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Lect.8. Silvicultural practices for Melia dubia, Leucaena leucocephala. Tending

operations - Weeding, Cleaning, Thinning and pruning.
Melia dubia
Species : Melia dubia
Family : Meliaceae
Local Name : MalaiVembu
Distribution of Melia Dubia
Melia dubia occurs in the tropical moist deciduous forests of the Sikkim, North Bengal and
Upper Assam, the Khasi hills of Orissa, N.Circars, Deccan and the Western Ghats, at altitudes of 1,
500-1,800 meters. It is known to yield useful timber. This tree is often used as an ornamental plant. It
is also used as boundary and shade trees in plantations. Because it grows rapidly, Melia dubia is a
potential tree for afforestation and reforestation.
Environmental requirements
Melia dubia grows on a variety of soils; however, it grows well in deep, fertile and sandy
loam soils. This tree species requires high light intensity. Seedlings can tolerate frost, however, it
grows well in deep, fertile and sandy loam soils. Like many other trees, Melia dubia is susceptible to
fire, and its saplings are at risk from livestock browsing.
Propagation
Melia dubia can be propagated by seed, cuttings and by tissue culture.
Propagation through seeds
a)Seeds are collected from ripened fruits during January and February. The seeds are rubbed, washed
and dried before being stored in sealed tins. Using this method, seed germination is less than 25
percent. Melia dubia seeds may also be raised in nursery beds. The best treatment involves
soaking seeds in a cow dung solution for one day prior to raising in the nursery beds. With regular
irrigation, the seeds then take one to two months to germinate. It takes six to nine months for the
Melia dubia seedlings to complete the nursery stage.
b) The best method is to work the soil under the melia to facilitate natural germination. After
germination the seedlings can be collected and transplanted into polybags.
c) Clonal propagation
It can be done through macro, micro and mini clonal technology. For this purpose a hedge clonal
garden can be established and three to six months old garden can be used for collecting cuttings.
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Similarly a mini clonal garden can be established by planting 100 ramets in 100 cm 2 area
which will facilitate to take cuttings from 45 days after planting. Through proper nutrition and
irrigation, this method will help to take cuttings periodically for 3 to 5 years.
The cuttings after proper trimming can be treated with IBA at 1500- 2000 ppm and rooting
can be achieved very easily. Soft wood cuttings expressed excellent rooting which help to produced
quality seedlings.
Spacing
Six to nine month-old seedlings are planted using a spacing of 3 meters by 3 meters, or 3
meters by 4 meters. Pruning is done yearly to achieve straight cylindrical boles.
Irrigation and fertilizer requirements
During the dry season, Melia dubia grows well if irrigated every 10-15 days. The growth of
Melia dubia seedlings and trees can be further enhanced with the application of a 25-50 gram mixture
of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium per tree. This mixture is applied two times a year. Fertilizers
can be applied as needed, depending on the growth and development of the tree.
Utility
The wood of Melia dubia can be used as packing cases, cigar boxes, ceiling planks, building
and construction materials, agricultural implements, pencils, matchboxes, splints, kattamarams,
musical instruments, tea boxes and plyboard. In Ceylon, the wood is used to construct outriggers for
boats. It is also a good fuel wood (Calorific value, 3700 – 4, 200 k.cal.). The fruits of Melia dubia are
bitter and considered an anthelmintic.

Yield
The best yield of about 4329 cft per hectare is possible within four years at an espacement of 3
m X 3 m under normal condition. It is also possible to increase the yield up to 8000 cft per ha
through quality planting material coupled with irrigation and fertilization.
Intercropping
Agricultural crops can be raised in the first two years with Meliadubiaespeciallyground nut,
cowpea, black gram and banana. The other tree crops viz., Casuarina, coconut can be integrated in
melia for better returns.
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Subabul

Botanical name : Leucaena leucocephala

Tamil name :Nattucavundal
English name : lpil-Pil
Hindi name : Subabul
Family : Mimosaceae
Origin : Central America, Mexico.
Main Attributes
Subabul is very fast growing evergreen unarmed tree species. It has tremendous coppicing
power and so also has ability to produce seeds. It can produce nutritious forage, firewood, timber and
organic manure. Its diverse uses are windbreak, fire break, shade ornamentation and afforestation of
wastelands.
Morphology
Subabul is a fast growing evergreen tree. The tree can grow up to 20 m or more in height.
The tree develops a dense canopy of foliage. It has feathery leaves with 10-15 pairs of leaflets.
Flowers are in dense globose heads “power puff” of light yellowish white in colour. Pods are long
(12-20 cm by 2-2.5 cm), straight, flat, obliquely irregular at the apex, narrowed at the base into a stalk
of 0.6 to 1.2 cm in length and of glabours type, pod contains 15-20 seeds. Immature pods are light
green and translucent, mature pods turn to brown, shining with waxy coat. Seed is dark brown,
smooth and shining available during February-May and July-November. There are about 23,600
seeds/kg.
Phenology
Plants shed leaves partially under rain fed condition subabul has been found to flower
throughout the year. However, there are some peak periods for its flowering and fruiting plants
produce seeds in the first of second year. In Gujarat, it flowers abundantly during February-April.
The flowers are self-pollinated, the pods develop very fast and mature in about 3-4 months. Pods are
dehiscent. The fruits are available April-July.
Good Characteristics of Subabul
1. Subabul has a deep tap root system which does not compete with lower storey crops as the
roots penetrate deeply with little or no lateral or superficial branching.
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2. Nawaiangiants varieties (K-28, K8, K72) are tall and erect with few branches. Thus,
sufficient photo-synthetic active radiation is received by lower storey crops.
3. It acts as a good source of bio-fertilizer or green manure for lower storey crops through
shedding their leaves which are high in protein content (20-25%) and mineralize quickly.
4. Nitrogen return in soil form subabul is equivalent to one ton of ammonium sulphate
fertilizer per year assuring 1000 trees/ha of subabul.
5. It also act as an efficient nutrient pump, it brings the nutrients from lower surface of soil to
upper surface.
6. It is fast growing drought tolerant species.
Certain Constraints of Subabul
1. High ratio of woody to edible parts as in all high biomass producing varieties.
2. During summer (May and June) there is heavy defoliation under rainfed condition which
results non-availability of sufficient leaf fodder during the period when acute shortage of other
green fodder is common.
1. Presence of mimosine, a toxic amino acid, in leaves.
2. It can become a noxious weed due to its high seed producing characteristics.
3. Very poor growth on acidic soil and at high altitude.
4. Uprooting of trees from the field is difficult task.

Distribution
Subabul is being in Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Bihar, Madhya
Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, etc. Besides its
native region in Mexico, it is grown Gautemala, Honduras, and F ZI Salva or, the Philippines,
Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Malaysia, East and West Africa, Nepal, Australia, Hawaii, Fizi, and
Islands of Caribbean.
Multiple Uses
Firewood:Subabul provides lot of firewood in a short time due to its fast growing habit. Its wood
makes excellent firewood having calorific value 4200 to 4600 Kcal per kg and charcoal having
calorific value of about 7000 Kcal. Due to its high BTU value, the wood is popular in baker,
restaurants, biscuit factories etc., The wood can be used to fuel electricity generators, rail and road
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locomotives, drying of fish and grain and other agricultural products like tobacco tin amelters and for
generating steam.
Timber/wood:Subabul wood is hard, strong, heavy easily workable of carpentry purposes. It makes
small timber for house construction, particularly poses for support and fence posts agricultural
implements and handles of tools. For timber purpose, the trees should be allowed to grow for eight of
ten years. The natural resistance against termite is the least.
Fodder: The green leaves of subabul make animal fodder, palatable, tough its use is restricted 15-30
per cent of the total animal fodder. Green fodder is Available throughout the year. The cutting of
foliage can easily be done at 45 to 60 days interval. No doubt, leaves, pods and seeds are nutritive
and digestible but a toxic alkaloid, Mimosine has been reported to be injurious to monogestric
animals. The sole feeding of subabul to cattle and sheep causes depilation of fleece in sheep, land in
case of cows some milk in coordination and nervous symptoms occurred briefly duration gestation.
Therefore, sole feeding at the subabul fodder is not advisable. The growing shoots contain about 8.1
per cent and the old leaves 1.4 percent mimosine. Momosine content can be reduced by percent if
leaves are dried at high temperature or immersed in ferrous sulphate solution.
Gas: The biomass is used for generating cooking gas.
Manure: The powdered seeds can be used as manure. The leaves and twigs are rich in nitrogen,
sodium and potassium salts which are useful for preparing compost manure.
Paper pulp: The wood also provides raw material for paper pulp. One tonne of pulp requires 2-3
tonnes of air-dry wood.
Medicinal uses: The roots are used as a medicine.The bark is used to relieve internal pain in Assam.
Soil Conservation and Agroforestry
Subabul is one of the best trees suitable for agro-forestry and social forestry program in India. It is
suitable to grow as windbreak or shelterbelt. Being a leguminous plant, it improves soil fertility. It is
suitable to grow as an effective shade tree for plantation crops like tea, coffee, cocoa, and nursery
beds.
Subabul has been reported to be most suitable in alley cropping in which it contribute nitrogen,
conserve soil moisture act as wind breaker.
Silvicultural Characters
1. Subabul is a light demander.
2. It is has strong coppicing and pollarding capacity.
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3. It can tolerate drought for short period.

4. It can tolerate partial; shade but full sun is the best for its growth and development.
Climate
Subabul is tropical tree but also grows well in sub-tropical climatic conditions, up top 800 m.
During heavy frost, prolonged droughts, and high winds, tree may defoliate, but they recover when
normal weather conditions are prevailing.
Soil
Subabul thrives better on fertile loam soil in pH range of 6.5 to 8.5. With good distribution of rain, it
can be established even on steep hill slopes and marginal gravelly sandy and saline soils.
Subabul grows poorly in acidic soils. It improves structure and water retention and reduces water
infiltration rate in sandy soils.
Varieties: Some common varieties are K-5, K-8, K-23, K-28, K-62, K-72, K-841 etc.
Propagation
Subabul is mainly propagated by seeds. The success through cuttings and grafting has also been
obtained on very small scale.
Nursery Management
Mature pods are collected and dried in sun. Most of the seeds come out as soon as pods get fully
dried. Dry pods split along the edges dehiscing seeds.
Seed treatment: Seed coat is hard and seeds may take more time in germination. Therefore, seeds
should be soaked in cooling boiled water for about 24 hours before sowing. The easiest and most
commonly used method is to soak the seeds in hot water for 1 to 2 minutes and decant the water for
satisfactory germination.
Seeds are also inoculated with Rhizobium culture by mixing the Rhizobium culture in 109 per cent
gur solution and by coating the seed with this mixture. About 250 g Rhizobium culture is sufficient
to treat about 20 kg subabul seed.
Method of Sowing
Seeds are sown directly in the field by broadcasting or in line. Seedlings can be raised in polythene
bags. Seeds germinate in 7 to 10 days. Germination is epigeous.
Time of sowing: The best time of sowing the seeds in nursery beds/containers as well as in the
permanent sites, is the beginning of monsoon (June-July).
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Seed rate: The seed requirement of subabul is 5-7 kg/ha when it is raised by direct sowing at
permanent site in line sowing system, when direct sowing is by broad casting, the requirement of seed
is very high ie. about 20 kg per hectare. Whereas for raising seedling for planting one hectare area,
the seed requirement is very low i.e. about 0.5 to 1.0 kg.
Planting:
Digging of pits: The pits are dug 30 cm2 in size inadvance.About 3-5 kg FYM is mixed in the soil
and filled with it in pits.
Method of planting: Planting of the entire seedlings or stumps or other type of transplants is done
with care.
Time of planting:The best time of planting is during monsoon season.
Distance of planting: planting spacing varies with the purpose of planting.whensubabul is planted
for fooder purpose and for collecting biomass for generation of biogas,planting at closer spacing
(0.1% 0.5m) is advisable. However, Planting at wide spacing (2x2m)is followed when subabual is
grown for timber purposes and when other crops are taken as intercrops,the spacing is further
increased.
Silvicultural practices:
Irrigation:Subabul respond well to irrigation for better survival,establishment and further growth and
development of plants. Newly planted transplants may be provided light irrigation at about 3 weeks
interval. The growth of plants is slow under rainfed conditions.
Manure and fertilizers: In the initial stage of planting, organic manure is applied. Nitrogen
application is usually not required because it is a legume plant. However, application of phosphorous
(30-40 kg/ha) will be beneficial particularly in acidic soils having p H below 5.0. Liming is also
advisable to be done at the rate of 2-4t/ha.
Weeding:Subabual is not harmed by weeds except at seedling stage as they are slow starters. One or
two light cultivation will keep down the weeds.
Training and pruning: In order to give proper framework to the growing trees training and pruning
operations are attained to time to time. Particularly when subabul is grown in agrisilviculture and
silvipastoralsystems,the pruning of lower branches is essentially done. Branches/twigs are also
pruned at a certain height so that solar radiation is not interrupted much for growing arable crops.
Thinning:Subabual is knowingly planted at high density because of its multi-purpose uses. Thinning
operations are done accordingly. Frequent thinning is needed for firewood purpose.
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Harvesting:
Subabul plantation is finally harvested depending on its purpose. The normal rotation for 5-6 years is
followed. The trees are cut at 10- 20cm above the ground. Within a couple of days coppices start to
merge and they grow fast than seedlings. The yield of foliage, firewood and small timber varies
according to variety soil type,climaticcondition,duration of rotation, management practices etc., The
annual biomass increament in subabul can go up to 50cm3 per hectare under adequate moisture
supply. The indicates about purpose and duration of harvesting of subabul.The highest biomass
production by Leucaenaleucoceplala(subabul) followed by Albizialebbek and Eucalyptus hybrid at
the age of 4 years. Stem contributed maximum biomass followed by branches and leaves.
Plant protection:
Subabul plantation needs protection from browsing animals-cattle,sheep,goatsetc.Sometimes,
sub-babul is attacked by gram pod borer (Heliothisarmigera) which can be controlled effectively with
sprays of Malathion 0.05-0.1 per cent or Monocrotophos 0.04 per cent. Termites are serious to
subabul. Besides,subabul has also been reported to be damaged by two important diseases, namely
Ganoderma root rot (Canodermalucidum) and Gummosis die back(Fusariumsemitectum).
The affected subabul plants by Ganoderma root rot show the symptoms of drying of branches
from tip resulting in stagheaded appearance which is followed by death of plants due to decay of
roots. The diseases are maximum in close planting. This can be controlled by removal of decayed
stumps of subabul and other species and isolation of diseases trees. Gummosis die –back diseases
shows development of darkbrown spots on leaves,shoots and pods oozing of gum accompanied by
bark cracking an stem and branches resulting in development of cankers. Incidence of diseases is
reduced to a minimum by pruning of lower branches,weedingoccasionally,planting of subabul at
higher density which are thinned out during the second year.

TENDING OPERATION
For establishment of the regeneration and subsequent development of the forest crop upto harvesting,
several operations are carried out. These operations are carried out in the forest crop at different
stages of growth in order to provide a healthy environment for their development. These operations
are called tending operations and include following:
I. Weeding
II. Cleaning
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III. Thinning
IV. Improvement felling
V. Pruning
VI. Climber cutting
I. WEEDING
Weed is an unwanted plant at a particular site. Weeding is therefore, defined as removal of all
unwanted plants particularly in seedling stage at nursery in the forest. The main objective of weeding
is to reduce the competition for moisture, nutrient and to provide sufficient growing space for the
desired species. It is a term used for the removal of all plants competing the desired species regardless
of crown competition. Weeding is usually done in nurseries land young plantations. It is rarely carried
out in naturally regenerated plantations, though it is necessary there also.
The control or eradication of unwanted growth of trees, shrubs, herbs, grasses, etc. in nurseries,
plantations, and natural regeneration areas is a major problem. Repeated shrub cuttings have been
helpful in obtaining natural regeneration of many species particularly in case of sal. But the method is
not popular because of higher costs and difficulty in organising large scale work. Weeds may be
controlled by following methods:
 Mechanical methods
 Biological methods
 Chemical methods
MECHANICAL METHODS
In nurseries and in young plantations, soil working should be done carefully. Undecomposed organic
manure should not be added to the plants, because it carries viable seeds of weeds. Even after taking
these precautions, weeds may appear in the nursery beds and in plantation pits. In nurseries, weeding
should be done at right time so that the rate of growth of seedlings may not be affected. In nurseries,
grasses may be uprooted with the help of some instruments e.g.,khurpas. Weeding in nurseries is
much easier if sowing is done in lines. In nurseries, weeds must be uprooted but not cut, otherwise they
will, sprout again. Uprooting of weeds benefits the seedlings indirectly because it pulverises the soil, which
is beneficial for the root development of the seedlings. Weeding in plantations is usually carried out during
the early period of growth. This can be carried out by cutting of weeds in full plantation or in strips. Here,
weeds are mostly cut off at ground level. In many species viz. eucalypts, teak, etc., clearing of about 0.6 - 1.0
m wide strip is carried out Weeding around the pit is also carried out in some species in many areas
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BIOLOGICAL METHODS
On account of higher cost of mechanical methods of weed eradication, use of suitable cover crops,
maintenance of proper stand density, use of suitable degree of fire and grazing and use of insects pest which
may feed on weeds are usually tried with varying degree of success. Cover crops tend to check the weed
growth to a certain extent. In Karnataka,Amaranthus spp. and tulsi(Ocimumkilimandscharicum) have been
found suitable cover crops in moist deciduous forests, where teak is regenerated artificially (Anon., 1960). In
Assam, cover crop ofTeprosia Candida failed to suppress grass viz. Saccharum spp. Perera (1953) reported
that planting cutting ofGliricidiamaculata, a small quick growing tree, was found most effective in
controllingImperatacylindricagrass in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka). Adoption of closer spacing in plantation
tends to check the weed growth.
Controlled fire can be used to decrease the weed competition to a certain extent. But it has been observed
that use of fire often brings heavy growth of troublesome weeds particularly in semi-evergreen forests. Tall
planting has been reported to be successful in heavy weed growth areas. In Assam, tall transplants
ofKydiacalycinaandChukrasiatabularis were found growing well when planted on narrow cleared lines.
Light weeding (one weeding/year) is usually required than three weeding per year required in conventional
method (Hewetson, 1954). Regulated and controlled grazing can be effectively used for checking the weed
growth. Grazing and browsing by animals tend to decrease the intensity and growth of weeds but if it is
uncontrolled, harmful effects of grazing become more pronounced. Use of insects for eradication of certain
species has been successful in many cases.Opuntia sp. has been successfully controlled with the help of a
cockineal insect in thorn forests of south India. Lantana bug (Orthezia insignis) has been successfully
utilized in controlling the notorious weed Lantana camara.
CHEMICAL METHODS
Many chemicals which are usually known as weedicides, or herbicides can be used for
controlling weeds. The popular chemicals are 2, 4 dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2, 4 -D), 2, 4, 5 -
trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2, 4, 5 - T), ethyl esters, etc. These herbicides are usually applied on the
foliage of the plant. The suitability of the herbicide, concentration and the mode and time of
application differ from species to species. The cost of weedicide application is usually very high and
therefore, this has not become popular in forestry in India.
II. CLEANING
Cleaning is carried out in a crop which has not crossed the sapling stage and is defined as the cutting
made in order to free the best individuals from undesirable ones of the same age which interfere or
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are likely to interfere with the growth of the desired individuals (Anon., 1960). Cleanings are done
mainly to reduce light competition than for minimising the root competition. Where the site
conditions are good and intensive soil working is not done during regeneration, undesirable species
also grow alongwith desired species. Cleanings are generally necessary both in artificial regeneration
and in natural regeneration. The greatest advantage offered by cleaning is the proper regulation of the
composition of the crop, particularly in mixed crops. Methods of cleaning may be mechanical,
biological and chemical as described under weeding. The most common method is cutting the inferior
growth with some sharp implements e.g. axe, spade, etc. The intensity and interval of cleaning
operation have to be decided taking into consideration the growth behaviour of the species, site
conditions and economic factors. Intensive cleaning is not recommended in dry areas. Cleaning
operation should be undertaken immediately when desired individuals are threatened with over-
topping. Cleaning have to be modified according to the light requirement of the crop. Light
demanders require intensive cleaning, while shade demanders may require some shade upto a certain
period.
III. THINNING
Thinning is defined as a felling made in an immature stand for the purpose of improving the growth
and form of the trees that remain, without permanently breaking the canopy (Anon., 1960). Thinning
is a tending operation carried out in a crop beyond the sapling stage and up to the beginning of
regeneration period. Thinning principles are so formulated that these are applicable only to pure and
even-aged or relatively even-aged crop or even-aged groups of the trees in a crop.
Thinning principles have been developed on the basis of natural development of the stand. A typical
stand starts its life with a large number of trees, usually, many thousand per hectare at the beginning.
The number of trees per ha starts decreasing with an increase in their size and age. The decrease is
much faster in the beginning but later slows down when the crop grows larger. When the crop
matures, only a few hundred trees remain per ha. Thus a continuous reduction in number of trees is
primarily due to struggle for life and survival of the fittest, the most important biological law of
nature. Thus, thinning, takes place naturally in a densely stocked forest under the law of survival of
the fittest. The survivals, however, are not of desired quality. In thinning, a forester tries to salvage the
inherent mortality and produce a crop of better growth and quality.
OBJECTIVES OF THINNING
To improve the hygiene of the crop, by removing dead, dying and diseased trees
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Trees which have lost in the struggle of life are usually weak and very much susceptible to be
attacked by diseases and insects. Such trees are likely to be a source of infection for those which are
fit in the struggle. In thinning, therefore, such trees which are diseased or insect infested are removed
at first instance as these are likely to be the source of infection to other trees.
Salvage of anticipated losses of the merchantable volume
In a natural stand, there are many thousand trees per hectare in the beginning and as it grows the
number starts decreasing. A large number of trees die of suppression. This amount to about 20 per
cent of the merchantable volume. This is one of the main objectives of thinning to anticipate the
losses through natural suppression and design a thinning practice, which may utilize this value. It is
however, not possible to utilize all such volumes because some trees are too small to have any utility.
To assure the best physical conditions of growth
Density has a direct influence upon the growth. In an open crop, the trees stand apart without
influencing each other and the growth is directly proportional to the volume of the growing stock in
an area. In a crop, where the trees influence each other i.e. where there is slight competition, the rate
of growth is declined with respect to stand volume. The crops, which are dense enough to occupy the
site fully, the increment is virtually independent of the stocking. The objective of the thinning is to
keep growing stock somewhere within this range. The effect of extreme competition is reflected by
decline in the rate of growth with increasing density in crops which are very dense. The trend may
however, not be uniformly applicable in all the species at different site qualities. In shade tolerant
species, optimum production can be obtained with greater densities than in shade tolerant species.
 To obtain desired crop
Thinning helps to improve the stand structure. It ensures a uniform and proper distribution of trees all
over the area. This enables the trees to tap water and nutrients from a larger area. The composition of
the crop can also be improved. The less valuable species may be removed in thinning and the
important and valuable species may be retained for future.
Improvement of stand composition,regeneration and protection
If an undesirable species is not eliminated during regeneration stage it can be done during thinning to
a certain extent. In a mixed crop, species may have different periods of maturity and such crop can
easily be maintained. Thinning helps in obtaining suitable seed bearers for obtaining successful
regeneration. The dead, dying and diseased trees are removed to afford protection from insect pest,
diseases and fire because these trees may serve as a source of infection.
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Improvement in wood quality

Thinning may also improve the quality of wood because trees with higher diameter are likely to be of
better quality than smaller ones. Iyppu (1961) reported that the timber from thinned plots was found
to be about 16 per cent heavier than that of control plots in case of teak. Thinning may not always
improve the quality of the timber. The result may be different in fast and slow growing species. The
fast growth affected by thinning sometimes leads to formation of weak wood in many species.
Delayed thinning produce sudden accelerations of growth, which may have an adverse effect on
wood properties. It may develop shake at the point acceleration. If a converted timber piece e.g. plank
etc. contains both slow and fast grown wood, it is likely to develop warp during seasoning. Therefore,
from the point of view of volume and quality, it is necessary to have relatively uniform rate of
growth. There are many aspects of the effect of thinning on the quality of the timber which are yet to
be conclusively decided. In fact, thinning is likely to produce higher volume of strong wood in trees
by increasing the volume particularly in favourable climatic and edaphic conditions.
The basic principle involved in thinning is to reduce the number of stems per hectare/ to minimise
root and light competition for the ultimate benefit of the growth of the future stems and at the same
time keeping sufficient stocking in the crop for the development of better bole form. It has to be
borne in mind that no gaps should be created otherwise, reduction in crop volume may result.
To increase net yield and financial out-turn from a stand
The net yield of timber is increased due to; (i) salvaging the timber in form of thinned material which
would have otherwise perished, (ii) production of larger sizes of trees which are left after thinning
and (iii) production of larger trees of better quality. This results in increased financial yield because
of; (a) increased yield of timber and (b) better quality of wood, in general. Thinning help to obtain
returns early. The sale of thinning material helps to reduce investment burden because of early returns
from thinning and shortening of rotation.
To help decomposition of raw humus
In temperate forests, thinning increases light and temperature on the forest floor and causes
mechanical disturbance which help the decomposition of raw humus and release of nutrients, etc.

METHODS OF THINNING
The following methods of thinning can be adopted:
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 Mechanical thinning
 Ordinary thinning
 Crown thinning
 Free thinning
 Craib's advance thinning
 Numerical thinning
MECHANICAL THINNING
This type of thinning is usually applied in young crops or young plantations before the crown
differentiation has taken place. There are two general systems followed in this type of thinning viz. (i)
row-thinning, in which trees are cut in line or rows throughout the area and (ii) spacing thinning in
which trees at fixed intervals of distance are selected tor retention and all other are cut. The
mechanical thinning since applied in the younger crops, it is not possible to identify the vigorous trees
because most of them grow with more or less same vigour at an early age.
Practice of mechanical thinning even in plantations becomes difficult in areas where casualties are
more and already gaps exist in the area. The application of row thinning or space thinning is very
much limited and depends upon the extent of natural regeneration, as species with dense natural
regeneration can be thinned by either of these methods in earlier stages.
ORDINARY THINNING
This is also called as 'low thinning' or 'German thinning' or 'thinning from the below'. In
ordinary thinning, the trees are removed from lower crown classes. The trees which are removed in
this thinning belong to diseased trees of all classes, suppressed, dominated and some dominants
depending upon the grades of the thinning. Ordinary thinning has been devised to follow the nature
i.e. those trees, which have been unsuccessful in the struggle of existence, are removed first.
Ordinary thinning is the most commonly used thinning practice in forestry. This method of thinning is
suited for application in a number of conditions, (i) It is most suited for light demander species, e.g.
chir, teak. sal, sissoo, semal, gamhari, etc. because in light demander species, the suppressed and
dominated individuals do not usually retain power of recuperation and are not likely to respond to
improved conditions of growth due to thinning, (ii) This method of thinning is useful and may be
economically applied , in species and areas where small size timber has a market, (iii) The method is
simple in execution and only ordinary skill is required for selection of trees, therefore, where thinning
is to be executed by less trained persons, it is better to adopt this thinning, (iv) Removal of lower
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crown classes includes several diseases and insect infected individuals. Thus, this thinning practice
improves the hygiene of the crop. (v) The method is suitable for areas where there is no danger of soil
deterioration as a result of removal of smaller sizes trees. (vi) The method is useful in forests infested
with climbers and where there is risk of crown fire. (vii) In this type of thinning, trees of lower crown
classes are removed to accelerate the growth of remaining trees. It is reported in case of several
species that growth in dominant trees is stimulated only when some gap is created and root
competition is considerably reduced by removing some trees in the top canopy and removal of
smaller trees does not significantly affect the growth. Only heavier grades of thinning are likely to
produce desired results. Therefore, this method of thinning with proper grade has to be selected
taking into consideration the growth, soil loss, etc. (viii) Cutting of lower crown classes at later stages
of development helps to obtain natural regneration.
Ordinary thinning has several demerits, (i) This method of thinniing rests on removal of trees
of lower crown classes. In several areas, troublesome and desirable trees and shrubs in the
understorey may develop. In sal, it is reported that dense understorey develops in areas where heavy
opening are created in lower crowns. (ii) This thinning is designed to be executed when trees have
been in competition for sufficiently a long time to develop crown differentiation. This means that
whole crop including the dominants has already suffered due to adverse effect of competition, (iii)
sometimes; lower crown classes may be useful particularly when predominant and dominants are not
able to utilize the site perfectly. The surplus of the nutrients store is utilized by lower crown classes
and is kept in cycling. (iv) If there is no demand of small trees, it is often difficult to utilize the
thinned material economically. When thinned material remains undisposed, it increases fire hazard
and does not improve the hygiene of the crop, (v) the removal of trees of lower crown classes may
expose the soil. This increases soil erosion particularly in sloppy areas.
CROWN THINNING
Crown thinning is a method of thinning which is primarily directed to the dominant trees in a regular
crop, the less promising ones being removed in the interest of the best individuals; the dominated and
suppressed stems are retained unless they are dead, drying or diseased. This method of thinning is
known as French thinning because of its origin in France. This is also called thinning from the above
or high thinning to differentiate it from ordinary thinning.
The beneficial effects of removal of lower crown classes on the growth of trees of top crown classes
is doubtful and some of the trees of lower crown classes need to be retained for protection of the site
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and checking invasion of undesired under storey. This method of thinning therefore, aims at removing
the inferior trees from among the dominant class. The bulk of trees of lower crown classes, e.g. domi-
nated and suppressed, are ignored and allowed to grow after each thinning. In this method of
thinning, trees from upper crown classes are removed in order to favour the growth and development
of most promising frees of the same class. The selection of trees to be retained after thinning depends
primarily on the health, vigour, form and species. If all the trees are of good health, vigour, form and
species, co dominants are removed which are interfering with the growth of predominant trees. If
there is a choice between relatively poor predominant and promising co dominant, the co dominants
are favoured for retention. In crown thinning, the object is to promote the growth of trees which show
signs of success in the competition and promise a good value as a future crop.
Crown thinning is suited for a number of conditions, (i) It is best suited for moderately shade tolerant
species, e.g. sal, deodar, etc. because, in such species, dominated and suppressed trees retain the
power of recuperation for a long period, (ii) It is suited for areas where there is no demand for small
sized timer (iii) it is suitable for forests where considerable damage due to frost, snow, wind, etc.
occur. The vacancy created by the death of codominant trees due to these factors is filled by the trees
of lower crown classes (iv) The method is especially suited for area where there is danger of site
deterioration due to removal of trees of lower crown classes.
Crown thinning offers several advantages over other methods of thinning, (i) Crown thinning
provides better environment for growth and development of retained dominant trees, they grow faster
than in ordinary thinning. The production of timber is of big size and of better quality. (ii) The trees of
lower crown classes are not removed under this method of thinning. They keep weeds and shrub
growth under control, (iii) the pressure of trees of lower crown class’s results better pruning of side
branches. This helps in production of better timber, (IV) this method of thinning helps in protection of
the site and reduces the damages due to frost snow, wind, etc.
The main disadvantages of crown thinning are: (i) there is higher root competition for moisture and
nutrients adversely affecting the growth of dominants when growth factors are limiting, (i) Crown
thinning presents problems and obstruction in felling, logging and extraction of thinned material, (iii)
Crown thinning is more flexible method than ordinary thinning. It requires greater skill in execution.
It requires more strict numerical check on the trees to be removed, (IV) the trees of lower crown
classes, if, diseased or insect infested, serve as a nucleus of infection in the retained crop. Therefore,
closer look on suppressed and dominated trees would be necessary.
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FREE THINNING
Free thinning is a modification of crown thinning and is also called 'single stem silviculture', or 'elite
thinning". In this method, 'elites' are first selected in number appropriate to the size or age of the crop
with special regard to their stem form and to their even spacing. In this method, instead of treating the
crop as a whole, attention is concentrated for the provision of optimum growing space for future
stems throughout, the growing period of the crop. The required number of future stems corresponding
to the rotation age are first selected and retained more or less uniformly distributed all over the area.
In selection of future stems, co-dominants or even dominated trees of perfect stem form and standing
in the appropriate position relative to neighbouring elites stems may be preferred to quite fair but less
acceptable dominants. The elites may be marked for easy identification. Once the elites are identified,
the balance crop is considered from the point of view of their effect on the elites. If there removal is
likely to help the elites, they are cut otherwise they are retained for the protection of the site.
ADVANCE THINNING
In this method, thinning is carried out before the competition among individual trees has set in; the
competition is never allowed to take place. This may cause loss in the total volume production, but
ensures maximum growth of the elite trees. This method was suggested by Craib (1939) for
plantations in South Africa and usually known as Craib advance thinning.
In the earlier stages of development, there is an intense competition among the plants for
water, nutrients, light and space. This competition is regulated by removing the surplus individuals
and diverting the resources to the residual trees. Sometimes the trees which are freed take 3 to 4 years
for starting faster rate of growth. This leads to the conclusion that greatest increment is possible only
when no suppression has yet set in the crop.
NUMERICAL THINNING
Various factors such as number of stems per ha and diameter at breast height relationship,
N/H2 (number of stems per ha and height relationship), tree area ratio, bole area, basal area, etc., can
be very good guide for the optimum density of the crop at a particular age and site and can be used as
a numerical check on thinning.
1. N/D RELATIONSHIP
The relationship between number of stems per ha and diameter for several Indian timber species has
not been found independent of site quality (Champion and Seth, 1968). It is possible to work out the
exact number of trees corresponding to a given diameter for different species and it was first used by
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Reinkee (1933) for working out stand density index. Stand density index is the number of trees
corresponding to a given standard average diameter. Such numerical parameter on the basis of
relationships between number of trees and average diameter are suggested on the basis of standard
relationship of number of stems per hectare and average diameter of the crop.
2. N/H2 RELATIONSHIP
For a given site quality, the optimum number of trees per unit area is found to be inversly
proportional to the square of the height of the stand i.e. N/H 2 (Czar-nowski, 1961). On the basis of
this relationship, Hart (1923) prepared one of the first stand density indexes (S %) on the basis of
average espacement and height as; S % = average espacement x 100. This parameter, however, is not
used in Indian forests. Comparisons of actual values taken from yield tables show that for a given
grade of thinning, the S % tends to be higher for the lower site qualities.
Several other parameters, e.g. tree area ratio, basal area, bole area, etc. have also been used to work
out the optimum number of trees at particular age or stage of growth. These parameters, however, are
not of much use and the relationship has not been constant for different species and site qualities.
FACTORS AFFECTING THINNING PRACTICE
The following factors are important for deciding the adoption of thinning practice:
 Nature of species
 Age
 Site quality
NATURE OF SPECIES
Light demanders are less tolerant of crowding than shade- bearers and therefore, frequent thinning are
required to remove competition in light demander species. Light demanders usually respond better to
ordinary thinning, while shade bearers to crown thinning. Teak requires early and heavy thinning and
stagnation adversely affects its growth. Some species have a frondose habit in young stage such as
Terminalia spp. and Pterocarpus spp. These species do not produce a well-defined vertical axis for
many years and if thinning is done early and heavily the stems tend to become branchy and of poor
shape.
AGE
In young age, when the crown formation has not completed, mechanical thinning or stick thinning by
some numerical formula is carried out with success. Some species particularly light demanders
require heavy thinning in young crop and at frequent intervals. Some species in middle age or near
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maturity. Favour crown thinnings.

SITE QUALITY
On poor sites, heavy thinning is not recommended because the rate of growth on such sites is poor
and the heavy openings created may not be occupied. On steep slopes, drier areas and poor sites,
heavy thinning should not be done. In areas, where opening is likely to be invaded by grasses and
weeds, thinning should be done carefully and judiciously. Good sites may support large number of
trees than poor sites. For example, the number of trees per hectare for crop diameter of 30 cm for site
quality I and site quality III are 390 and 356 respectively for Sal and 420 and 306 respectively, in case
of chir. The number of stems per hectare in some species i.e. teak and deodar appears to be
independent of site quality.
THINNING CYCLE, INTENSITY AND REGIME
THINNING CYCLE is defined as the planned interval in years which elapsed between successive
thinnings in the same crop.
 THINNING INTENSITYis indication in numerical terms the extent to which the crop is thinned.
Thinnng intensity is described as 'light' or 'heavy' according to the number of trees that are removed.
Thinning intensity and thinning cycles are interdependent. If thinning intensity is heavy perhaps
thinning cycle need to be longer and vice-versa. In the period of fast growth, more frequent and light
thinning are required.
THINNING REGIME is the whole set of thinning carried out in a crop from earliest stage to
maturity. It describes all thinning carried out in a crop.
IV. IMPROVEMENT FELLINGS
Improvement felling has been defined as the removal of less valuable trees in a crop with the interest
of better growth, of the more valuable individuals, usually applied to a mixed, uneven aged forest. It
may include thinning of closely stocked groups along with clearing and general assistance to young
growth of valuable species (Anon., 1960). The operation is usually carried out in mixed forests
beyond the sapling stage for improving the composition and character of the crop. The trees of
inferior species and form are removed in favour of valuable species and trees of better form.
Improvement fellings are usually prescribed in forests which are in poor condition because of
uncontrolled excessive grazing and fire. The improvement fellings vary greatly in their prescription
depending mostly upon the present condition of the crop and locality. The following operations are
usually prescribed in improvement felling.
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 Removal of dead, dying and diseased trees.

 Removal of unsound and over mature trees which are not likely to survive upto next felling
provided such trees are siiviculturally available.
 Removal of unsound and badly shaped trees, provided their removal can benefit the trees of
better form and species.
 Thinning out crowded groups of trees, poles and saplings. The trees of larger diameter class
should not be removed so that such trees may yield revenue in next felling.
 Cutting back badly shaped or injured saplings and advance growth in order to obtain better
coppice shoots.
 Removal of plants of inferior species which are having or likely to have adverse effect on the
regeneration of important species.
 Removal of trees of inferior species, which are having or likely to have adverse effect ori
growth of valuable species.
 Cutting or uprooting of climbers.
The improvement fellings are regarded as interim system of management and are usually
adopted in poor quality forests in India.
V. PRUNING
Pruning is defined as the elimination of branches in order to obtain trees with clean bole. The
elimination of branches by physical and biotic agencies of the environment is called 'natural pruning'.
Removal of branches from the seated portions of the tree by mechanical means is referred as artificial
pruning. Pruning occurs naturally when the crop is dense enough particularly in younger stage. The
process of natural pruning completes in three stages; namely (i) killing of branches, (ii) shedding of
dead branches and (iii) healing over of the branch stub. The killing of the branches if determined by
the density of the crop. The lower branches of trees usually die when crowns of the adjacent trees are
close to each other. Death in such cases occurs below the point of closer. The shedding of branches
occurs after the dead branches are attacked by saprophytic fungi, insects, etc., or broken away by
winds etc. The shedding of dead branches from the main stem is followed by the occlusion of the
short stubs produced by the dead branches. Natural pruning can be accelerated by manipulation of the
density and composition of the crop. The rate of killing of lower branches, their shedding and healing
of the branch stub depends on species and their habitat factors. The retention of under storey trees
may also lead to effective natural pruning. The simplest method of obtaining natural pruning is to
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develop and maintain dense stocking in the main crop. This may decrease the rate of diameter
increment. Therefore, it is necessary to reduce the crop density as soon as natural pruning is achieved.
With the adoption of the technique of artificial regeneration, it, sometimes becomes necessary to
carry out artificial pruning. Artificial pruning results in production of clear boled trees on shorter
rotation than would be required in natural pruning. Plantations can not be raised in closer spacing
because it leads to higher investment and therefore artificial pruning, sometimes may be necessary.
In the artificial pruning, the moribund and lower green branches are cut off from the main stem as
near to the bole as possible. The use of handsaw has been found useful than bladed instruments. A
small ladder is also necessary. Except in certain cases e.g. poplar mulberry, artificial pruning on large
scale has yet to be adopted in India. The height upto which pruning should be carried out artificially
depends upon species, age and local conditions. In young plantations, it should be carried out upto
one half to three-fifth of the total height of the tree. The object of pruning is to obtain knot free timber
and it is likely to be obtained more effectively by the removal of lateral buds. Bud pruning method,
which involves removal of lateral buds by rubbing off or clipping off very young branches, has been
developed in U.S.S.R. This is practiced in case of Salix alba for producing timber for cricket bats.
However, this practice has not been popular in case of other species. Artificial pruning may be
necessary with heavier thinning grades.
VI. CLIMBER CUTTING
Climber cutting should be done along with the tending operations as well as while carrying out
markings for fellings in the forest. Climbers are particularly harmful when the trees are young. In
older trees, they constrict the stem and deteriorate the value of wood. The species such as Bauhinia
vahlii, Butea superba, B. parviflora, Vitis spp., Millettia auriculata, Ichnocarpus spp., Smilex spp.,
lpomaea spp., Combretum decundrum, Uvaria hamiltonia, Acacia spp., etc. are important climbers of
moist deciduous forests. In coniferous forests, the common climbers are Dioscorea spp., Rosa spp.,
Vitis spp., Hedera spp., etc. The climber cutting should be done at the base and one metre above and
the piece should be removed in order to ensure that climber has been cut. A more effective method for
the control of climber is to dig up tubers during the rains. The climbers should be cut preferably
during monsoon.

PRUNING
Pruning is a  silvicultural practice involving the selective removal of certain parts of a plant,
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such as branches, buds, or roots. Pruning is defined as the elimination of branches in order to obtain
trees with clean bole. Reasons to prune plants include deadwood removal, shaping (by controlling or
directing growth), improving or maintaining health, reducing risk from falling branches,
preparing nursery specimens for transplanting, and both harvesting and increasing the yield or quality
of flowers and fruits. The practice entails targeted removal of diseased, damaged, dead, non-
productive, structurally unsound, or otherwise unwanted tissue from crop and landscape plants.

Types of pruning
The elimination of branches by physical and biotic agencies of the environment is called 'natural
pruning'.
Removal of branches from the seated portions of the tree by mechanical means is referred as
‘artificial pruning’.
Pruning occurs naturally when the crop is dense enough particularly in younger stage. The process of
natural pruning completes in three stages; namely (i) killing of branches, (ii) shedding of dead
branches and (iii) healing over of the branch stub.