Journal of Computational Electronics (2022) 21:1017–1025

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10825-022-01882-0

A microcontroller‑based signal conditioning circuitry for acetone

concentration detection using a metal oxide‑based gas sensor
M. S. Lekshmi1 · K. Arun1 · K. J. Suja1 

Received: 14 January 2022 / Accepted: 30 March 2022 / Published online: 13 May 2022
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2022

Abstract
The presence of acetone gas in human exhaled breath is an important test for the detection of diabetes. Much research has
been focused on developing a noninvasive technique for diabetes detection. Among the various gas sensors, semiconductor
metal oxide-based gas sensors have garnered research interest because of advantages such as fabrication simplicity, low
cost, and low power consumption. In this work, nickel oxide (NiO) is used as the sensing material for detecting acetone.
The sensitivity of NiO towards acetone gas was analyzed using COMSOL Multiphysics and the results were compared with
experimental data. For an acetone concentration in the range of 5–40 ppm, the results from the simulated sensor showed
good agreement with the real sensor, with some anomalies due to the practical conditions in the real chamber and the simu-
lation tool. Comprehensive finite element analysis of the sensor was performed for different operating temperatures and
gas concentrations ranging from 1 to 40 ppm in order to analyze diverse diabetes mellitus conditions. Analytical modeling
was also developed to analyze the effect of the change in acetone concentration on the resistance of the sensing layer. For a
user-friendly interface, a signal conditioning unit and an alarm system for diabetes detection were also built. The COMSOL
Multiphysics simulation was extended using a MATLAB script to integrate the results with the signal conditioning unit in
the Proteus software program. The findings also demonstrated that this approach might be used to describe and determine
the performance of acetone gas sensors prior to fabrication.

Keywords  Acetone gas · NiO · Finite element analysis · Signal conditioning unit · Proteus

1 Introduction commonly used metal oxides for gas sensing applications

Metal oxide semiconductors have garnered considerable
research interest in the past few decades [1] for their appli-
cation as gas sensors [2], superconductors [3], catalysts [4],
and laser diodes [5]. The quick adsorption and reaction of
target gases, which is enabled by the presence of a large
surface area with numerous active sites, improves the sens-
ing performance of metal oxides [6]. Zinc oxide (ZnO), tin
oxide ( SnO2 ), and tungsten oxide ( WO3 ) are among the most
* K. J. Suja
suja@nitc.ac.in
M. S. Lekshmi
lekshminairms@gmail.com
K. Arun
arunkbharath888@gmail.com
1
The Department of Electronics and Communication
Engineering, National Institute of Technology Calicut,
Calicut, India
[7–9].
Nickel oxide is a p-type metal oxide semiconductor that
has been used for antiferromagnetic materials, electro-
chemical capacitors, drug delivery devices, and gas sensors
[10–12]. Advantages such as low cost and excellent ion stor-
age properties make it an interesting research material. NiO
has a face-centered cubic structure with a lattice constant of
4.17 A 0 and a wide energy bandgap of 3.6-4.0 eV [13]. It is
a remarkable material for a variety of applications due to its
thermodynamic stability and unique chemical, optical, and
magnetic characteristics [14].
Nickel oxide is an excellent sensing material for acetone
gas. Research interest in acetone gas detection has increased
in recent years, as acetone is a key breath measure for diabe-
tes detection [15]. Acetone gas levels in a healthy person’s
breath range from 0.2 to 1.8 ppm. The presence of acetone
gas in human breath at levels above 1.8 ppm indicates con-
ditions of diabetes [16]. Diabetes mellitus is classified into
two categories based on insulin production. Type 1 diabetes

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1018 Journal of Computational Electronics (2022) 21:1017–1025

occurs when the body is unable to produce insulin, whereas O−2 (ads) + e− ↔ 2O− (ads) (< 100 − 300 o C) (3)
type 2 diabetes occurs when the body cannot utilize the insu-
lin produced. Breath acetone concentration is correlated with
the diabetes condition [17]. O− (ads) + e− ↔ O2− (ads) (> 300 o C) (4)
An acetone concentration between 1.8 and 21 ppm indi- When the sensor is exposed to reducing acetone gas, the
cates type 1 diabetes [18]. People with diabetes mellitus sensor molecules react with the adsorbed oxygen, causing
must regularly monitor their blood glucose levels. Breath the adsorbed electrons to be injected back into the sensing
acetone concentration is correlated with the type of diabetes surface. This causes the sensing layer resistance to increase.
[16]. Developing a noninvasive technique for diabetes detec- Reactions will occur as shown in Eq. (5) below [21].
tion will be a great advancement in the biomedical field.
In this work, COMSOL Multiphysics was used to exam- CH3 COCH3 (gas) + 8O− → 3CO2 + 3H2 O + 8e− (5)
ine the performance characteristics of the gas sensor. A
theoretical study and investigation of p-type NiO-based gas
sensors towards acetone gas were carried out. The influence
3 Sensor performance analysis
of gas concentration on the rate of change in the resistance
with COMSOL Multiphysics
of the sensing layer was also investigated. The simulation
The sensor model was simulated using the COMSOL Mul-
results showed good agreement with the experimental data.
tiphysics tool. Three models were used for the simulation:
To the best of our knowledge, no previously published
gas exposure, electrical property, and heat transfer. The dif-
research work has used the interlinking of COMSOL with
ferent phases in the simulation of the gas sensor are shown
MATLAB for gas sensing applications. In this work, the
in Fig. 1. A cylindrical chamber with an equal height and
MATLAB tool was used to expand the COMSOL results by
radius of 16 mm was formed in the gas exposure model, with
monitoring them in real time. The output from COMSOL
a 20-mm diameter inlet and two 10-mm diameter outlets. The
was incorporated into a function that links concentration,
gas was injected into the chamber from the top base and was
temperature, and time using special commands. This func-
retrieved from the other end via two outlets, allowing for a
tion was used to control the signal conditioning unit to meas-
simple outward flow of the gas. Various concentrations of
ure the change in resistance in the sensing layer with acetone
acetone gas were introduced into the chamber via the inlet.
gas concentration simulated using Proteus software and the
Modules of solid mechanics, chemical transport species, and
temperature control unit. The sensor’s output was integrated
electrical and heat transfer were employed to implement the
with a signal conditioning unit to develop a noninvasive
structure. Farshad et al. [22] reported a generic method for gas
technique for diabetes detection. A warning system was also
sensing by COMSOL Multiphysics using Eqs. (6)–(13). The
installed to identify the type of diabetic condition, which is
Navier–Stokes equation was used to model the flow of gas in
a significant benefit in developing gas sensing techniques.
the chamber, which is given by Eq. (6):

��⃗
DU
2 Sensing principle of the metal oxide gas 𝜌 = −▿P + 𝜌g + 𝜂▿2 U (6)
Dt
sensor
where P, g, 𝜌 , U, and 𝜂 are the gas pressure, gravity, gas flux,
The adsorption–desorption process between the sens- velocity, and viscosity, respectively. The above equation is
ing material and the target gas is responsible for the gas
response. When atmospheric oxygen is adsorbed on the sur-
face of the sensing material, the oxygen molecules absorb
the electrons in the NiO grains. As a result, the oxygen
molecule becomes an O − ion and causes an increase in the
concentration of holes [19]. As more holes are generated,
increased electron transport occurs, which causes a decrease
in the resistance of the sensing layer. The following Eqs.
(1)–(4) summarize the concepts [20].
O2(gas) → O2 (ads) (1)

Fig. 1  Schematic of the FEA domain of the simulated gas sensor: a

O2(gas) + e− ↔ O−2 (ads) (< 100 o C) (2) gas sensor architecture, b simulated view of a gas sensor with differ-
ent layers, c heater temperature and gas flow distribution in the cham-
ber

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Journal of Computational Electronics (2022) 21:1017–1025 1019

solved using the continuity equation, which is given by Eq. different stages of diabetes are shown in the inset of Fig. 2.
(7), for achieving the gas field velocity: The resistance was found to decrease with increasing tem-
perature, indicating that further reaction did not contribute
𝛿𝜌 ��⃗ = 0
+ ▿(𝜌U) (7) to the sensitivity of the sensor, and maximum sensitivity
𝛿t was observed at 325 o C. It was noted that the resistance
The value of 𝜌 becomes zero for an incompressible flow of of the sensing layer increased to 3 M 𝛺 at a concentration
gas. Therefore, the equation is shortened to of 40 ppm, and the increase in resistance was 100 k 𝛺 at 1
ppm acetone concentration. The variation in resistance with
��⃗ = 0
▿U (8) respect to temperature at different concentrations is shown
in Fig. 2.
The pressure inlet and outlet boundary conditions are given
by Eq. (9):
Pinlet = 0 4 Experimental technique
(9)
Poutlet = 0
The nanoparticle size and morphology were characterized
Heat is transferred from the sensor’s heater to the sensing using field emission scanning microscopy (FE-SEM). The
layer in the heat transfer model through conduction, which FE-SEM images of the NiO nanoparticles are shown in
is provided by Eq. (10): Fig. 3 and the experimental setup for detecting acetone gas
is shown in Fig. 4.
qi = −k▿Ti (10) The synthesized metal oxide nanoparticles were depos-
where k denotes electrical conductivity, Ti denotes tempera- ited on the interdigitated electrode. A vacuum chamber
ture, and qi denotes flux density. Heat will be transferred was used to enclose the sensor. According to the gas sens-
to the ambient air and the device’s edges via radiation and ing principle explained in Sect. 3, when acetone gas is
convection. Neumann’s cooling law describes this process applied to the sensing chamber, the resistance of the sens-
in Eq. (11): ing layer increases. When the acetone supply is replaced
with air, the resistance decreases. The simulation data
q0 = he (Tsur − Tair ) (11) were validated with experimental results for acetone con-
centrations ranging from 5 to 40 ppm, as shown in Fig. 5.
q0 is the heat transferred, he is the heat transfer coefficient,
The small mismatch between the experimental result and
and Tair and Tsur are the air and surface temperature, respec-
the simulation data is due to the non-ideal conditions
tively. If Vi is the electric potential, then Poisson’s equation
occurring during the experiment. Since the simulation
[Eq. (12)] depicts the response between the sensing layer and
results show good agreement with the experimental data,
the gas molecules in the electrical model.
we extended the simulation with the same conditions up
▿2 Vi = 0 (12)

The current density boundary condition, while shielding the

sensing layer from the surrounding environment, is given
by Eq. (13):
mi .Ji = 0 (13)
Ji is the current density, and mi is the normal vector of the
plane of the active layer.
An optimum temperature is required for the sensor to
achieve the desired sensitivity and selectivity. In this work,
a meander-shaped micro-hotplate is employed to provide
the requisite temperature. The heater temperature can be
controlled by changing the input voltage. The temperature
varied between 230 o C and 420 o C when the input voltage
was varied from 1 to 5 V. Kaowphong et al. reported that
NiO exhibits better sensitivity towards acetone gas at a tem-
Fig. 2  Resistance versus time for the simulated sensor with different
perature of 325 o C [23]. gas concentrations at different operating temperatures. The various
The acetone concentration was varied from 1 to 40 ppm. concentrations of acetone gas indicating the different stages of diabe-
The various concentrations of acetone gas indicating the tes are shown in the inset

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Fig. 6  Resistance versus time for different concentrations at a temper-

Fig. 3  SEM image of NiO nanoparticles ature of 325o C . The inset (a) highlights the resistance variation below
5 ppm concentration of acetone gas

Fig. 4  Schematic diagram of experimental sensing setup

Fig. 7  The temperature versus voltage of the microheater

to an acetone concentration of 1 ppm. The simulation data

for resistance versus time for acetone gas over a range of
1–40 ppm were used in the subsequent study to examine
various diabetes mellitus scenarios.
Figure 6 shows a graph of resistance versus time for
different concentrations up to 1 ppm at temperature of
325 o C  . The resistance fluctuation below a concentration
of 5 ppm is enlarged in the inset (a) of Fig. 6. Even at the
lower concentration of 1.8–1 ppm, a marked variation in
resistance is seen in the range of 100 k 𝛺 . The optimum
temperature for acetone detection is provided by the use
of the microheater. The temperature used in this study is
325o C and is highlighted in the plot of microheater tem-
perature versus voltage, which is shown in Fig. 7.

Fig. 5  The comparison of experimental and simulation data for the

variation in NiO resistance at acetone gas concentrations ranging
from 5 to 40 ppm

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Journal of Computational Electronics (2022) 21:1017–1025 1021

5 Calculation of rate of change in resistance
The rate of change in resistance, dR/dt, versus time for vari-
ous concentrations of acetone gas is shown in Fig. 8, which
illustrates that the peak values achieved are proportional to
the gas concentration.
As the rate of adsorption is higher for a high concentra-
tion of acetone gas, the resistance is also high. Moreover,
the rate of change will be greatest as the acetone gas flow is
turned on or off. The conductivity of the sensor layer also
varies depending on the type of impurity. The conductivity
𝜎 of the NiO sensing layer on adsorption of acetone gas can
be expressed as follows [24]:
𝜎sensing = (NA − 𝛼Ct)𝜇n q + (p + 𝛼Ct)𝜇p q
where 𝛼 , C, NA , p, 𝜇n , 𝜇p , q, A, and l are the adsorption
coefficient, target gas concentration, acceptor impurity with
carrier concentration, carrier concentration of holes, elec-
tron drift velocity, hole drift velocity, charge, cross-sectional
area, and length, respectively. Equation (14) can be rewritten
using the relation R = l∕A𝜎.
A dR 𝛼C(𝜇n − 𝜇p )
= (15)
l dt q(NA 𝜇n + p𝜇p )2
The adsorption of gas molecules of acetone over the sur-
face of the oxide layer results in resistance changes. The
response of a gas sensor to a target gas is the most important
characteristic. The response for a p-type metal oxide with
reducing type target gas is expressed as a ratio of the resist-
ance variation Racetone/Rair , where Racetone and Rair are the gas
sensor resistance in acetone and air, respectively [25]. Fig-
ure 9 graphs the response versus time for the sensor, which
shows that NiO exhibits higher sensitivity to acetone. It is
also observed that the proposed sensor may be used to detect
acetone gas. Table 1 compares the features of gas sensing
between the present results and previously published studies.
At lower acetone concentrations, the proposed sensor pro-
vides a more significant response than the other materials.
(14) Apart from studying sensors in terms of concentration
and temperature, thickness is another aspect that influences
sensing behavior. Layers with a high surface-area-to-volume
ratio provide more surface sites for oxygen to adsorb from
the gas phase [29]. When oxygen is adsorbed on the sur-
face, NiO produces hole accumulation. Trapping electrons
during oxygen adsorption increases the hole concentration
[30]. Acetone removes the adsorbed oxygen, which causes
a release of electrons back into the film, decreasing the hole

Since all of the variables are constant, the rate of resist-

ance change is confirmed to be proportional to the gas
concentration.
dR
∝ 𝛼C (16)
dt
dR
According to Eq. (16), the maximum value of is directly
dt
correlated with the concentration of the target gas.

Fig. 9  Response versus time for the p-type sensor at a temperature of

325o C

Table 1  Comparison of the proposed acetone gas sensors with previ-

ously reported acetone sensors
Sensing material Concen- Operating Response Ref
tration temperature
(ppm) ( oC)

Co3 O4 nanocubes 500 240 4.9 [26]

Fe2 O3 nanopar- 100 300 11.6 [27]
ticles
ZnO nanoparticles 100 230 33 [28]
Fig. 8  The first-order derivative of the resistance versus time (Fig. 6 NiO 5 325 42 This work
shown in inset) for various acetone gas sensor concentrations

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1022 Journal of Computational Electronics (2022) 21:1017–1025

Fig. 11  Schematic representation of a signal conditioning circuitry

Fig. 10  The resistance versus time for different thicknesses of NiO at based on a microcontroller with a metal oxide gas sensor
5 ppm concentration with a temperature of 325o C

concentration and increasing the resistivity. A negative
charge on the surface and extra holes near the surface induce
the accumulation layer [31]. The 50-nm-thick annealed NiO
films had the lowest sensor baseline resistivity, which also
correlates with the highest gas sensor response (Fig. 10)
[11].
The changes in resistance from the performance evalua-
tion software must be measured in real time, which necessi-
tates the use of signal conditioning circuitry. To transfer data
between these two components, an interface is necessary.
MATLAB software was utilized as the interaction medium
in this work.
represent the sensor characteristics. This function is required
in the signal conditioning unit simulated in Proteus software
for developing a user-friendly interface. To accomplish this, a
mathematical transfer function based on temperature, gas con-
centration, and temporal variations in the sensor response was
extracted and created in the MATLAB environment. A dis-
tinct mathematical function, Z, based on the factors mentioned
above was built to achieve an electrical response depending on
temperature (T), concentration (C), and time fluctuations (t).
Z(T, C, t) = Z𝛼 (T).Z𝛽 (C).Z𝛾 (t) (17)
Computational techniques in MATLAB software were used
to determine Z𝛼 , Z𝛽 , and Z𝛾 (t).

6 Interface between the finite element Z(T, C, t) = Z0 + Z1 (C, T).eZ2 (C,T)t (18)

analysis (FEA)‑based simulation tool
and the signal conditioning circuitry

A schematic representation of a signal conditioning cir-

cuitry based on a microcontroller with a metal oxide gas
sensor is shown in Fig. 11. On the left side of the block
diagram, a p-type metal oxide gas sensor with a microheater
provides the operating temperature for the sensing layer to
detect the acetone gas. The temperature of the microheater
can be adjusted using a temperature controller unit and a
PIC16A877F microcontroller. An alert system and a liquid
crystal display (LCD) for displaying diabetic conditions
were added at the right end of the block diagram. The perfor-
mance of the NiO towards acetone was analyzed, modeled,
and simulated in this work. A user-friendly interface with
the signal conditioning unit was also designed.
The virtual communication between COMSOL and Proteus
via MATLAB is demonstrated schematically in Fig. 12. The
simulation process in COMSOL software is time-dependent;
therefore, a novel method was employed to mathematically Fig. 12  Virtual interface diagram between COMSOL and Proteus

13
Journal of Computational Electronics (2022) 21:1017–1025 1023
Z0 is the starting point for each effective gas absorption.
The Z1 function, which is a function of the temperature and
concentration variables, is multiplied by the exponent. Time
multiplied by Z2 , the second function of gas concentration
and temperature, is the exponent of the exponential function.
Variations in gas concentration can be detected and ana-
lyzed using a low-power signal conditioning device based
on an Analog Devices AD623 instrumentation amplifier
[32]. A temperature-regulated unit calculates and con-
trols the operational temperature. The built-in MATLAB
function, which is controlled by a Microchip Technology
PIC16F877A microcontroller, monitors the diabetes con-
dition. The sensor temperature was stabilized by regulating
the microheater actuator voltage. The resistance variation
due to the acetone gas adsorption on the NiO surface was
observed in the range of 91 k 𝛺 to 2.83 M 𝛺 . Table 2 shows
the resistance output voltage and display output values for
the NiO when the acetone gas concentration is decreased
from 40 ppm to 1 ppm. This is the first work to employ
Fig. 13  Flowchart for the simulated integrated gas sensing system
COMSOL, MATLAB, and Proteus to develop a NiO gas
sensor for detecting acetone. The methods required to cre-
ate the function and the procedures utilized to detect the
various stages of diabetes mellitus are given in Fig. 13.
At 40 ppm acetone concentration, the sensor resistance
was ∼ 2.83M𝛺 , and the output voltage was 0.76 V. At 1
ppm, the resistance was ∼ 91k𝛺 , and the output voltage
was 4.5 V. Therefore, as the concentration of the input gas
decreased, the resistance value decreased and the voltage
increased.
A tricolor light-emitting diode (LED) signaling system
was also devised to show the type of diabetes in relation
to the concentration of acetone gas in the breath. When the
concentration reached 1.8 ppm, the green LED was illumi-
nated, showing no diabetes. Figure 14 shows the simulated
result and the hardware implementation (inset). A yellow
LED was illuminated when the concentration was between
1.8 and 21 ppm, indicating type 1 diabetes. If the con-
centration exceeded 21 ppm, a red LED was illuminated,
indicating type 1 diabetes in a critical stage.
13

1024
Fig. 14  Simulated signal conditioning unit with the display unit
Table 2  Signal conditioning Gas concentration
output along with the display (ppm)
output for the NiO sensor
1–1.8
1.8–21
21–40
7 Conclusion
The sensing behavior of a semiconductor-based metal
oxide gas sensor towards acetone gas for diabetes detection
has been presented in this work. The sensing material for
acetone gas was NiO, which was modeled using COMSOL
Multiphysics for the first time. The sensor was heated to an
optimum temperature with a microheater to increase the
sensitivity. At a temperature of 325 o C, the sensor demon-
strated better sensitivity when the concentration increased
from 1 to 40 ppm. The findings of the simulated sensor
demonstrate good agreement with the actual sensor for
acetone concentrations ranging from 5 to 40 ppm, with
some aberrations related to practical conditions in the real
chamber and the simulation tool. The simulation data for
resistance versus time for acetone gas over a range of 1–40
ppm were used to examine various diabetes mellitus sce-
narios. In addition, analytical modeling was developed for
the rate of change in resistance at various acetone concen-
trations, and it was observed to be proportional to the gas
concentration. It was also observed that as the thickness
of the sensing layer increased, the sensitivity decreased.
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Journal of Computational Electronics (2022) 21:1017–1025
Sensor resistance Output voltage Display for various
(average) ( 𝛺) (V) diabetes conditions
91–163 k 4.5–4.23 Diabetes-free
163 k–1.6 M 4.23–2.02 Type 1 diabetes: alert
1.6–2.83 M 2.02–1.04 Type 2 diabetes: critical
The sensor model generated in COMSOL Multiphysics
was extended with a MATLAB script to build a function
that combined the observations of the gas sensor with the
signal conditioning unit in Proteus to provide a situation
that showed the diabetic state as well as an alert unit for a
user-friendly interface. Hardware was also implemented
for the same purpose. The proposed device demonstrates
the integration of COMSOL and Proteus with MATLAB.
Another remarkable aspect of this study is the develop-
ment of a function that correlates the relationship between
concentration and resistance, as well as temperature. The
performance characteristics revealed in this study should
be further validated with the experimental results. The
calibration of the signal conditioning unit for precise ace-
tone gas measurement for real-time health monitoring is
the future scope of this work.
Acknowledgements  The authors are appreciative of the finan-
cial support provided by the DST-SERB through the EEQ scheme
(EEQ/2018/000409).
Funding  The authors are thankful to DST-SERB, Government of India,
for providing the financial support for this work.
Journal of Computational Electronics (2022) 21:1017–1025 1025

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