents.

In the 1970s and 1980s, environmental concerns began to impact the soap and detergent industry.

The use of phosphates in laundry detergents, for example, was found to contribute to water

pollution and eutrophication in rivers and lakes (5). As a result, regulations were introduced to

limit the use of harmful chemicals in cleaning products and promote the development of more

environmentally-friendly alternatives.

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2.1 Early soap production

Early soap makers probably used ashes and animal fats. Simple wood or plant ashes containing

potassium carbonate were dispersed in water, and fat was added to the solution. This mixture was

then boiled; ashes were added again and again as the water evaporated. During this process a slow

chemical splitting of the neutral fat took place; the fatty acids could then react with the alkali

carbonates of the plant ash to form soap (this reaction is called saponification). Animal fats

containing a percentage of free fatty acids were used by the Celts. The presence of free fatty acids

certainly helped to get the process started. This method probably prevailed until the end of

the Middle Ages, when slaked lime came to be used to causticize the alkali carbonate. Through

this process, chemically neutral fats could be saponified easily with the caustic lye. The production

of soap from a handicraft to an industry was helped by the introduction of the Leblanc process for

the production of soda ash from brine (about 1790) and by the work of a French chemist, Michel

Eugène Chevreul, who in 1823 showed that the process of saponification is the chemical process

of splitting fat into the alkali salt of fatty acids (that is, soap) and glycerin.

7
2.2 Early detergent production

The first synthetic detergents for general use, however, were produced by the Germans in

the World War I period so that available fats could be utilized for other purposes. These detergents

were chemicals of the short-chain alkylnaphthalene-sulfonate type, made by

coupling propyl or butyl alcohols with naphthalene and subsequent sulfonation, and appeared

under the name of Nekal. These products were only fair detergents but good wetting agents and

are still being produced in large quantities for use in the textile industry.

In the late 1920s and early ’30s, molecules consisting of long-chain alcohols were sulfonated and

sold as the neutralized sodium salts without any further additions except for sodium sulfate as an

extender. In the early ’30s molecules consisting of long-chain alkylaryl sulfonates

(with benzene as the aromatic nucleus and the alkyl portion made from a kerosene fraction)

appeared on the market in the United States. Again, these were available as the sodium salts

extended with sodium sulfates. Both the alcohol sulfates and the alkylaryl sulfonates were sold as

cleaning materials but did not make any appreciable impression on the total market. By the end

of World War II the alkylaryl sulfonates had almost completely swamped the sales of alcohol

sulfates for the limited uses to which they were applied as general cleaning materials, but the

alcohol sulfates were making big inroads into the shampoo and fine detergent fields.

Historically, synthetic detergents began as mainly a substitute for fat-based soap but developed

into a sophisticated product, superior in many respects to soap.

8
3.0 SOAP AND DETERGENTS INDUSTRY DESCRIPTION

The soap and detergent industry have undergone significant changes over the years, with

manufacturers focusing on developing eco-friendly and sustainable products. The demand for eco-

friendly products has been driven by increasing awareness of the negative impact of synthetic

chemicals on human health and the environment.

The soap and detergent industry are a sector that includes the manufacturing of cleaning products

such as soaps, detergents, and other household cleaning agents. These products are used for a

variety of purposes, including personal hygiene, laundry, dishwashing, and cleaning surfaces.

Soaps are typically made from natural ingredients such as animal fat or vegetable oil, while

detergents are synthetic products made from petrochemicals. Both soaps and detergents work by

breaking down dirt and grease through a process called emulsification, in which water molecules

surround and lift away the dirt and oil.

The soap and detergent industry is a large and diverse sector that includes a variety of companies

and products. Some of the biggest players in the industry are multinational corporations such as

Procter & Gamble, Unilever, and Henkel, which produce a wide range of cleaning products for

global markets.

In addition to household cleaning products, the soap and detergent industry also includes products

for commercial and industrial use, such as industrial detergents, degreasers, and sanitizers. In

response, many companies have developed new products and technologies that are more

environmentally-friendly, such as biodegradable detergents and plant-based cleaning agents.

9
4.0 PROCESS DESCRIPTION OF SOAPS AND DETERGENTS

4.1 Soap Manufacturing Processes

Considering the soap manufacturing processes, there are three basic process methods that are used

industrially.

1 Cold process (the reaction takes place substantially at room temperature)

2 Semi boiled process (the rection takes place near the boiling point)

3 Hot process/ Fully boiled process (the reactors are boiled at least once and the glycerol is

recovered)

These three processes differ mainly in the saponification temperature. We will discuss more about

this in the saponification step. From these processes, the cold process and the hot process are the

most commonly used. In these three processes, soap production is mainly done in four steps.

1 Saponification

2 Glycerin removal

3 Soap purification

4 Finishing

10
4.2 General production routes for soap and detergents production

The production process for soap and detergents typically involves several unit operations, each of

which is carried out using specialized equipment. Below is a brief description of the major unit

operations and the equipment used in the soap and detergents industry:

1. Mixing: The first step in the production of soap and detergents is the mixing of the raw

materials, which typically include oils, fats, and alkali. This is done in large mixing tanks

using high-speed agitators to ensure that the ingredients are evenly distributed.

2. Saponification: Saponification is the process by which the raw materials are transformed into

soap. This is typically done by adding the mixture of oils, fats, and alkali to a reaction vessel,

where it is heated and agitated to promote the chemical reaction. The reaction vessel is

typically a jacketed tank with a mixer, heating coils, and temperature control system.

3. Neutralization: After saponification, the soap is often too alkaline and needs to be

neutralized. This is done by adding an acid, such as citric acid, to the soap and mixing it in a

neutralization tank equipped with a mixer.

4. Drying: The soap is then dried to remove excess moisture and bring it to a suitable moisture

content for shaping and packaging. This is typically done using a dryer, which can be a spray

dryer, a rotary dryer, or a fluidized bed dryer.

5. Shaping and packaging: Once the soap is dried, it is shaped and packaged. This is typically

done using a soap stamping machine or extruder, which shapes the soap into bars, flakes, or

other forms, and a packaging machine, which packages the soap into boxes, bags, or other

containers.

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12
6.0 TYPES OF POLLUTION IN THE SOAP AND DETERGENTS INDUSTRY

Pollutants from the soap and detergents industry can have significant negative effects on the

environment. According to a study by Xu et al. (2021), "the discharge of detergents containing

surfactants can lead to serious environmental problems, such as eutrophication, toxicity to aquatic

organisms, and degradation of water quality."

One of the major pollutants in the soap and detergents industry is phosphorus, which is commonly

used as a builder in detergents. According to a study by EEA (European Environment Agency)

(2019), "phosphorus discharges from households, particularly from the use of dishwasher

detergents, contribute to eutrophication of surface waters and harm aquatic ecosystems."

Another significant pollutant in the soap and detergents industry is nonylphenol ethoxylates

(NPEs), which are used as surfactants in some detergents. NPEs are known to be persistent and

can accumulate in the environment, causing harm to aquatic organisms. According to a study by

Miao et al. (2018), "NPEs can have endocrine-disrupting effects on aquatic organisms, such as

fish, and can also cause reproductive and developmental abnormalities."

The soap and detergents industry is known to contribute to various types of pollution, including

water pollution, air pollution, and solid waste pollution. According to a study by Singh et al.

(2020), "soap and detergent manufacturing can lead to the discharge of high levels of organic

matter, nutrients, and surfactants into water bodies, which can cause eutrophication, toxicity to

aquatic organisms, and degradation of water quality."

13
Water pollution from the soap and detergents industry is primarily caused by the discharge of

wastewater containing high levels of organic matter, phosphorus, nitrogen, and surfactants. These

pollutants can have negative impacts on aquatic ecosystems and human health. Additionally, the

production of soap and detergents can also contribute to air pollution through the release of volatile

organic compounds (VOCs) and particulate matter (PM) into the air. These emissions can have

negative impacts on air quality and human health.

Solid waste pollution is another major issue associated with the soap and detergents industry. The

production process generates significant amounts of solid waste, including packaging materials,

unused raw materials, and product waste. According to a study by Adeoye et al. (2020), "the solid

waste generated by the soap and detergents industry can cause environmental degradation, soil

contamination, and health hazards for workers and nearby communities."

In view of this, the soap and detergents industry contribute to various types of pollution, including

water pollution, air pollution, and solid waste pollution. The discharge of wastewater

containing high levels of organic matter, nutrients, and surfactants can have negative impacts on

aquatic ecosystems and human health. Additionally, the production process can contribute to air

pollution through the release of VOCs and PM. Finally, the solid waste generated by the industry

can cause environmental degradation and health hazards. It is essential for the industry to adopt

sustainable practices and develop more environmentally friendly alternatives to reduce the impact

of these pollutants.

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6.1 SOURCES OF POLLUTANTS FROM THE INDUSTRY

The soap and detergents industry can contribute to pollution through the release of various classes

of pollutants into the environment. These pollutants can come from the manufacturing process, as

well as from the use and disposal of the cleaning products themselves. Some of the main classes

of pollutants associated with the soap and detergents industry include:

Nutrients: Soap and detergents can contain high levels of nutrients such as nitrogen and

phosphorus, which can lead to eutrophication in water bodies. Eutrophication is the process by

which excess nutrients cause an overgrowth of algae and other aquatic plants, leading to oxygen

depletion and negative impacts on aquatic ecosystems.

Surfactants: Surfactants are the active ingredients in detergents that help to remove dirt and oil

from surfaces. However, when surfactants are released into the environment, they can be toxic to

aquatic organisms and can also contribute to the formation of foam on water surfaces.

Heavy metals: Some detergents and soaps can contain heavy metals such as lead and mercury,

which can be toxic to aquatic and terrestrial organisms and can persist in the environment for long

periods of time.

Solvents: Some cleaning products contain solvents such as perchloroethylene and

trichloroethylene, which can be harmful to human health and the environment if they are released

into the air or water.

Packaging waste: The packaging used for soaps and detergents can also contribute to pollution if

it is not recycled or disposed of properly.

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7.0 EFFECTS OF POLLUTANTS FROM SOAP AND DETERGENTS

7.1 Occupational Effects and Diseases

The soap and detergents industry can pose a risk for occupational diseases for workers who are

exposed to chemicals used in the manufacturing process. According to a study by Salem et al.

(2018), "workers in the soap and detergent industry are at risk of developing respiratory diseases,

skin irritation, and other health problems due to exposure to various chemicals, such as surfactants,

solvents, and fragrances."

One of the most common occupational diseases associated with the soap and detergents industry

is occupational asthma, which is a respiratory disease caused by exposure to airborne chemicals.

According to a study by Moscato et al. (2019), "occupational asthma is a significant health concern

for workers in the soap and detergent industry, and is often caused by exposure to surfactants,

enzymes, and other chemicals used in the manufacturing process."

Skin irritation is another common occupational disease in the soap and detergents industry, which

can be caused by exposure to chemicals such as solvents and fragrances. According to a study by

Dong et al. (2021), "skin irritation is a frequent health problem among workers in the soap and

detergent industry, and can lead to dermatitis and other skin disorders."

16
7.2 Environmental Effects of the various Pollutants in the Industry

Pollutants from the soap and detergents industry can have significant negative effects on the

environment. According to a study by Xu et al. (2021), "the discharge of detergents containing

surfactants can lead to serious environmental problems, such as eutrophication, toxicity to aquatic

organisms, and degradation of water quality."

One of the major pollutants in the soap and detergents industry is phosphorus, which is commonly

used as a builder in detergents. According to a study by EEA (European Environment Agency)

(2019), "phosphorus discharges from households, particularly from the use of dishwasher

detergents, contribute to eutrophication of surface waters and harm aquatic ecosystems."

Another significant pollutant in the soap and detergents industry is nonylphenol ethoxylates

(NPEs), which are used as surfactants in some detergents. NPEs are known to be persistent and

can accumulate in the environment, causing harm to aquatic organisms. According to a study by

Miao et al. (2018), "NPEs can have endocrine-disrupting effects on aquatic organisms, such as

fish, and can also cause reproductive and developmental abnormalities."

17
8.0 MEASURES IN MITIGATING THE POLLUTANTS FROM THE INDUSTRY

The soap and detergents industry can implement several measures and use equipment to control

pollution and minimize its environmental impact. These measures include:

1. Wastewater treatment: The industry can install wastewater treatment plants to treat the

wastewater generated during the production process. The treatment process involves removing the

contaminants and reducing the organic load and surfactants in the wastewater before discharge

into water bodies.

2. Efficient use of raw materials: The industry can reduce the amount of raw materials used in

the production process by optimizing the use of raw materials and improving the efficiency of the

production process.

3. Use of renewable energy: The industry can switch to renewable energy sources such as solar

or wind energy to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and minimize the impact on the environment.

4. Recycling and reuse: The industry can implement recycling and reuse programs for packaging

materials and product waste to minimize the amount of waste generated during production.

5. Use of low-polluting equipment: The industry can invest in low-polluting equipment such as

low-emission boilers and engines, to reduce air pollution.

6. Implementation of cleaner production techniques: The industry can adopt cleaner

production techniques such as using less toxic and biodegradable raw materials, optimizing the

use of energy, and reducing water consumption.

7. Monitoring and reporting: The industry can implement monitoring and reporting programs

to keep track of its environmental performance and identify areas that need improvement.

18
9.0 CONCLUSION

In conclusion, pollution control in the soap and detergents industry is essential to minimize its

environmental impact. The industry can implement several measures, such as wastewater

treatment, efficient use of raw materials, use of renewable energy, recycling and reuse, use of low-

polluting equipment, implementation of cleaner production techniques, and monitoring and

reporting to control pollution. These measures can help reduce the amount of pollutants discharged

into the environment and contribute to a sustainable future.

As highlighted by Singh et al. (2020), "the soap and detergents industry faces several challenges

related to pollution control, including the need for more effective wastewater treatment, the

adoption of cleaner production techniques, and the use of more sustainable raw materials." By

adopting these measures, the industry can minimize its environmental impact and contribute to a

sustainable future.

It is essential for the industry to prioritize pollution control and work towards reducing its impact

on the environment. The implementation of pollution control measures not only benefits the

environment but also enhances the industry's reputation and promotes sustainable business

practices.

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10. REFERENCES

Adeoye, P. A., Ogunyemi, S. O., & Akinnifesi, A. (2020). Environmental impact of soap and

detergent manufacturing companies in Nigeria. Journal of Chemical, Biological and Physical

Sciences, 10(4), 446-461.

EEA (European Environment Agency). (2019). Phosphorus in detergents: a possible ban and its

effects. Retrieved from https://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/water/europes-seas-and-

coasts/assessments/transitions-to-the-next/transition-to-the-next-phase/pressure-state-impact-

phosphorus-in-detergents

Khorshidi, J., Barikani, M., & Gharanjig, K. (2012). Optimization of the production process in the

detergent industry. Journal of Chemistry, 9(3), 1531-1542.

Kumar, P., & Singh, K. (2018). Detergents and the environment. In Handbook of Detergents:

Environmental Impact (pp. 399-417). CRC Press.

Miao, H., Li, J., Li, Y., Zhang, X., Gao, L., & Li, G. (2018). Occurrence and endocrine-disrupting

effects of nonylphenol ethoxylates in aquatic ecosystems: A review. Chemosphere, 191, 759-769.

Xu, J., Wu, Y., Wu, H., Tang, X., & Shen, Y. (2021). Surfactant pollution in aquatic environments:

Occurrence, toxicity, and removal technologies. Environmental Science and Pollution Research,

28(10), 11606-11620.

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