International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 198 (2022) 104659

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International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijpvp

Effect of cold forging on mechanical and corrosion behaviors of carbon

steel plate
Mojtaba Esmailzadeh a, *, Rouhollah Mousavi b, Mohammad Mehdi Esfahani c, Luca Pezzato d,
Esmaeil Karimi e
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Persian Gulf University, Bushehr, 75169, Iran
b
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, Ahvaz, 61357, Iran
c
Materials Engineer from Production Department, Machine Sazi Arak (MSA) Co., Arak, 97888, Iran
d
Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Padova, Via Marzolo 9, 35131 Padova, Italy
e
Machine Sazi Arak (MSA) Co., Arak, 97888, Iran

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In this study, the effects of open-die cold forging on corrosion behavior of pressure vessel sheet (A516 GR70)
Cold forging were investigated. To reduce the effect of the spring back a die with high radius was used and three passes were
A516 GR70 selected and employed. The variations in the microstructure, mechanical properties and corrosion behavior of
Mechanical properties
the sheets were investigated after each pass. Microstructural analysis showed a strong anisotropy of rolling grains
Corrosion behavior
due to the fact that the orientation of the first grains change greatly by performing the pressing process. By
increasing the number of passes, the orientation of the grains become more uniform and this produce a conse­
quent enhancement of mechanical properties. In detail, due to the Bauschinger effect, the tensile strength and
yield stress and hardness are reduced to 331 MPa and 155 HB at the first step of the pressing process, respec­
tively. In the following steps, the mechanical properties such as tensile strength are increased by repeating the
pressing process in 2 and 3 passes up to 520 and 528 MPa, respectively. Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy
and potentiodynamic polarization tests evidence that forging process has a positive effect on the corrosion
resistance. The highest corrosion resistance was obtained by forging after 3 passes.

1. Introduction
Today, low carbon steels had been extensively used in various ap­
plications such as buildings, transportation, machines, and other in­
dustries. ASTM A516 Gr70 is one of the most used low carbon steels,
employed in several industrial applications. In particular this steel is
used for pressure vessels and other devices that requires high toughness
in mild and low temperatures [1,2]. The pressure vessels are produced
with A516 GR70 sheet in 1, 2 and 3 classes. However, the most common
sheet in the construction of pressure vessels is A516 GR70. Due to the
high-pressure condition, the wall of pressure vessels has to satisfy some
specific standards in order to avoid incidents. Based on ASME SEC VIII
standard, these tanks are usually characterized by cylindrical or spher­
ical shape. The cold forging is the main method for fabrication of pres­
sure vessels [3].
During forging, sheets are subjected to complex deformation process
[4]. Because of this reason, deep investigation of the material to be
forged and of forging conditions are required. Due to different causes,
forging of high-strength steels may lead to failure. The inappropriate
flow of metals due to poor design or metallurgical properties and die
fracture due to increasing forging load are the main reasons of failure
[5–7]. So, it is important to study the forged materials and forging
conditions as well as the design of forging processing. Simulation tech­
nology can greatly overcome the design problems of forging dies [8–10].
For instance, Lee et. al. [11] simulated the forging die and predict the die
wear condition. Therefore, there are a few problems in the design of the
forging process. Accordingly, mechanical and corrosion behaviors of the
forged materials and forging conditions have been investigated in this
study.
Due to high ductility and relatively good strength, Mild steels are
more used than high strength steels in the construction of tanks by
forging method. Gawne et al. [12] have claimed that strain hardening
exponent decreases with increasing strength for different type of steels.
Because of this reason, a load of cold forging has to be kept below a

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: m.esmaeilzade@pgu.ac.ir (M. Esmailzadeh).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpvp.2022.104659
Received 3 March 2021; Received in revised form 12 March 2022; Accepted 26 March 2022
Available online 4 April 2022
0308-0161/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Esmailzadeh et al.
certain level. It should be noted that this material is usually deformed
such as rolled, drawn, etc. before being cold forged. The deformation
processes rely on plastic deformation under tension. Then, the deformed
materials are subject to the next plastic deformation under a subsequent
cold forging process. Therefore, the Bauschinger effect appears in the
final deformed materials [13].
The Bauschinger effect mainly appear in double-phase alloys and
composites [14]. In these materials, because of the presence of two
different phases and creation of back stress, the Bauschinger effect is
produced [15]. The Bauschinger effect can have different effects on the
material. From one side it reduces the forging load and prevent from die
fracture but from the other a reduction of the strength of materials occur
[16–18].
Because the working environment, evaluation of the corrosion
behavior of A516 GR70 forged steel is a technologically relevant prob­
lem. However, evaluation of the corrosion behavior of forged steel is not
widely studied in literature. The effects of forging on corrosion prop­
erties of 18Cr-18Mn stainless steels were investigated by Hernandez
et al. [19]. They concluded that increasing corrosion resistance was
observed for steel that was forged. Some researchers reported also that
the type of distribution of strain and surface changes after deformation
produce relevant effects on corrosion behavior of deformed steel alloys
[20,21]. It was also observed that in the dual-phase alloy, reducing or
solving one of the phases by deformation processes can greatly reduce
the corrosion rate of the alloy [22].
However, in literature few researches have been done on forged
A516 GR70. This study investigated the effect of cold forging on the
mechanical and corrosion properties of A516 GR70 steel, investigating
also the effect of different forging passes.
2. Experimental
In this study, the A516 GR70 steel plates are used. The material was
obtained in rolled condition and normalized in the form of a plate of size
2000 mm × 400 mm × 45 mm. The chemical composition of this steel is
listed in Table 1. A hydraulic press (with force of 600 T) was used to
deformation process of A516 GR70 steel plate. The pressing is done by
the mandrel and a die (of 4500 mm radius) was employed in open die
method. To compensate the deflection, the cold pressing process was
repeated three times. It should be noted that, sampling was done at each
step to better investigation. The scheme of specimen, mandrel and die
and of the different forging passes is reported in Fig. 1.
Microstructure of all specimens was examined by optical microscopy
(OM IM7200 Meijitechno) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM LEO
1455VP). The metallographic preparation consisted of grinding with
abrasive papers and water and polished with clothes and alumina so­
lution. Then, samples were etched by Nital 2%. In order to investigate
the mechanical properties, tensile and impact tests were performed for
all specimens according to ASTM E8 and ASTM A370, respectively.
Charpy impact test were performed at − 49 ◦ C. To obtain this tempera­
ture, a mix of liquid nitrogen and methanol was used. The fracture
surfaces of specimens after charpy tests were also investigated by SEM
observation to better understanding the mechanical behavior. Also
Brinnell Hardness tests were performed on all the samples. Each of
mechanical tests have been repeated three times.
The corrosion properties of the samples were evaluated by means of
potentiodynamic polarization tests (PDP) in 3.5 wt% NaCl solution
using Auto-lab potentiostat. Specimen, saturated calomel electrode
(SCE) and platinum were used as a working electrode, reference elec­
trode and counter electrode, respectively. Before each test, according to
Table 1
Chemical composition of A516 GR70 steel plate.
Element Al Cu Mo Cr
Percent% 0.03 0.12 0.01 0.02
International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 198 (2022) 104659
Fig. 2, specimen was immersed in the electrolyte for about 30 min to
reach a stable open circuit potential (OCP). Then, potentiodynamic
polarization test was performed under scan rate 1 mV/s from − 350 mV
relative to the OCP up to 1 V. The same condition was selected for
corrosion test of carbon steel [23] and austenitic stainless steel [24].
This test has been repeated twice for each samples. In order to obtain
corrosion current (icorr), the slopes of cathodic and anodic branches of
polarization curves were plotted. The corrosion current density (icorr)
and corrosion potential (Ecorr) were obtained drawing vertical and
horizontal lines from the intersection point of two slopes. The electro­
chemical impedance spectroscopy measurements (EIS) were performed
at the open circuit potential in a frequency range of 100 kHz to 10 mHz,
using a perturbation amplitude of 5 mV. An AUTOLAB PGSTAT-30
potentiostat/galvanostat was used for the tests using the same cell
described for PDP tests. The data coming from EIS tests were also fitted
with the software Zview using proper equivalent circuit. All the corro­
sion tests were performed in triplicate in order to assure reproducibility
of the tests.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Microstructures
The OM images of A516 GR70 before and after cold working are
shown in Fig. 3. Fig. 4 shows instead the microstructure at SEM of as
rolled A516 GR70 steel plate. The microstructure is similar to other low
carbon steels. In particular, it can be observed the presence of pearlite
and ferrite phases in white and black colors, respectively. Furthermore,
the elongation of grains in the rolling direction can be observed in Fig. 4.
Also, colonies of pearlite have a regular arrangement in the as rolled
sample.
The SEM microstructures of the samples after different passes of cold
forging deformation are reported in Fig. 5. It can be clearly observed that
the grains arrangement is broken due to deformation process. After first
pass (Fig. 4a), the rolled microstructure is partially removed. In addi­
tion, an aggregation of pearlite colonies can be observed. Further, the
colonies gathered heavily in the second pass (Fig. 4b). In third pass,
uniform distribution and loss of accumulation of colonies can be instead
noted (Fig. 4c).
From SEM observation it can be noted that the arrangement of
pearlite colonies changed significantly with the amount of applied
deformation, and so with the different cold forging passes. The same
results are reported in literature for SWRH82B pearlitic steel [25]. The
difference in the orientation between ferrite grains and colonies of
pearlite phase is the most important reason of this phenomenon [26].
For a better understanding, the morphology of colonies of pearlite are
shown at higher magnification in Fig. 6 for all specimens. It can be seen
that the morphology of pearlite colonies changed significantly after each
pass.
After first pass of forging, the cementite layers are narrowed and the
interlamellar spacing is increased (Fig. 6(b)) as compared to pre-forging
as rolled samples (Fig. 6 (a)). Moreover, the cementite layer has been
integrated and the interlamellar spacing is non-homogeneous. In some
positions, this interlamellar spacing sharply increased, as can be
observed after the second forging pass (as shown in Fig. 5(c)). Then,
after third pass, this heterogeneity is largely overcome (Fig. 6(d)). The
observed and reported microstructural changes can lead to change in
mechanical and corrosion properties of the steel.
Ni Mn P S Si C
0.18 1.10 0.012 0.03 0.23 0.24
2
M. Esmailzadeh et al.
Fig. 1. Scheme of forging process.
Fig. 2. OCP measurement of A516 Gr70 after third pass in 3.5 wt% NaCl Solution.
3.2. Mechanical properties
Fig. 7 shows engineering stress-strain curves of A516 GR70 speci­
mens in different deformation conditions. It can be seen that the yield
point change after forging process. The yield point phenomenon can be
clearly observed in the as rolled sample. In this sample at the upper yield
point Lüder bands were observed. This phenomenon was typically
observed in low carbon steels [27,28] such as C35 [29]. The yield point
phenomenon is not clearly observable in specimens after first and sec­
ond pass of forging. The heterogeneous microstructure can be one of the
most important reasons for this result. In accordance with this hypoth­
esis, after three passes of forging, the yield point phenomenon appeared
again. The same results were reported by Ref. [27].
For more accurate evaluation, the mechanical properties extrapo­
lated from of all the curves were listed in Table 2. As can be seen, yield
stress, tensile strength and failure strain were reduced after the pressing
process in comparison by the initial plate (rolled plate). The Bauchinger
effect, together with the microstructural changes, are the main reason of
this phenomenon. In fact, during the plastic deformation, there are
3
International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 198 (2022) 104659
several dislocations that builds up in the nodes of the barriers and finally
causes the formation of some cells. When loading is reversed, the bar­
riers are behind dislocations, as a result, dislocations move easily at low
stress. In fact, this phenomenon causes the fact that the initial yield
occurs in lower stress when loading is reversed [12].
In the third pass, the yield and tensile strengths are 354 MPa and 528
MPa, respectively. These values are higher than the ones obtained at one
(331 and 506 MPa respectively) and two passes (335 and 520 MPa
respectively). On the other hand, the Bauchinger effect decreased by
applying more forging passes. The same results are reported for cold
drawn pearlitic steels [30]. The microstructural changing is the main
reason of this phenomenon.
The fractured surfaces of the specimens are shown in Fig. 8. It can be
observed the presence of fine and uniform dimples in the fracture sur­
face of the as rolled sample microstructure. As a result, this specimen
had a full ductile behavior. This behavior is different from the one of the
samples after forging where also partial brittle behavior can be noted.
With the addition of passes of forging, the failure mode of the specimens
tends to return more ductile with a reduction in the brittle zones in the
M. Esmailzadeh et al. International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 198 (2022) 104659

Fig. 3. OM Images of A516 GR70 before and after forging a) As rolled without forging b) after first pass forging c) after second pass and d) after third pass.

Fig. 4. SEM micrograph of as rolled A516 GR70.

fracture surfaces. The results of the observation of the fracture surfaces
are in accordance with the ones of the impact and hardness tests, listed
in Table 2. It can be observed that the highest impact energy can be
found in the un-pressed as rolled specimen, that is characterized by a
uniform microstructure, as evidenced by SEM and OM observations.
Thus, with the non-homogenization of the structure, caused by the
forging process, the impact toughness halved in first forging pass.
Increasing the number of forging passes produce an increase in the
uniformity of the microstructure, and so a subsequent increase in the
impact toughness. In addition, it can be found that the hardness results
(also listed in Table 2) were similar to those of the impact test. Average
Brinell hardness values are also listed in Table 2. Due to microstructural
changes, average values of hardness decrease in the first forging passes
and increase with further passes. The same results are reported for
deformation of high carbon steels [31], pearlitic steels [32,33] and
80CrSiV steel [34].
3.3. Corrosion behavior
The corrosion tendency is inversely related to corrosion potential

4
M. Esmailzadeh et al.
Fig. 5. SEM micrographs of forged A516 GR70 after a) first pass b) second pass and c) third pass.
(Ecorr). In other words, the lowest electrochemical corrosion tendency is
obtained in the highest corrosion potential due to the fact that higher is
the corrosion potential, more noble is the metal. Considering instead the
corrosion current density, lower corrosion current indicates lower
corrosion rates and so higher corrosion resistance.
PDP curves are shown in Fig. 9. The corrosion potentials seem more
or less the same for all the samples whereas some small variation in the
corrosion current density can be noted between the different samples.
From qualitative observation it can be observed an increase in the
corrosion resistance after first and third pass of forging compared to the
as rolled sample. For accurate evaluation, comparison of corrosion
current of all samples is shown in Table 3. According to the obtained
results, it could find, the Jcorr of specimens after three passes are 0.07
μA/cm2. The results, generally, indicate that the highest corrosion
resistance is obtained after the third pass.
The investigations that can be found in literature have shown that
the corrosion resistance of deformed specimens is predominantly
determined by the multiple effect of microstructure characteristic such
as texture, phase distribution and phase composition etc. [33,35–37].
The phases distribution refers mainly to the deformation technique,
temperature of process and intensity of deformation. Generally, the
phases distribution is described as homogeneous and heterogeneous. On
the other hand, the heterogeneous distribution may lead to agglomer­
ation of one or more phases in the microstructure. This phenomenon can
have a significant effect on the corrosion behavior of metal alloys.
In this research, the distribution of pearlite differs significantly be­
tween the as rolled specimen and the forged specimens and also between
the samples after different forging passes. Due to agglomeration of
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International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 198 (2022) 104659
pearlite phase, and consequent high heterogeneity of the microstruc­
ture, in the second pressed pass (see Fig. 5), the corrosion resistance was
reduced and the corrosion current reached the value of the as rolled
sample. With the uniform distribution of the pearlite phase in the third
pressed pass, the corrosion resistance is instead increased and became
higher than the corrosion resistance of un-pressed base metal.
In order to deeply studied the corrosion properties of the various
samples EIS tests were also performed. The Nyquist plots of all the
samples can be observed in Fig. 9. In general, it can be observed that the
results obtained through EIS measurement are in good agreement with
the ones obtained from the potentiodynamic polarization test mea­
surement (Tafel plot). Both measurements in fact evidence that the
sample with the best corrosion performances is the one after three passes
of forging, due to the more homogenous distribution of the pearlite
colonies. EIS data were also fitted using the equivalent circuit shown in
Fig. 10. As depicted in Fig. 9, a diffusion-controlled charge transfer is
observed at low frequencies for all samples. Such a diffusion process may
indicate that the corrosion mechanism is controlled not only by a charge
transfer step but also by the diffusion process. Accordingly, it was
decided that an equivalent circuit that consists of: Warburg impedance
(Ws), solution resistance (Rs), constant phase element (CPEf) and film
resistance (Rf) due to film formation, constant phase element (CPEdl)
and charge transfer resistance (Rct) due to double layer that should be
considered to model the reactions between metal and corrosive solution.
Their values were determined by fitting the experimental data in the
Nyquist plots and are reported in Table 3. In order to obtain a more
accurate fit, the constant phase element (CPE) was employed instead of
double layer capacitance (Cdl) due to the fact that the measured
M. Esmailzadeh et al. International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 198 (2022) 104659

Fig. 6. SEM images of pearlite colonies a) before forging b) one pass forging c) two passes forging and d) three passes forging.

Fig. 7. Engineering stress-strain curve of A516 GR70.

capacitance is not ideal (see Fig. 11). 4. Conclusion

According to the Electrochemical data indicated in Table 3, the
charge transfers resistance (Rct) and double layer capacitance of all
specimens, except for specimen 2, respectively increases and decreases
by increasing the pass number. Increasing Rct and decreasing the
capacitance of double layer with increasing the pass number indicate
that the corrosion resistance of specimens increased and the forge
treatment had a positive effect on the corrosion behavior. This result
resulted in accordance with the previously reported consideration that
link the corrosion behavior with the homogeneity of the perlite in the
microstructure, with the as rolled sample and the one after two forging
passes that are the ones with the lower homogeneity and so with the
lower corrosion properties.
In the present study, the effects of cold forging on mechanical and
corrosion behavior of a A516 GR70 carbon steel have been evaluated
and the results can be summarized as follows:
1 The colonies of pearlite were agglomerated after first and second
passes of cold forging,
2 By applying the third pass, the distribution of perlite colonies
resulted more homogeneous and this led to changes in the properties
of the steel
3 Because of the Bauchinger effect, the mechanical properties of forged
A516 GR70 were reduced in comparison to the as rolled sample.

6
M. Esmailzadeh et al. International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 198 (2022) 104659

Table 2 demonstrated that the corrosion rate has reduced to 0.07 μA/cm2
Mechanical properties of the sheet before and after deformation. after the third pass of the forging.
Sample Name Yield Tensile Failure Impact Hardness 5 The improved corrosion properties of the sample after three pass of
stress strength Strain% Energy (HB) forging can be linked with the increaser in the homogeneity of the
(MPa) (MPa) (J) pearlite colonies, evidenced by SEM and OM observation.
Initial Plate 396 ± 2 539 ± 2 30 ± 1 95 ± 3 163 ± 1
(As rolled Authorship contributions
condition)
After first 331 ± 2 506 ± 2 26 ± 1 40 ± 3 155 ± 1
forging Pass Conception and design of study: M. Esmailzadeh; acquisition of
After second 335 ± 2 520 ± 2 `28 ± 1 63 ± 3 159 ± 1 data: M.M. Esfahani, E. Karimi; analysis and/or interpretation of data:
forging Pass M. Esmailzadeh, R. Mousavi, L. Peazzato; Drafting the manuscript:
After third 354 ± 2 528 ± 2 29 ± 1 73 ± 3 161 ± 1 M. Esmailzadeh, R. Mousavi;revising the manuscript critically for
forging pass
important intellectual content: M. Esmailzadeh, R. Mousavi, L. Peaz­
zato. Category 3 Approval of the version of the manuscript to be pub­
However, an increase in the number of passes produce an increase in lished (the names of all authors must be listed): Mojtaba Esmailzadeh1,
the mechanical properties (and so a decrease in the Bauchinger ef­ Rouhollah Mousavi, Mohammad Mehdi Esfahani, Luca Pezzato, Esmaeil
fect), with the sample forged with three passes characterized by Karimi.
similar mechanical properties than the as rolled one.
4 EIS and polarization measurements indicated that forging deforma­ Declaration of competing interest
tion process improves corrosion behavior of A516 GR70 steel. It was
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial

Fig. 8. SEM image of the fracture surface after tensile test before and after pressing, A) initial sheet, B) after first pass, C) after second pass, D) after third pass.

7
M. Esmailzadeh et al. International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 198 (2022) 104659

Fig. 9. Potentiodynamic polarization curves of A516 GR70 in 3.5 wt% NaCl solution.

Table 3
Electrochemical data extrapolated from PDP tests and from the fitting of the data coming from EIS tests.
Specimens Ecorr Jcorr Cathodic Anodic Rs (Ω. CPEf n Rf (Ω. CPEdl n Rct (Ω. Ws-R Ws-T Ws-P
(mV) (μA. Slope (mV/ Slope (mV/ cm2) cm2) cm2) (Ω) (s)
cm− 2) decade) decade)

±1 ±0.01 ±2 ±2 ±0.01 ±0.00001 ±0.01 ±0.0001 ±0.01 ±0.001 ±0.01 ±0.001

0 pass − 590 0.1 − 894 490 83.71 0.00072 0.55 30.62 0.0099 0.56 60.63 18.49 15.28 0.597
1 pass − 595 0.08 − 1070 614 82.34 0.0032 0.55 30.68 0.0056 0.64 84.12 1.34 1 0.9
2 pass − 600 0.15 − 878 1074 82.32 0.00021 0.73 17.93 0.008 0.71 37.64 0.004 25 1
3 pass − 600 0.07 − 912 493 84.11 0.0023 0.56 37.28 0.0045 0.74 115 6 25.5 0.8

Fig. 10. Nyquist plots obtained from EIS tests performed on the samples with different state of deformation.

Fig. 11. Equivalent Circuit used to fit the data coming from EIS tests.

8
M. Esmailzadeh et al.
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to acknowledge Persian Gulf University to
provide laboratories and materials, respectively.
All persons who have made substantial contributions to the work
reported in the manuscript (e.g., technical help, writing and editing
assistance, general support), but who do not meet the criteria for
authorship, are named in the Acknowledgements and have given us their
written permission to be named. If we have not included an Acknowl­
edgements, then that indicates that we have not received substantial
contributions from non-authors.
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