1. What are the structural differences among the three classes of carbohydrates?

a. Sugars. They are also called simple carbohydrates because they are in the most
basic form.
b. Starches. They are complex carbohydrates, which are made of lots of simple
sugars strung together.
c. Fiber. It is also a complex carbohydrate.
2. What is the structural difference between excess carbohydrates as they are
stored in plants and in animals?
a. Animals store carbohydrates as the molecule glycogen, whereas plants store
carbs in the form of lengthy polysaccharide chains known as starch. These large
polysaccharides store a lot of chemical energy due to their numerous chemical
connections.
3. Explain why Benedict’s solution gives a positive test for the presence of sugar.
a. Benedict's reagent solution turns orange-red or brick red when heated in
conjunction with reducing sugars. Because simple carbohydrates are present,
this color results. The color shift is specifically brought on by the reduction of
copper (II) ions to copper (I) ions in Benedict's solution.
4. Explain why the disaccharide sucrose gives a negative test with Benedict’s
solution whereas Maltose, also a disaccharide, gives a positive test.
a. Benedict's solution is a commonly used test for the presence of reducing
sugars, which are carbohydrates that can donate electrons and reduce other
substances. When a reducing sugar is present, it reacts with the copper ions
in Benedict's solution and reduces them to form a red precipitate of copper(I)
oxide. However, sucrose is not a reducing sugar because it does not have a
free aldehyde or ketone group that can participate in the reduction reaction.
Instead, sucrose is a non-reducing sugar because it is composed of two
monosaccharides, glucose, and fructose, linked by a glycosidic bond.
Maltose, on the other hand, is a reducing sugar because it has a free
aldehyde group on one of its glucose units that can react with Benedict's
solution. Therefore, maltose gives a positive test with Benedict's solution.
5. Glucose and fructose combine chemically to produce a molecule of sucrose. How
would it be possible to obtain a positive test for sucrose?
a. If heated with dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl) before the test, sucrose can still
indirectly result in a positive Benedict's reagent result. Heat and acidity cause the
glycosidic link in sucrose to be broken through the hydrolysis process.
6. Why is a distilled water sample necessary as a control sample?
a. Distilled water doesn't really have anything in it, and since it's inert, tests done for
science projects won't be affected by it. While carrying out several science
experiments or projects, using pure water as a control element will not affect the
outcomes of the tests.
7. Describe the chemical composition of a fat molecule.
a. A glycerol backbone and three fatty acid tails make up the two types of
components that make up a fat molecule. A fatty acid is made up of a long
 hydrocarbon chain connected to a carboxyl group, whereas glycerol is a tiny
chemical molecule containing three hydroxyl (OH) groups.
8. Compare and contrast the chemical nature of fats, oils, and waxes.
a. Fats, oils, and waxes are all lipids, which are organic compounds that are
insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. However, they have
different chemical properties and structures.
b. Fats are generally solid at room temperature and are derived from animals.
They are composed of glycerol and three fatty acid molecules, which are
linked by ester bonds. Fats are usually saturated or monounsaturated, which
means that the fatty acids have no or one double bond, respectively. This
makes fats more stable and less likely to spoil or oxidize.
c. Oils are generally liquid at room temperature and are derived from plants.
They are also composed of glycerol and three fatty acid molecules, but they
can be saturated, monounsaturated, or polyunsaturated, which means that
they have two or more double bonds. This makes oils more prone to oxidation
and spoilage than fats.
d. Waxes are similar to fats and oils but have a more complex structure. They
are esters of long-chain fatty acids and long-chain alcohols, and they have a
higher melting point than fats and oils. Waxes are commonly found in nature
as protective coatings on plants and animals, and they are also used in
cosmetics, candles, and other products.
9. Why should a diet including large quantities of saturated fatty acids be avoided?
a. Because of heart disease risk. For energy and other bodily processes, your body
requires healthy fats. However, consuming too much saturated fat might result in
a buildup of cholesterol in your arteries. Your LDL (bad) cholesterol is increased
by saturated fats.
10. Describe the role of phospholipids in cell membranes.
a. Major membrane lipids called phospholipids are made up of lipid bilayers. More
crucially, this fundamental cellular structure makes it possible for numerous
cellular functions to take place in subcellular compartments while also acting as a
barrier to guard the cell against various environmental insults.
11. Describe coagulation and name several agents that cause coagulation.
a. The majority of the time, serine proteases, which work by cleaving proteins
downstream, are the coagulation factors. Tissue factor, FV, FVIII, and FXIII are
outliers. Factor XIII is a transglutaminase, while tissue factor, FV, and FVIII are all
glycoproteins. The zymogens that make up the coagulation factors are dormant.
12. Describe the functions of proteins. What is a polymer?
a. The macromolecules known as proteins are polymers made of amino acid
subunits. These amino acids are covalently joined to create polypeptides, which
are long linear chains that fold into a particular three-dimensional shape.