Sub-Degree-Per-Hour MEMS Gyroscope for

Measurement While Drilling at 300°C

David Lin, Robert MacDonald, Dorin Calbaza, Brian Scherer,
Tammy Johnson, Tim Toepfer, David Shaddock, Emad Andarawis
GE Research,
General Electric Company
Niskayuna, NY, USA
linyiz@ge.com

Abstract— The orientation module of MWD tool provides the and safety. Exiting the casing shoe of a partially completed
critical drill bit orientation information, including azimuth, vertical well to start a new lateral section can be particularly
inclination and toolface in order to control the path of wellbore. problematic, as this may require drilling 30 or more meters
Although high end navigation grade gyroscope can meet the away from the casing before the MWD magnetometer provides
accuracy requirement for azimuth finding, the requirements of reliable measurements. Significant expense may be incurred if
cost, size and reliability under harsh environment have largely the trajectory veers off course and the well must be plugged
limited the deployment of gyroscopes in MWD tools. To back and re-drilled [2].
overcome these constraints, GE Research has developed a low
cost, MEMS based Multi-Ring Gyroscope (MRG) capable of
azimuth-seeking in MWD applications at 300oC. The MRG
prototype has been demonstrated to achieve angular random
walk (ARW) better than 0.003 deg/rt(hr) and bias instability of
0.01 deg/hr, capable of meeting azimuth finding accuracy better
than 0.25 deg. It has also been tested to remain fully operational
at 300 oC.

Keywords— MEMS gyroscope, azimuth finding, MWD, high

temperature

I. INTRODUCTION Fig. 1. Orientation module of a MWD tool for directional drilling

Directional drilling is the practice of steering a wellbore
along a predefined trajectory leading to a subsurface target [1].
The method allows for drilling from remote surface locations
into otherwise inaccessible reservoirs and enables higher
energy output. Knowledge of the drill bit orientation and
along-hole depth is the essential feedback used to survey and
control the path of the wellbore. Similar to the roll, pitch and
yaw angles used in navigation, the drill bit attitude, including
azimuth (deviation from the North direction in the horizontal
plane), inclination (deviation from the vertical direction, or
pitch angle) and toolface (roll angle), will need to be measured
to control the quality of the drilling process. This is currently
done by the orientation module in the measurement-while-
drilling (MWD) tool. Fig. 1 shows an example of a commercial
orientation tool which uses accelerometers and magnetometers
to measure orientation.
Unfortunately, magnetometer-based orientation tools are
susceptible to magnetic interference due to the anomalies in the
surrounding environment or by components of the drill string
itself. Poor survey accuracy due to magnetic interference may
compromise well quality and can occasionally create hazardous
drilling conditions. Inaccurate calculation of the trajectory
increases the chance of colliding with an adjacent well or its
completion fractures compromising production, well control
Azimuth seeking by MEMS gyroscopes can overcome the
limitations of magnetic interference in MWD tools. MEMS
Gyroscope-based orientation tools measure the earth rotation
rate vector in order to calculate azimuth, which is also referred
to as gyrocompassing. For azimuth seeking operation, the
gyroscope is mounted on a rotary platform which physically
rotates the horizontal orientation of the gyroscope’s sensitive
axis with respect to the north. This method is referred to as
carouseling or maytagging [3]. The azimuth is calculated from
the phase of the sinusoidal gyroscope output from the
projection of Earth rate when the platform rotates. This method
eliminates the bias and scale factor errors from the azimuth
calculation. Fig. 2 shows our experimental work to establish
the feasibility of MEMS gyrocompassing using a commercial
MEMS gyroscope to achieve 1o azimuth uncertainty measured
at 85oC. Our experiment shows the potential of MEMS inertial
sensors in meeting MWD targets. Oilfield testing results using
MEMS gyroscopes in MWD tools have also been reported by
the other researchers [4, 5].
It is important to recognize the harsh environmental factors
of directional drilling. These include depth of oil and gas wells
range from 3,500 to 30,000 feet, temperature as high as 300o C,
mechanical shock up to 2000G, extreme conditions including
tension, corrosion and cyclic loading and damaging gases.
Macro-scale systems such as hemispherical resonant gyroscope
(HRG), ring laser gyroscopes (RLG) or fiber optic gyroscopes
(FOG) tend to be bulky and expensive, adversely affecting the
economics of the service and preventing the tools from being
used in narrower holes. Many of these systems also suffer
from poor thermal performance and limited lifetime when
exposed to the shock and vibration of the drilling process. The
MEMS gyroscopes, on the other hand, suffer from large long-
term bias drift, which is further exacerbated by high operating
temperature and high mechanical shock and vibration. Our
survey of the published MEMS devices has led to the
discovery that no existing commercial MEMS gyroscopes can
reliably operate at 300oC for 1000+ hours while maintaining
the accuracy needed for the north seeking operation [6]. This
is a critical technology that needs to be invented and
developed.
Fig. 2. MEMS gyrosompassing experimental valiation: (a). Demonstrated
gyroscompassing technique using a commerical MEMS device; (b).
Validated 1o azimuth uncertainty with mutiple runs at 85 oC.
To address these challenges, GE Research has embarked on
a multi-year journey to develop a navigation grade MEMS
gyroscope capable of operating at 300oC and beyond. In this
paper, we will discuss the technical challenges, our innovative
approach and the very promising results from our endeavor.
II. MULTI-RING GYROSCOPE DESIGN
A. North Finding Consideration
Gyrocompassing requires repeatable and stable
measurements of extremely low angular rates (fractions of the
Earth’s rate). For example, 0.5o azimuth accuracy at the 45o
latitude with a 5 minute carouseling time will require a gyro-
scope with angular random walk (ARW) less than 0.01o/√hr
and bias instability less than 0.1o/h which is well into the realm
of short-term navigation grade. To achieve these performance
targets, GE Research has invented a new design called
multiple-ring gyroscope (MRG) [7]. MRG is an axisymmetric
structure utilizing multiple concentric rings as the proof mass,
as shown in Fig. 3. Compared with disk resonator gyroscopes
(DRG) [8], the MRG has much lower mechanical stiffness
which allows for higher drive amplitude, resulting in reduced
ARW noise. Compared to vibratory ring gyroscopes [9], the
MRG has a higher performance entitlement due to its larger
modal mass and improved sensitivity. Compared with tuning
fork gyroscopes, the MRG is also inherently more robust
against vibration and shock at downhole drilling conditions due
to its uniformly distributed mass, axisymmetric structure and
much higher frequency for the bending or translational modes.
Fig. 3. GE Research MRG technology: (a) Conceptual view, (b) Finite
element simulation to show the exemplary wineglass mode
The operating principle of the MRG is based on Coriolis
force which transfers the energy between two degenerated
wineglass resonant modes (Fig. 3). By design, these two
resonance modes have identical frequencies and mode shapes
which are spatially rotated from each other. In operation,
MRG is excited into resonance in one of the wineglass modes
(drive mode). The rotation of the external platform will
produce Coriolis force which transfers the energy from one of
the wineglass modes to the other. The rate of rotation is
therefore determined by measuring the amplitude of the 2nd
wineglass mode (sense mode) induced by the Coriolis force.
Because the two wineglass modes have identical frequencies,
this kind of architecture is known as mode matching
gyroscope. However, due to manufacturing and material
imperfections, the MRG as fabricated could have a small
frequency split between the two wineglass modes. The amount
of frequency split can directly affect the gyroscope scale factor,
as shown in (1)

 
Where A is the geometrical factor, dependent on the design,
Xd is the drive amplitude, ωd is the drive mode resonant
frequency, ωs is the sense mode resonant frequency, Q is the
quality factor. In order to maximize the gyroscope scale factor,
the gyroscope needs to have large drive amplitude, high quality
factor and small frequency split.
In order to be able to measure the earth rotation, the MRG
will also need to be designed to have low noise. The noise
characteristics of the MRG is indeed quite complex which
consist of different noise spectral densities at different
frequency ranges. Nevertheless, the targeted application of
azimuth finding in drilling typically allows for a carouseling
time of less than 5 minutes. Our study suggested that the MRG
noise is dominated by thermal-mechanical noise of the
transducer itself within the integration time of less than 5
minutes. Equation (2) shows the governing equation for the
gyroscope ARW, limited by the thermal-mechanical noise,
(2)
Where Ωn is the ARW, ka is angular gain which depends on
the MRG geometry and resonance mode, kB is the Boltzmann
constant, T is the operating temperature, m is the modal mass.
As seen from (1) and (2), the Q-factor directly impacts the
gyroscope scale factor and ARW. In order to improve scale
factor and achieve lower ARW, the Q-factor of gyroscope
needs to be maximized. Q-factor is related to the damping
loss of the gyroscope resonator where multiple mechanisms
might be contributing. As shown in (3), these damping loss
mechanisms include air damping, thermoelastic damping
(TED) and others such as, anchor loss, surface loss etc. Air
damping is the energy dissipation mechanism caused by the
collision of the air molecules with the resonant structure. The
MRG is sealed in a high vacuum cavity so the air damping can
be minimized. TED is due to the thermal transport across the
thermal gradient caused by the strain gradient in the resonator.
It was discovered that the suspension springs of the MRG
contributed to most of the TED loss. Fig. 4 shows the finite
element simulation results of the MRG TED design with
specific attention on the suspension springs to reduce the
strain-induced thermal gradient across the spring cross section.
The simulated MRG QTED is 22,000 at room temperature.
(3)
Combining a large proof mass and a large drive amplitude ,
the MRG will be able to achieve better ARW than the existing
commercial MEMS devices. According to the simulation, the
MRG can achieve ARW < 0.001o/ √ hr with 1um drive
amplitude and a quality factor of 15,000 at room temperature.
This will enable azimuth finding with uncertainty of 0.025o
(1) at 5 minutes of integration time.
B. High Temperature Consideration
In principle, MEMS gyroscopes should withstand
temperatures of 300oC since they are made from non-P-N
junction isolated crystalline silicon which is stable at this
temperature. However high temperature in a well bore
environment can adversely impact MRG in several ways.
Mechanical damping and thermal noise will increase with
temperature, resulting in degradation of gyroscope ARW.
Gyroscope as a mechanical device is prone to temperature
induced stress which includes stress stiffening effect, distortion
of the structure from its balanced state, shift of resonance
frequency and change of electrode gaps, etc. One unique aspect
of temperature induced errors is the interaction between
package and the MRG. The package stress originates from the
mismatch in thermal expansion between the packaging
materials and MEMS structural materials. The package stress
can be transmitted to the MRG structure, causing shift in the
resonance frequencies. Because MEMS gyroscope is operating
at the mode-matched condition, the shift in resonance
frequency will have multiple deleterious effects including both
amplitude and phase errors. In addition, the temperature-
induced stress can cause structural deformation which alters
the gyroscope principal axes to create anisoelastic coupling
errors, i.e. quadrature errors. Quadrature error is often the
leading contributor to the bias error of MEMS gyroscopes.
Fig. 4. MRG TED simulation suggests Q-factor > 22,000. Inset: thermal
graident in suspension spring
The GE Research MRG design has been optimized to
ensure reliable 300oC operation. These innovations include
optimizing ring geometry to reduce TED and optimizing the
anchor location and the anchor attachment design to reduce
anchor loss and improve MRG robustness against temperature-
induced stress. One effective technique used to optimize MRG
geometry for 300o C operation is to space the frequencies of
thermal mode and structural mode further away from each
other. As shown in Fig. 5, the TED depends on the thermal
mode frequency which defines the characteristic time constant
for the thermal transport across the temperature gradient. When
the thermal mode frequency approaches the MRG mechanical
frequency, energy loss is maximized, and Q-factor is
minimized. The thermal mode frequency not only depends on
the material properties but also the geometry. The Gen-0 MRG
design has a thermal mode frequency of 76kHz. By optimizing
the width of MRG rings and springs, the thermal mode
frequency can be increased to be above 150kHz, resulting in an
1.7 times improvement in Q-factor.
Fig. 5. Optimize MRG design for 300oC operation by reducing TED loss
III. MRG FABRICATION
Like the other navigation-grade gyroscopes, the MRG
requires highly specialized fabrication processes including
thick silicon with high aspect ratio, vacuum sealing and high-
precision, high-symmetry etching. GE Research has developed
an all-silicon inertial MEMS process flow with these attributes
called ‘Polaris’ process. As shown in Fig. 6, the Polaris
platform features thick silicon on insulator (SOI) with 20-
200um device layer, 30:1 high aspect ratio etch, wafer level
vacuum sealing with through silicon via (TSV) technology.
Fig. 6. GE Research Polaris flow features TSV and wafer level vacuum seal
The Polaris process starts with two SOI wafers. The first
SOI wafer is the device wafer where the MEMS structures are
formed through high aspect ratio silicon etching on a bulk SOI
wafer. The deep reactive ion etching (DRIE) process has been
specifically optimized for good dimensional control and
symmetry (mismatch <100ppm), which is critical for
minimizing gyroscope frequency split and cross coupling
errors. Fig. 6 shows a 3um wide trench etched on 100um thick
device layer. The second SOI wafer forms the cap. This cap
wafer contains the critical TSV technology. In the Polaris
process, a single crystal silicon via is formed with a trench etch
and dielectric refill. The via itself is the parent silicon. The
etched trench forms the insulator. The Polaris TSV process has
a few key advantages. It enables direct bonding between the
TSV wafer and device wafer without the need of intermediate
materials. Unlike a ‘drill and fill’ approach in which the
geometry of the shape is highly limited, The Polaris TSV can
be of arbitrary shapes. Also, no new materials, such as Au or
polymer are introduced during the TSV process. This leaves
the thermal window for processing extremely wide. Finally, the
TSV can be used as a top-side horizontal electrode, opening up
design possibilities for various types of inertial devices.
After the cap wafer and device wafer are processed, they
are bonded using the direct wafer bond method. Unlike the
wafer bonding methods which utilize an intermediate material
such as glass frit, or polymers, the direct wafer bond produces
a device which only contains silicon and oxygen in the cavity.
The bond is annealed at temperatures exceeding 1000oC, at
which point silicon acts as a getter, absorbing oxygen and
water which may be present during bonding, increasing the
cavity vacuum. The bond forms a hermetic seal which is strong
and allows for a very high vacuum. In addition, thousands of
ohmic electrical contacts must be made between the cap wafers
TSV and the device wafer simultaneously. The process makes
critical use of state of the art chemical-mechanical polishing
(CMP) to achieve the surface state needed to complete a direct
wafer bond defect free.
GE Research Polaris process has demonstrated the ability
to hold a vacuum of less than 1mTorr at temperatures
exceeding 600oC. The direct wafer bonding, together with the
TSV, enables all-silicon MEMS devices with compact size,
minimized outgassing at high temperature and superior thermal
stability. These important attributes make Polaris the preferred
process of choice in fabricating MRGs for reliable 300oC
drilling operation. Fig. 7 shows a 10mm x 10mm MRG
fabricated by the Polaris process.
Fig. 7. GE Research MRG fabricated by the Polaris flow
Compared with the consumer-grade and automotive-grade
gyroscopes, navigation-grade gyroscopes often start at a much
lower volume demand and require more iterative steps of
process and design optimization. The Polaris flow strives to
provide the simplest inertial MEMS flow with wafer-level
vacuum sealing and TSV capabilities, making it suitable for
quick prototyping and low-to-mid volume production. The
MRG development is a good example to showcase how the
Polaris flow, as a platform technology, can accelerate the
innovation and adoption of navigation-grade inertial sensors.
IV. MRG CHARACTERIZATION
The characterization of fabricated MRG starts with testing
un-sealed devices in vacuum probe station with a high
temperature heater stage which is capable of testing to 300oC,
as shown in Fig. 8. A similar test procedure was devised for
testing wafer level sealed parts on the heated stage of a wafer
probe station. By testing the un-sealed MRG devices under
vacuum, and the wafer-level sealed devices under similar
electrical and temperature conditions, the actual vacuum level
inside the device cavity can be established.
Fig. 8. 300oC capable vacuum probe station for MRG characterization
Fig. 9 shows the Q-factor measurement results of an
unsealed MRG at room temperature. The vacuum level of the
vacuum probe station was adjusted from 0.1mTorr to 2.8mTorr
while the MRG Q-factor remained constantly at 14,000-
15,000. Because the Q-factor did not vary with respect to the
vacuum level change, it can be safely assumed that the air
damping is not the dominant damping mechanism for MRG at
this vacuum level. To explain using (3), Qair is much higher
than QTED, so it can be ignored from the Qtotal calculation. By
using the simulated QTED of 22,000, the Qothers, which includes
combined anchor loss and other loss mechanisms, can be
estimated to be at 42,400. This verifies the effectiveness the
MRG design approach in minimizing the anchor loss.
Fig. 9. Q-factor measuemnt of an unsealed MRG in vacuum chamber
For comparison, a wafer-level sealed MRG was
characterized with the same electrical testing conditions at
room temperature. The results are shown in Fig. 10. The direct
measurement refers to the method of exciting and measuring
from electrodes belonging to the same wineglass mode. The
indirect measurement will excite from the electrodes belong to
one wineglass mode and measure from the electrodes
belonging to the other wineglass mode. The direct method
provides more accurate measurement of resonant frequency
and Q-factor while the indirect method provides the
measurement of frequency split and cross coupling errors
between the two degenerated wineglass modes.
Fig. 10. Frequency characterization of an MRG sealed at wafer level
Fig. 10 shows the Q-factor the sealed MRG is 13,400,
which is in good agreement with vacuum chamber test results.
This proves the Polaris’ capability in producing good vacuum
in the wafer-level sealed cavity, enabling MRG to achieve the
highest possible Q-factor. The indirect measurement shows the
frequency split between of the degenerated wineglass modes is
less than 0.1Hz. This proves the capability of Polaris process
flow to achieve high quality silicon etching with high
symmetry and low anisoelastic coupling.
The sealed MRG is further characterized to 600oC to check
the device integrity and understand how the MRG dynamic
response might change at extremely high temperature. Fig. 11
shows the change of MRG frequency over the temperature,
measured by the 2nd wineglass mode. As expected, the
frequency decreases with temperature due to the negative
temperature coefficient of the silicon Young’s modulus. The
temperature coefficient of frequency (TCF) is measured to be
at ranging from -25 to -34ppm/oC from room temperature to
600oC. Reference [10] reported similar TCFs of -27ppm/oC
and -33ppm/oC based on the characterization of a silicon reso-
nator from -10oC to 80oC. The MRG test results suggest there
is no drastic change or degradation in the silicon resonator up
to 600oC, which opens up potential for MEMS devices to be
used in extreme temperatures such as hypersonic flight and
turbine engine hot gas path. Furthermore, the trend of
increasing TCF with temperature is also observed, which
means the temperature compensation technique used for high
temperature will need to consider high order nonlinear terms.
Fig. 11. Sealed MRG frequency characterization over temperature
Temperature will have negative impact to the MRG quality
factor. Reference [11] suggested the different relationship
between Q-factor and temperature for the different damping
mechanisms where Q∝1/T^0.5 for air damping (TCQ = -0.5)
and Q∝1/T^3.5 for thermoelastic damping (TCQ = -3.5) .
TCQ stands for temperature coefficient of quality factor.
Reference [11] did not provide the TCQ for other mechanisms.
It is also noted that [11] only characterized at a limited
temperature range up to 80oC.
In our work, the MRGs were tested to a much higher
temperature range. Fig. 12 shows the Q-factor variation for a
wafer-level sealed MRG up to 600oC. Two high temperature
cycles were performed to show the device had no degradation
and the device sealing integrity has not been compromised. For
reference, the curves of TCQ of -0.5 and -3.5 were also shown
on the same plot. It can be seen the MRG Q-factor follows the
TCQ= -3.5 curve more closely. This confirms our previous
conclusion that TED is likely the dominant damping
mechanisms for the MRG. It also reaffirms our belief that for
TED is a crucial design consideration for high temperature
gyroscope because QTED tends to degrade very quickly over
temperature. It is also observed the MRG TCQ curve tends to
not degrade as rapidly when temperature increases. For
example, MRG TCQ of MRG is -2.66 from room temperature
to 200oC while the TCQ is -1.29 from 200oC to 600oC.
Whether or not this indicates a new physical phenomenon for
damping at higher temperature remains as an interesting topic
for future study.
Fig. 12. Sealed MRG Q-factor characterization over temperature
The high temperature tests of the wafer-level sealed devices
prove the integrity and capability of MRG for 300oC operation.
Test data suggest the MRG will have quality factor of 5,000 at
300oC. By adjusting the excitation voltage from the control
circuit, MRG can be maintained at the 1um drive amplitude.
According to (2), the ARW will degrade by 2.4 times when
going from room temperature to 300oC. The azimuth finding
uncertainty is calculated to be 0.06o (1) at 5 minutes of
integration time at 300oC.
Finally, MRG die was assembled into an LCC-84 pin
ceramic package with die attach and wire bonding. The
packaged MRG was then tested in the gyroscope test board
with analog front end, digital gain and configuration control.
As shown in Fig. 13, the test board also has the capability to
provide localized heating to a packaged MRG mounted on an
open-top socket through a platinum thin film heater with a
temperature controller. The localized heating allows the
package MRG to be heated to 300oC while keeping the rest of
the circuit board components at a much lower temperature.
Altogether, these three different levels of tests, including the
unsealed, wafer-level sealed and the packaged MRGs, enable
device performance variation due to vacuum level, and
packaging strain due to die attach and mismatches in
coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of the packaging
material to be isolated and characterized.
Fig. 13. Test board setup for packaged MRG
Fig. 14 shows the Allan Deviation plot for the MRG
mounted onto the test board. The MRG was fabricated by the
GE Research Polaris process with wafer-level vacuum seal and
TSV with a die size of 10mm x 10mm x 0.5mm. The MRG
under test demonstrates an ARW of 0.003 o/√hr and in-run
bias instability of 0.01o/h, which is considered best in class for
MEMS gyroscopes with wafer-level vacuum packaging. The
ARW from test also agrees well with the prediction from our
simulation, validating our design approach and the capability
of Polaris process for precise fabrication required by a
navigation grade gyroscope.
Fig. 14. GE Research MRG demonstrates navigation grade performance at
room temperature
Fig. 15 shows the first Allan Deviation results for the MRG
up to the 300oC operating temperature using the test board with
localize heating method. MRG remains fully functional across
the whole temperature range. The degradation of bias
instability and the rate ramp at the longer integration time is as
expected, which is caused by the temperature-induced bias
errors. The white noise curves at less than 1s integration time
stay relatively constant, which indicates the system is limited
by the electronics noise because the thermal-mechanical noise
should degrade over temperature according to the previously
characterization results of Q-factor over temperature. There is
ongoing work to optimize the gyroscope electronics, drive
amplitude and implement temperature compensation technique.
Further work is in progress to develop a 300oC capable ASIC
that can be integrated with the MRG to provide a compact, low
cost chip-scale gyroscope azimuth finding module for MWD
tools.
Fig. 15. GE MRG maintains full functionality at temperature up to 300 oC
V. CONCLUSION
GE Research has developed a new navigation grade MEMS
gyroscope called multiple rings gyroscope (MRG). The unique
high modal mass, high symmetry design, supported by a wafer-
level sealed MEMS process flow called ‘Polaris’ process,
enables the MRG to achieve a performance level much better
than the existing commercial MEMS devices. The GE
Research MRG has been demonstrated to achieve an ARW of
0.003o/√hr and in-run bias instability of 0.01o/h, which is
considered one of best performing MEMS gyroscopes with
wafer-level vacuum packaging.
MRG has also demonstrated its distinctive advantages for
the 300oC operation for MWD applications. MRG prototype
has been tested to maintain its full functionality at 300oC.
Further characterization of frequency and Q-factor up to 600oC
has proven the integrity and capability for MRG and the
Polaris fabrication flow. To our best knowledge, this is the first
time that a silicon MEMS gyroscope was ever reported for
such a high temperature of 600oC. By this work, GE Research
hopes to contribute to a better understanding of the
characteristics of MEMS resonators and gyroscopes at extreme
temperatures in the MEMS community.
The successful development of high temperature, low cost,
navigation grade MRG will greatly accelerate the adoption of
MEMS gyroscopes for MWD applications. It can also enable
other high temperature applications including hypersonic
flight, autonomous systems in harsh environment and other
space applications.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT AND DISCLAIMER
This material is based upon work supported by the U.S.
Department of Energy's Office of Energy Efficiency and
Renewable Energy (EERE) under the Geothermal Program
Office, Award Number DE- EE0008604. This report was
prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the
United States Government. Neither the United States
Government nor any agency thereof, nor any of their
employees, makes any warranty, express or implied, or
assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy,
completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus,
product, or process disclosed, or represents that its use would
not infringe privately owned rights. Reference herein to any
specific commercial product, process, or service by trade name,
trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise does not necessarily
constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or
favoring by the United States Government or any agency
thereof. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein do
not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States
Government or any agency thereof.
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