Computational Methods and Modeling For Engineering Applications (GENG-8030)

Computational Methods and Modeling for
Engineering Applications
(GENG-8030)
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,

University of Windsor, ON, Canada,
By:
Dr. Mohammad Sedigh Toulabi
Lecture number:
(1)
Winter 2022
General course information:
Professor:
o Dr. Mohammad Sedigh Toulabi,
Contact information:
o toulabi@uwindsor.ca (preferred)
o toulabi@ieee.org (alternative)
o Office: CEI 3052
Office hours:
o Tuesdays, 1:00 PM to 2:30 PM
Graduate assistants and markers:

o Wednesday section: Atlas Song and Johny Msawbah (song11p@uwindsor.ca and
msawbah@uwindsor.ca )
o Thursday section: Atlas Song and Sai Preetham Bonagiri (song11p@uwindsor.ca and
bonagir@uwindsor.ca)
Computational methods and modeling for engineering applications (GENG-8030) By: Dr. Mohammad Sedigh Toulabi 2
Course description:
The presented topics:
o Fundamentals and practices of MATLAB coding,

o Fundamentals and practices of Simulink modeling,
o Implementing the electrical and/or mechanical system models,
o Steady state and transient behavior of electrical and/or mechanical
systems,
o 2D and 3D curve fitting for formulizing unknown engineering phenomena,
o Numerical methods for differential equations,
After passing this course:
Students will learn how to model, implement, analyze and predict the
performance of electrical and/or mechanical systems using MATLAB and
Simulink.
Grading scheme:
Method of evaluation From final grade

Participation 5%
In class tests/quizzes 28%
First 7%
Project/midterm Second 10%
Third 10%
Final exam 40%
Total 100%
o For all activities and exams a laptop with MATLAB and Simulink
installed is needed.
Text books and references:
o Mohammad Sedigh Toulabi, “GENG-8030 course notes,” 2021.

o William J. Palm, “MATLAB for engineering applications,” McGraw Hill
Education, 2018.
o Charles Alexander and Matthew Sadiku, “Fundamentals of electric
circuits,” McGraw Hills Education, 2021.
o Stephen Chapman, “Electric machinery fundamentals,” McGraw Hill,
2003.
Course schedule:
Week Plan
1 Class starts
2 Quiz 1
3 Quiz 2
4 Project/midterm 1
5 Quiz 3
6 Quiz 4
8 Project/midterm 2
9 Quiz 5
10 Quiz 6
11 Quiz 7
12 Project/midterm 3
13 Class finishes
Chapter 1:
MATLAB Overview
Entering commands and expressions:
o MATLAB retains your previous keystrokes,
o Use the up-arrow key to scroll back through the commands,
o Press the key once to see the previous entry, and so on,
o Use the down-arrow key to scroll forward. Edit a line using the left- and
right-arrow keys the Backspace key, and the Delete key,
o Press the Enter key to execute the command,
Scalar operators:
Example:
Order of precedence:
Precedence Operation
First Parentheses, evaluated starting with the innermost pair.
Second Exponentiation, evaluated from left to right.
Multiplication and division with equal precedence, evaluated

Third
from left to right.
Addition and subtraction with equal precedence, evaluated

Fourth
from left to right.
Example of precedence:
Example of precedence:
>> 3*4^2 + 5 ans = 53
>>(3*4)^2 + 5 ans = 149
>>27^(1/3) + 32^(0.2)
ans = 5
>>27^(1/3) + 32^0.2
ans = 5
>>27^1/3 + 32^0.2
ans = 11
Question:
Q1-What answer is produced by the following MATLAB expressions.
10^ 1/2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 10 ^ 1/2
a) 0.05, 0.3162 (correct)

b) 0.1, 0.4
c) 3, 7
d) 1, 0.7
Question:
Q2-The answer to compute the following expression, 3^4-11-8/4∗2, using

MATLAB is:
a) 10
b) 23
c) 66 (correct)
d) 67
Managing the work session:
clc Clears the Command window.
clear Removes all variables from memory.
clear x y Removes the variables x and y from memory.
Determines if a file or variable exists having the name
exist('abc')
‘abc’.
quit Stops MATLAB.
Managing the work session:
who Lists the variables currently in memory.
Lists the current variables and sizes and indicate if they have
whos
imaginary parts.
: Colon; generates an array having regularly spaced elements.
, Comma; separates elements of an array.

Semicolon; suppresses screen printing; also denotes a new row in
;
an array.
Special variables and constants:
ans Temporary variable containing the most recent answer.
i, j The imaginary unit 1.
Inf Infinity.
NaN Not-a-Number (e.g. 0/0).
pi The number π.
Complex number operations:
The number c1 1 2i is entered as follows: c1 = 1-2i.

An asterisk is not needed between i or j and a number, although it is required
with a variable, such as c2 = 5i*c1.
Be careful. The expressions
y = 7/2*i
and
x = 7/2i
give two different results:
Question:
Q3-Given x=-5+9i and y=6-2i, The answers to the following expressions
are
𝑥 2 ∗ 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥^2/𝑦.
a) 4 + i , -9.3 -11.2i
b) 17- 5i , 3.9 +11.2i
c) 8 + 5i , 3.9 +16.3i
d) 7 + 5i , -3.9 -16.3i (correct)
Numeric display format:
format short Four decimal digits (the default); 13.6745.

format long 16 digits; 17.27484029463547.
format short e Five digits (four decimals) plus exponent; 6.3792e+03.
format long e 16 digits (15 decimals) plus exponent; 6.379243784781294e−04.
Numeric display format:
format bank Two decimal digits; 126.73.

format + Positive, negative, or zero; +.
format rat Rational approximation; 43/7.
Array:
The numbers 0, 0.1, 0.2, …, 1 can be assigned to the variable u by typing u =

0:0.1:1.
To compute w = 5 sin(u) for u = 0, 0.1, 0.2, …, 1, the session is;
>> u = 0:0.1:1;
>> w = 5*sin(u);
The single line, w = 5*sin(u), computed the formula w = 5 sin(u) 11 times.
Polynomial roots:
To find the roots of x3 – 3x2 + 20x – 14 = 0, the session is

>>a = [1, -3, 20, -14];
>>roots(a)
ans =
1.1173 + 4.1281i
1.1173 – 4.1281i
0.7655
The roots are x = 0.7655 and x = 1.1173 ± 4.1281i.
Question:
Q4-Use MATLAB to determine how many elements are in the following
array and what is the 25th element
𝑐𝑜𝑠 0 : 0.01: 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 100
1. 101, 1.24 (correct)

2. 51, 1.48
3. 101, 1.48
4. 51, 1.24
Question:
Q5-Use MATLAB to find the roots of the polynomial
290 11𝑥 6𝑥 𝑥
a) 10, 2±5i
b) 10, -1.3±5.6i
c) 8.6 , -1.3 ± 5.6i (correct)
d) 8.6, 2±5i
Some commonly used mathematical functions:
Some plotting commands:
Command Description
[x,y] = ginput(n) Enables the mouse to get n points from a plot, and returns
the x and y coordinates in the vectors x and y.
grid Puts grid lines on the plot.
gtext('text') Enables placement of text with the mouse.
plot(x,y) Generates a plot of the array y versus the array x on
rectilinear axes.
xlabel(‘text') Adds a text label to the horizontal axis (the abscissa).
ylabel(‘text') Adds a text label to the vertical axis (the ordinate).
A plot example:
Question:
Q6-Use MATLAB to plot the functions
𝑦 2 𝑥 and 𝑧 4𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑥 for 0 𝑥 5 on the same plot. Which of the
following plots is the answer?
(a) (b)
(d)
(c) correct
Question:
Q7-Which graph represents the plot for the following two functions
Y=4 6𝑥 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 5𝑒 . 2𝑥 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 0 𝑥 5
(a) (b)
(d)
(c) correct
Question:
Q8-Which graph represents the plot of the following function s=4𝑠𝑖𝑛 7𝑡
5 6𝑡 2 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 0 𝑡 5
(a) correct (b)
(c) (d)
Performing an operation in MATLAB:
A) In the interactive mode, in which all
commands are entered directly in the Command
window, or
B) By running a MATLAB program stored in

script file. This type of file contains MATLAB
commands, so running it is equivalent to typing
all the commands—one at a time—at the
Command window prompt. You can run the file
by typing its name at the Command window
prompt. (Look at capital t and capital v).
Inserting comments:
The comment symbol may be put anywhere in the line. MATLAB ignores
everything to the right of the % symbol. For example,
About naming and using script (.m) files:
1. The name of a script file must begin with a letter, and may include digits
and the underscore character.
2. Do not give a script file the same name as a variable.
3. Do not give a script file the same name as a MATLAB command or
function. You can check to see if a command, function or file name
already exists by using the exist command.
Debugging script files:
Program errors usually fall into one of the

following categories.
1. Syntax errors such as omitting a
parenthesis or comma, or spelling a
command name incorrectly. MATLAB
usually detects the more obvious
errors and displays a message
describing the error and its location.
2. Errors due to an incorrect

mathematical procedure, called
runtime errors. Their occurrence often
depends on the particular input data. A
common example is division by zero.
Suggested programming style:
1. Comments section
• The name of the program and any key words in the first line.
• The date created, and the creators’ names in the second line.
• The definitions of the variable names for every input and output
variable. Include definitions of variables used in the calculations and
units of measurement for all input and all output variables!
• The name of every user-defined function called by the program.
2. Input section: Includes input data and/or the input functions and
comments for documentation.
3. Calculation section
4. Output section: This section might contain functions for displaying the
output on the screen.
Some input and output commands:
disp(A) Displays the contents, but not the name, of the array A.
disp('abc') Displays the text string enclosed within single quotes.
x = input('abc') Displays the text in quotes, waits for user input from the
keyboard, and stores the value in x.
x = input('abc', 's') Displays the text in quotes, waits for user input from the
keyboard, and stores the input as a string in x.
Example of a script file:
Problem:
The speed v of a falling object
dropped with no initial velocity is
given as a function of time t by v =
gt.
Plot v as a function of t for 0 < t <
tfinal, where tfinal is the final time
entered by the user.
For 3s
Example of a script file:
Q9- The volume of a sphere can be

calculated from: 𝑉 𝜋𝑟 , where
r is the radius. Write a script file
that prompts the user to enter a
radius, computes the volume, and
displays the result. For r=8, V is:
a) 3.5e+4
b) 4.8e+2
c) 2.1e+3 (correct)
d) 8.9e+4
Getting help from the textbook:
• Throughout each chapter margin notes identify where key terms are
introduced.
• Each chapter contains tables summarizing the MATLAB commands
introduced in that chapter.
• At the end of each chapter is a summary guide to the commands covered in
that chapter.
• Appendix A contains tables of MATLAB commands, grouped by category,
with the appropriate page references.
• There are four indices. The first lists MATLAB commands and symbols, the
second lists Simulink blocks, the third lists commands for the Symbolic Math
toolbox, and the fourth lists topics.
Getting help from the MATLAB:
Example for plot
MATLAB help functions:
help func_name: Displays in the Command window a description of the
specified function func_name.
lookfor topic: Displays in the Command window a brief description for all
functions whose description includes the specified key word topic.
doc func_name: Opens the Help Browser to the reference page for the
specified function func_name, providing a description, additional remarks, and
examples.
MATLAB help functions:
Q10-Use the Help system to learn about the built-in function “nthroot”.
(a) Use “nthroot” to calculate the cube root of 216.
(b) Use “lookfor” to find out how many “nthroot” functions are supported by
MATLAB. The answers are:
a) 6 , 2 (correct)
b) 7, 9
c) 4, 5
d) 8, 14
Steps in engineering problem solving:
1. Understand the purpose of the problem.
2. Collect the known information. Realize that some of it might later found
to be unnecessary.
3. Determine what information you must find.
4. Simplify the problem only enough to obtain the required information.
State any assumptions you make.
5. Draw a sketch and label any necessary variables.
6. Determine which fundamental principles are applicable.
7. Think generally about your proposed solution approach and consider other
approaches before proceeding with the details.
8. Label each step in the solution process.
9. If you solve the problem with a program, hand check the results using a
simple version of the problem. Checking the dimensions and units and
printing the results of intermediate steps in the calculation sequence can
uncover mistakes.
10. Perform a “reality check” on your answer. Does it make sense? Estimate
the range of the expected result and compare it with your answer.
Steps for developing a computer solution:
1. State the problem concisely.
2. Specify the input data to be used by the program.
3. Specify the output information to be generated by the program.
4. Work through the solution steps by hand or with a calculator; use a
simpler set of data if necessary.
5. Write and run the program.
6. Check the output of the program with your hand solution.
7. Run the program with your input data and perform a “reality check” on
the output. Does it make sense? Estimate the range of the expected result
and compare it with your answer.
8. If you will use the program as a general tool in the future, test it by
running it for a range of reasonable data values; perform a reality check on
the results.
Question:
Q11-(Problem 1.16) The ideal gas law relates the pressure P, volume V,
absolute temperature T, and amount of gas n. The law is
𝑛𝑅𝑇
𝑃
𝑉
where R is the gas constant. An engineer must design a large natural gas
storage tank to be expandable to maintain the pressure constant at 2.2 atm.
In December when the temperature is 4°F (-15°C), the volume of gas in the
tank is 18 500 𝑓𝑡 . What will the volume of the same quantity of gas be in
July when the temperature is 88°F (31°C)? (Hint: Use the fact that n, R, and
P are constant in this problem. Note also that K=C+273.2.)
a) 3.3577e+04
b) 2.1796e+04 (correct)
c) 4.1565e+01
d) 6.2377e+06
Question:
Q12-(Problem 1.29) The Fourier series is a series representation of a periodic
function in terms of sines and cosines. The Fourier series representation of the
function
1 0 𝑥 𝜋
𝑓 𝑥
1 𝜋 𝑥 0
is
4 sin𝑥 sin3𝑥 sin5𝑥 sin7𝑥
⋯
π 1 3 5 7
Plot on the same graph the function f(x) and its series representation, using the
four terms shown.
Question:
Q13-(Problem1.35) Write a script file to compute the three roots of the cubic
equation 𝑥 𝑎𝑥 𝑏𝑥 𝑐 0 Use the input function to let the user
enter values for a, b, and c.
The answers for a=1, b=-8, c=-12 are
a) 1, -1, 2
b) 4, 18, 5
c) 1, 4, -7
d) 3, -2, -2 (correct)
Question:
Q14- Suppose x takes on the values x = 1, 1.2, 1.4, 1.6, … , 5. Use
MATLAB to compute the array y that results from the function y = 7
sin(4x). The number of elements are in the array y and the value of its third
element are.
a) 7, -1
b) 4, -18.2
c) 17, 4
d) 21, -4.4 (correct)
(GENG-8030)

By:
Lecture number:
(2)
Winter 2022
Vectors:
To create a row vector, separate the elements by commas. Use square brackets.
For example,
>>p = [3,7,9]
p=
3 7 9
You can create a column vector by using the transpose notation (') or by
separating the elements by semicolons.
>>p = [3,7,9]'
p=
3
7
9
Vectors:
You can create vectors by ''appending'' one vector to another.
For example, to create the row vector u whose first three columns contain the
values of r = [2,4,20] and whose fourth, fifth, and sixth columns contain the
values of w = [9,-6,3], you type u = [r,w]. The result is the vector u =
[2,4,20,9,-6,3].
Vectors:
The colon operator (:) easily generates a large vector of regularly spaced
elements. Parentheses are not needed but can be used for clarity. Do not use
square brackets.
Typing
>>𝑥 𝑚: 𝑞: 𝑛
creates a vector 𝑥 values with a spacing 𝑞. The first value is 𝑚. The last value
is n if 𝑚 𝑛 is an integer multiple of 𝑞. If not, the last value is less than 𝑛.
For example, typing x = 0:2:8 creates the vector x = [0,2,4,6,8], whereas
typing x = 0:2:7 creates the vector x = [0,2,4,6].
Vectors:
To create a row vector z consisting of the values from 7 to 8 in steps of 0.1,

type z = 7:0.1:8.
If the increment q is omitted, it is presumed to be 1. Thus typing y = -3:2

produces the vector y = [-3,-2,-1,0,1,2].
Vectors:
The linspace command also creates a linearly spaced row vector, but instead
you specify the number of values rather than the increment.
The syntax is linspace(x1,x2,n), where x1 and x2 are the lower and upper
limits and n is the number of points.
For example, linspace(7,8,11) is equivalent to 7:0.1:8.
If n is omitted, the spacing is 1.
Vectors:
The logspace command creates an array of logarithmically spaced elements.
Its syntax is logspace(a,b,n), where n is the number of points between 10a and
10b.
For example, x = logspace(-2,2,4) produces the vector x = [0.1000, 0.2154,

4.6416, 100.0000].
If n is omitted, the number of points defaults to 50.
Magnitude, length and absolute value of a vector:
Keep in mind the precise meaning of these terms when using MATLAB.
The length command gives the number of elements in the vector.
The magnitude of a vector x having elements x1, x2, …, xn is a scalar, given by

x12 x22 … x 2 , and is the same as the vector’s geometric length.
The absolute value of a vector x is a vector whose elements are the absolute
values of the elements of x.
For example, if x 2, 4,5 ,
• its length is 3; (computed from length x )
• its magnitude is 22 –4 2 52
6.7082 (computed by norm(x))
• its absolute value is 2,4,5 (computed
from abs x ).
Matrices:
A matrix has multiple rows and columns. For example, the matrix
2 4 10
16 3 7
M
8 4 9
3 12 15
has four rows and three columns.
Vectors are special cases of matrices having one row or one column.
If the matrix is small you can type it row by row, separating the elements in a
given row with spaces or commas and separating the rows with semicolons.
For example,
Creating matrices from vectors:
Suppose a = [1,3,5] and b = [7,9,11] (row vectors). Note the difference

between the results given by [a,b] and [a;b] in the following session:
>>c = [a,b]
c=
1 3 5 7 9 11
>>c = [a;b]
c=
1 3 5
7 9 11
Remember, spaces or commas separate elements in different columns,

whereas semicolons separate elements in different rows.
Array addressing:
You need not use symbols to create a new array. For example, you can type
>> D = [[1,3,5];[7,9,11]];
The colon operator selects individual elements, rows, columns, or “subarrays”
of arrays. Here are some examples:
• D(:) represents all the row or column elements of the vector D.
• D(2:5) represents the second through fifth elements; that is D(2), D(3),
D(4), D(5).
Array addressing:
D(:,3) denotes all the elements in the third column of the matrix D.
D(:,2:3) denotes all the elements in the second through fifth columns of D.
D(2:3,1:3) denotes all the elements in the second and third rows that are also in
the first through third columns.
D(end,:) denotes the last row in D, and D(:,end) denotes the last column.
Array addressing:
You can use array indices to extract a smaller array from another array. For
example, if you first create the array B
B=[2,4,10,13;16,3,7,1;8,4,9,25;3,12,15,17]
2 4 10 13
16 3 7 1
B
8 4 9 25
3 12 15 17
then type C = B(2:3,1:3), you can produce the following array:
16 3 7
C
8 4 9
Additional array functions:
Computes either the number of elements of A if A is a vector or the

length(A)
largest value of m or n if A is an m n matrix.
Returns the algebraically largest element in A if A is a vector.

Returns a row vector containing the largest elements in each
max(A) column if A is a matrix.
If any of the elements are complex, max(A) returns the elements
that have the largest magnitudes.
Additional array functions:
size(A) Returns a row vector [m n] containing the sizes of the m n array A.

Sorts each column of the array A in ascending order and returns an
sort(A)
array the same size as A.
Sums the elements in each column of the array A and returns a row
sum(A)
vector containing the sums.
Question:
Q1-For the matrix A given below, the values retuned by max(A) functions is
a) Max=4+3i 4 (correct)
b) Max= 1 4
c) Max=4i+3 4
d) Max= 1 0
Question:
Q2- For the matrix B, use MATLAB to find B .
2 4 6
B 16 3 7
32 1 9
7 6 1
a B 4 3 32
2 16 9
2 16 32
b B 4 3 1 (correct)
6 7 9
16 2 32
c B 3 4 1
6 7 9
6 7 32
d B 4 3 1
2 16 9
Question:
Q3-For the matrix B, find the array that results from the operation A
B; B . Use MATLAB to determine what number is in row 6, column 3 of
the result.
2 4 6
B 16 3 7
32 1 9
a) 4
b) 16
c) 2
d) 9 (correct)
Workspace browser and variable editor:
Array addition and subtraction:
6 2 9 8 15 6
= (1)
10 3 12 14 2 17
Array subtraction is performed in a similar way.
The addition shown in Equation 1 is performed in MATLAB as follows:
Multiplication:
Multiplying a matrix A by a scalar w produces a matrix whose elements are the

elements of A multiplied by w. For example:
2 9 6 27
3 =
5 7 15 21
This multiplication is performed in MATLAB as:
Multiplication:
Multiplication of an array by a scalar is easily defined and easily carried out.
However, multiplication of two arrays is not so straightforward.
MATLAB uses two definitions of multiplication:
(1) array multiplication (also called element-by-element multiplication), and
(2) matrix multiplication.
Element by element operations:
Symbol Operation Form Examples
Scalar-array addition A+B [6,3]+2=[8,5]
Scalar-array subtraction A-B [8,3]-5=[3,-2]
Array addition A+B [6,5]+[4,8]=[10,13]
Array subtraction A-B [6,5]-[4,8]=[2,-3]
.∗ Array multiplication A.*B [3,5].*[4,8]=[12,40]
./ Array right division A./B [2,5]./[4,8]=[2/4,5/8]
.\ Array left division A.\B [2,5].\[4,8]=[2\4,5\8]
[3,5].^2=[3^2,5^2]
.^ Array exponentiation A.^B 2.^[3,5]=[2^3,2^5]
[3,5].^[2,4]=[3^2,5^4]
Question:
Q4- Given the vectors x = [ 6 5 10 12 ] and y = [ 3 9 8 1]
The product w = x.*y is:
a) 25 18 80 12
b) 44 45 17 10
c) 18 45 80 12 (correct)
d) 62 15 10 8
Question:
Q5- Given the vectors x = [ 6 5 10 12 ] and y = [ 3 9 8 1]
z = sqrt(y)+ exp(x) :
a 10 0.165 0.0005 0.62 4.44]
b 10 0.114 0.1010 0.72 3.61]
c 10 0.204 0.5110 0.22 2.03]
d 10 0.004 0.0015 0.22 1.63] (correct)
Question:
21 7 7 3
Q6- Given the matrices A B
28 8 9 4
The array product w = A.*B and the array product z = B.*A are
147 21
a (correct)
252 32
147 21
b
252 32
147 21
c
252 32
147 21
d
252 32
Question:
Q7- Given the vectors x = [ 6 15 10 ] and y = [ 3 19 8 ]
The array quotient w = x./y and z = y./x. are
a W 1 0.9 1.2 , Z=3 1.4 0.4

b W 8 2.1 3.5 , Z=1.5 2.2 1.8
c W 2 0.78 1.25 , Z=0.5 1.26 0.8 (correct)
d W 6 5.1 4.2 , Z=2 2.6 2.3
Question:
Q8- Given the matrices 𝐴
6 5 10 3 9 8
and B
3 9 8 4 5 6
Use MATLAB to find C = A./B and E =
A.\B.
a) C = [1 2.1 1.3; 1.8 0.7 0.3]

E = [1.5 1.2 2.8; 1.3 0.6 0.8]
b) C = [1.3 2 1.1; 0.4 1.1 1.1]

E = [1.3 0.6 0.8 ; 0.5 1.8 0.8]
c) C = [-0.2 1.6 0.3; 1.3 1 1.4]

E = [0.3 1.1 0.3; 1.1 1.6 1.8]
d) C = [2 0.6 1.3; 0.8 1.8 1.3]

E = [0.5 1.8 0.8; 1.3 0.6 0.8]
(correct)
Array or Element-by-element multiplication is defined only for arrays having

the same size. The definition of the product x.*y, where x and y each have n
elements, is
x.*y = [x(1)y(1), x(2)y(2), ... , x(n)y(n)]
if x and y are row vectors. For example, if
x = [2, 4, – 5] and y = [– 7, 3, – 8]
then z = x.*y gives
z = [2(– 7), 4 (3), –5(–8)] = [–14, 12, 40]
If x and y are column vectors, the result of x.*y is a column vector. For
example z = (x’).*(y’) gives
2( 7) 14
z 4(3) 12
5( 8) 40
Note that x’ is a column vector with size 3 1 and thus does not have the
same size as y, whose size is 1 3.
The array operations are performed between the elements in corresponding

locations in the arrays. For example, the array multiplication operation A.*B
results in a matrix C that has the same size as A and B and has the elements ci j
= ai j bi j . For example, if
11 5 7 8
A B
9 4 6 2
then C = A.*B gives this result:
11( 7) 5(8) 77 40
C
9(6) 4(2) 54 8
The built-in MATLAB functions such as sqrt(x) and exp(x) automatically

operate on array arguments to produce an array result the same size as the
array argument x.
Thus these functions are said to be vectorized functions.
For example, in the following session the result y has the same size as the
argument x.
However, when multiplying or dividing these functions, or when raising them to

a power, you must use element-by-element operations if the arguments are
arrays.
For example, to compute z = (ey sin x) cos2x, you must type
z = exp(y).*sin(x).*(cos(x)).^2.
You will get an error message if the size of x is not the same as the size of y. The
result z will have the same size as x and y.
Array division:
The definition of array division is similar to the definition of array

multiplication except that the elements of one array are divided by the
elements of the other array. Both arrays must have the same size. The symbol
for array right division is ./. For example, if
x = [8, 12, 15] y = [–2, 6, 5]
then z = x./y gives

z = [8/(–2), 12/6, 15/5] = [–4, 2, 3]
or,
Array exponentiation:
MATLAB enables us not only to raise arrays to powers but also to raise
scalars and arrays to array powers.
To perform exponentiation on an element-by-element basis, we must use the .^

symbol.
For example, if x = [3, 5, 8], then typing x.^3 produces the array [33, 53, 83] =
[27, 125, 512].
Question:
21 7 2 7
Q9- Given the matrices A and B
28 8 12 5
Their array product is
42 49
a C (correct)
336 40
142 29
b C
14 63
234 249
c C
162 40
21 43
d C
136 48
Question:
2 7
Q10- Given the matrices B
12 5
Use MATLAB to calculate B raised to the third power element by element. The
answer is
1232 217
a B
104 115
8 343
b B (correct)
1728 125
801 313
c B
1725 25
128 423
d B
1725 125
Matrix-to-matrix multiplication:
In the product of two matrices AB, the number of columns in A must equal the
number of rows in B. The row-column multiplications form column vectors,
and these column vectors form the matrix result. The product AB has the same
number of rows as A and the same number of columns as B. For example,
6 2 6 9 + ( 2)( 5) 6 8 + ( 2)(12)
9 8
10 3 = 10 9 + (3)( 5) 10 8 + (3)(12)
5 12
4 7 4 9 + (7)( 5) 4 8 + (7)(12)
64 24
= 75 116
1 116
Question:
6
Q11- Given the vectors x 7 y 2 4 7
3
Use MATLAB to find the matrix product w = x*y and z = y*x.
6 2 21
a w 14 28 49 , z=78
12 24 42
12 24 42
b w 61 , z= 14 28 49
6 2 21
12 24 42
c w 14 28 49 , z=61 (correct)
6 12 21
6 2 21
d) W= 78 , z 14 28 49
12 24 42
Question:
Q12- Use MATLAB to compute the dot product of the following vectors:
𝑢 6𝑖 12𝑗 4𝑘 𝑤 7𝑖 3𝑗 4𝑘
Definition of dot product

𝑢. 𝑤 𝑢 . 𝑤 𝑢 . 𝑤 𝑢 . 𝑤
a) -6
b) 7
c) -10 (correct)
d) 12
Matrix-to-matrix multiplication:
Matrix multiplication does not have the commutative property; that is, in
general, AB BA. A simple example will demonstrate this fact:
6 2 9 8 78 20
AB
10 3 12 14 54 122
Whereas
9 8 6 2 134 6
BA
12 14 10 3 68 66
Reversing the order of matrix multiplication is a common and easily made

mistake.
Special matrices:
Two exceptions to the non-commutative property are the null or zero matrix,
denoted by 0 and the identity, or unity, matrix, denoted by I.
The null matrix contains all zeros and is not the same as the empty matrix [ ],
which has no elements.
These matrices have the following properties:

0A A0 0
IA AI A
The identity matrix is a square matrix whose diagonal elements are all equal to
one, with the remaining elements equal to zero.
For example, the 2 2 identity matrix is
1 0
I
0 1
Special matrices:
The functions eye(n) and eye(size(A)) create an n n identity matrix and an

identity matrix the same size as the matrix A.
Special matrices:
Sometimes we want to initialize a matrix to have all zero elements. The zeros
command creates a matrix of all zeros.
Typing zeros(n) creates an n n matrix of zeros, whereas typing zeros (m,n)

creates an m n matrix of zeros.
Typing zeros(size(A)) creates a matrix of all zeros having the same dimension
as the matrix A. This type of matrix can be useful for applications in which
we do not know the required dimension ahead of time.
The syntax of the ones command is the same, except that it creates arrays
filled with ones.
Matrix left division and linear equation:
6x 12y 4z 70
7x 2y 3z 5
2x 8y 9z 64
So, the solution is x 3, y 5, and z 2
Question:
Q13- Use MATLAB to solve the following set of equations.
14𝑥 2𝑦 6
3 𝑥 15𝑦 1
a) 0.41, -0.15 (correct)

b) -0.67, 0.71
c) 0.93, 0.17
d) 1.41, -2.43
Question:
Q14- Use MATLAB to solve the following set of equations.
6𝑥 4𝑦 8𝑧 12
15𝑥 3𝑦 7𝑧 17
4𝑥 9𝑦 5𝑧 6
a) 2.1, 3.1, -2.5

b) 1.4, -2.1, -1.5 (correct)
c) 1.2, -0.1, 0.5
d) 4.4, -8.1, 3.5
Polynomial coefficients:
The function poly(r) computes the coefficients of the polynomial whose roots
are specified by the vector r. The result is a row vector that contains the
polynomial’s coefficients arranged in descending order of power.
For example,
x 7x 10 0
Polynomial coefficients:
The function roots(a)computes the roots of a polynomial specified by the

coefficient array a. The result is a column vector that contains the
polynomial’s roots.
For example, 2x 14x 20 0
Question:
Q15- Use MATLAB to obtain the roots of
x 23 x 15x 6 0
Use the poly function to confirm your answer.
a) -22.3 , -0.3 + 0.4i, -0.3 - 0.4i (correct)

b) -22.3 , 0.3 - 0.4i, 0.3 - 0.4i
c) -22.3 , -0.3 - 0.4i, 0.3 - 0.4i
d) -22.3 , 0.3 - 0.4i, -0.3 - 0.4i
Polynomial multiplication and division:
The function conv (a,b) computes the product of the two polynomials
described by the coefficient arrays a and b. The result is the coefficient array of
the product polynomial.
The function [q,r] = deconv (num,den) computes the result of dividing a

numerator polynomial, whose coefficient array is num, by a denominator
polynomial represented by the coefficient array den. The quotient polynomial
is given by the coefficient array q, and the remainder polynomial is given by
the coefficient array r.
9𝑥 5𝑥 3𝑥 7 6𝑥 𝑥 2)=
54𝑥 39𝑥 41𝑥 29𝑥 𝑥 14
9𝑥 5𝑥 3𝑥 7 0.5833𝑥 8.1667
1.5𝑥 0.5833
6𝑥 𝑥 2 6𝑥 𝑥 2
Question:
Q16- Use MATLAB to calculate the quotient and the remainder of
18x 5x 2x 3
3x 7x 4
a q 6x 15.7, r 83.7x 65.7

b q 6x 15.7, r 83.7x 65.7
c q 6x 15.7, r 83.7x 65.7 (correct)
d q 6x 15.7, r 83.7x 65.7
Plotting polynomial:
The function polyval(a,x)evaluates a polynomial at specified values of its

independent variable x, which can be a matrix or a vector. The polynomial’s
coefficients of descending powers are stored in the array a. The result is the
same size as x.
18𝑥 5𝑥 2𝑥 3
𝑓 𝑥 6𝑥 𝑥 2 𝑔 𝑥
3𝑥 7𝑥 4
𝑓 2 ?
𝑔 2 ?
Example of plotting a polynomial:
To plot the polynomial f (x) 9x3 5x2 3x 7 for 2 x 5, is as

follows.
Question:
Q18- Plot the polynomial
y 18𝑥 5𝑥 2𝑥 3
over the range −7 ≤ x ≤ 1.
(GENG-8030)

By:
Lecture number:
(3)
Winter 2022
Getting helps for functions:
You can use the lookfor command to find functions that are relevant to your
application.
For example, type lookfor imaginary to get a list of the functions that deal with
imaginary numbers. You will see listed:
Common mathematical functions:
Exponential
exp(x) Exponential; e x
sqrt(x) Square root; √x
Logarithmic
log(x) Natural logarithm; ln x
log10(x) Common (base 10) logarithm; log x log10 x
Complex
abs(x) Absolute value.
angle(x) Angle of a complex number.
conj(x) Complex conjugate.
imag(x) Imaginary part of a complex number.
real(x) Real part of a complex number.
Examples:
Common mathematical functions:
Numeric
ceil(x) Round to nearest integer toward ∞.
fix(x) Round to nearest integer toward zero.
floor(x) Round to nearest integer toward ∞.
round(x) Round toward nearest integer.
sign(x) Signum function:
1 if x 0; 0 if x 0; 1 if x 0.
Operations with complex numbers:
Operations with complex numbers:
Operations on arrays:
MATLAB will treat a variable as an array automatically. For example, to
compute the square roots of 25, 9, and 16, type:
Question:
Q1- For 𝑥 6 7𝑖 the 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑥 and the 𝑎𝑏𝑠 𝑥 are
a) -0.86 rad, 9.2 (correct)

b) 0.86 rad, -9.2
c) -0.86 rad, -9.2
d) 0.86 rad, 9.2
Question:
Q2- Find the real part, and imaginary part of the 3 5𝑖
a) 3.2 , 2.3
b) 2.1 , 1.2 (correct)
c) 2.2 , 3.3
d) 3.3 , 2.2
Expressing function arguments:
To evaluate sin pi in MATLAB, we type sin(pi). The MATLAB function name

must be followed by a pair of parentheses that surround the argument.
To express in text the sine of the second element of the array x, we would type
sin[x(3)]. However, in MATLAB you cannot use square brackets or braces in
this way, and you must type sin(x(3)).
To evaluate sin(x(2) 2 5), you type sin(x(2)^2 + 5).

To evaluate sin(√x(1) 1), you type sin(sqrt(x(1))+1).
Using a function as an argument of another function is called function
composition.
A common mistake involves expressions like sin2 x, which means si n x .
In MATLAB we write this expression as (sin(x))^2, not as sin^2(x), sin^2x,
sin(x^2), or sin(x)^2!
The MATLAB trigonometric functions operate in radian mode. Thus sin(5)

computes the sine of 5 rad, not the sine of 5°.
To convert between degrees and radians, use the relation qradians (π

/180)qdegrees.
Trigonometric functions:
cos(x) Cosine; cos x. acos(x) Inverse cosine
cot(x) Cotangent; cot x. acot(x) Inverse cotangent
csc(x) Cosecant; csc x. acsc(x) Inverse cosecant
sec(x) Secant; sec x. asec(x) Inverse secant
sin(x) Sine; sin x. asin(x) Inverse sine
tan(x) Tangent; tan x. atan(x) Inverse tangent
Hyperbolic functions:
cosh(x) Hyperbolic cosine acosh(x) Inverse hyperbolic cosine
coth(x) Hyperbolic cotangent. acoth(x) Inverse hyperbolic cotangent
csch(x) Hyperbolic cosecant acsch(x) Inverse hyperbolic cosecant
sech(x) Hyperbolic secant asech(x) Inverse hyperbolic secant
sinh(x) Hyperbolic sine asinh(x) Inverse hyperbolic sine
tanh(x) Hyperbolic tangent atanh(x) Inverse hyperbolic tangent;
𝑒 𝑒
cosh 𝑥
2
𝑒 𝑒
sinh 𝑥
2
Question:
Q3- For 𝑥 3 8𝑖 the acsc 𝑥 is
a) -0.0409 - 0.1095i
b) 0.0409 + 0.1095i
c) 0.0409 - 0.1095i (correct)
d) -0.0409 + 0.1095i
Question:
Q4- For x in the range 0 x 2π use MATLAB to calculate tan 2x -

2tanx/(1 tan x) . From the results you can conclude that:
a 2tan 2x
b tan 2x 2
c tan 2x
d tan 2x (correct)
Very small y!
Question:
Q5- For x in the range 10 𝑥 10 use MATLAB to plot
𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑥 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 𝑥 1 . The result looks like
Very small y!
User defined functions:
To create a function file, open the Editor by selecting New under the HOME
tab on the Toolstrip and select Function.
The first line in a function file must begin with a function definition line that
has a list of inputs and outputs. This line distinguishes a function M-file from a
script M-file. Its syntax is shown below.
function [output variables] = name(input variables)
Example:
Note the use of a semicolon at the end of
the lines. This prevents the values of u and
z from being displayed.
Note also the use of the array

exponentiation operator (.^). This enables
the function to accept y as an array.
Question:
Q6- Create a function called cone that computes the volume V of a cone
whose height is h and whose radius is r. (Do not forget to check if a file
already exists by that name!) The volume is given by 𝑉 𝜋 𝑟 ℎ/3. For r=4
and h=70 the result is:
a) 3.27e+03
b) 2.14e+02
c) 1.17e+03 (correct)
d) 4.22e+02
Multiple outputs:
A function may have more than one output. These are enclosed in square
brackets.
For example, the function circle computes the area Area and circumference
Circ of a circle, given its radius as an input argument.
function [Area, Circ] = Circle(r)
Area = pi*r.^2;
Circ = 2*pi*r;
end
Question:
Q7- Write a function to calculate the area, 𝐴 2𝜋𝑟ℎ 2𝜋𝑟 ,
and the volume, 𝑉 𝜋𝑟 ℎ, of the cylinder shown in Fig. 1.
A and V for r=3 and h=5 are
a) 643.1, 545.3
b) 231.3, 214.2
c) 350.8, 481.6
d) 150.8, 141.4 (correct)
Example of function definition lines:
1. One input, one output:
function [area_square] = square(side)
2. Brackets are optional for one input, one output:
function area_square = square(side)
3. Three inputs, one output:
function [volume_box] = box(height,width,length)
4. One input, two outputs:
function [area_circle,circumf] = circle(radius)
5. No named output: function sqplot(side)
Example:
function [dist,vel] = drop(g,vO,t);
% Computes the distance travelled and the
% velocity of a dropped object,
% as functions of g,
% the initial velocity vO, and
% the time t.
vel = g*t + vO;
dist = 0.5*g*t.^2 + vO*t;
end
Function handles:
You can create a function handle to
any function by using the at sign, @,
before the function name. You can
then use the handle to reference the
function. To create a handle to the
function y x 2e x 3, define the
following function file:
function y = f1(x)
y = x + 2*exp(-x) - 3;
end
You can pass the function as an

argument to another function. For
example, we can plot the function
over
-1 x 6 as follows:
>> fplot(@f1,[-1 6])

Finding zeros of a function:
You can use the fzero function to find the zero of a function of a single
variable, which is denoted by x. One form of its syntax is
fzero(@function, x0)
where @function is the function handle for the function function, and x0 is a
user-supplied guess for the zero.
The fzero function returns a value of x that is near x0.
It identifies only points where the function crosses the x-axis, not points
where the function just touches the axis.
For example, fzero(@cos,2) returns the value 1.5708.
Example:
To use the fzero function to find the zeros of more complicated functions, it
is more convenient to define a function file.
For example, if 𝑦 𝑥 2𝑒 3 , define the following function file:
function y = f1(x)
y = x + 2*exp(-x) - 3;
end
It means, for x=2.8887 y=0.
Question:
Q8- The equation 𝑒 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 2 0.1 has two solutions in the
interval 1 𝑥 5. The solutions are.
a) 1.03, 4.43 (correct)

b) 2, 6.7
c) 3, 7.5
d) 4, 9.4
Finding the minimum of a function:
The fminbnd function finds the minimum of a function of a single variable.

One form of its syntax is
fminbnd(@function, x1, x2)
where @function is the function handle for the function. The fminbnd
function returns a value of x that minimizes the function in the interval x1 ≤
x ≤ x2.
For example, fminbnd(@cos,0,4) returns the value 3.1416 radians(180 .
When using fminbnd it is more
convenient to define a function file.
For example, if 𝑦 1 𝑥𝑒 ,
define the following function file:
function y = f2(x)
y = 1-x.*exp(-x);
end
To find the value of x that gives a

minimum of y for 0 x 5, type
1
0.95
>>x = fminbnd(@f2,0,5) 0.9
0.85
Plot
The answer is x 1. To find the 0.8
minimum value of y, type y = f2(x). 0.75
The result is y = 0.6321. 0.7
0.65
0 1 2 3 4 5
Question:
Q9- The function 𝑦 0.5 𝑒 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑥 2 has one minimum point
in the interval 8 𝑥 7. Find the value of x at the minimum.
a) -7.23
b) -7.35
c) -7.53 (correct)
d) -7.78
Plot
A function can have one or more local minima and a global minimum.
If the specified range of the independent variable does not enclose the global
minimum, fminbnd will not find the global minimum.
fminbnd will find a minimum that occurs on a boundary.

To find the minimum of a function of more than one variable, use the
fminsearch function. One form of its syntax is
fminsearch(@function, x0)
where @function is the function handle of the function in question. The

vector x0 is a guess that must be supplied by the user.
To minimize the function f xe x2
y2 , we first define it in an M-file,
using the vector x whose elements are

x(1)=x and x(2)= y.
function f = f4(x)
f = x(1).*exp(-x(1).^2-x(2).^2);
end
Suppose we guess that the minimum
is near x y 0. The session is
>>fminsearch(@f4,[0,0])
ans = -0.7071 0.000
Thus the minimum occurs at x
0.7071, y 0.
To minimize the function f xe x2
y2 , we first define it in an M-file,
using the vector x whose elements are

x(1)=x and x(2)= y.
function f = f4(x)
f = x(1).*exp(-x(1).^2-x(2).^2);
end
Suppose we guess that the minimum
is near x y 0. The session is
>>fminsearch(@f4,[0,0])
ans = -0.7071 0.000
Thus the minimum occurs at x
0.7071, y 0.
Question:
Q10- Create a primary function that uses a function handle with a nested
function to compute the minimum of the function 20𝑥 200𝑥 12 over
the range 0 𝑥 10.
a) 341
b) -488 (correct)
c) 120 0
-50
d) -14 -100
-150
-200
-250
-300
Plot
-350
-400
-450
0 2 4 6 8 10
Question:
Q11-Write a function to compute 𝑦 𝑥 4. The values returned by
𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑐ℎ @𝑓𝑢𝑛1, 1 and 𝑓𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 @𝑓𝑢𝑛1,0 are:
a) 1.7e-15, 4
b) 6.3e-17, -4
c) 8.9e-16, -2 (correct)
5
d) 7.4e-14, 2 4
0 Plot
-1
-2
-3
-4
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Question:
Q12- Find the depth d and angle θ to minimize the perimeter length (L) of the
channel shown below to provide an area (S) of 380 𝑓𝑡 .
𝑆 𝑑 2𝑑
𝐿
𝑑 tan 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
a) d= 24.7 θ = 1.24 rad

b) d= 12.6 θ = 1.12 rad
c) d= 18.9 θ = 1.41 rad
d) d= 14.8 θ = 1.04 rad (correct)
Anonymous functions:
Anonymous functions enable you to create a simple function without the need
to create an M-file. You can construct an anonymous function either at the
MATLAB command line or from within another function or script. The syntax
for creating an anonymous function from an expression is
fhandle = @(arglist) expr
where arglist is a comma-separated list of input arguments to be passed to the

function, and expr is any single, valid MATLAB expression.
To create a simple function called sq to calculate the square of a number, type
>>sq = @(x) x.^2;
To improve readability, you may enclose the expression in parentheses, as sq =

@(x) (x.^2);.
To execute the function, type the name of the function handle, followed by
any input arguments enclosed in parentheses. For example,
You can pass the handle of an
anonymous function to other functions.
For example, to find the minimum of
the polynomial 4x2 50x 5 over the
interval [ 10, 10], you type
>>poly1 = @(x) 4*x.^2 - 50*x + 5;

800
>>fminbnd(poly1, -10, 10)
ans = 600
6.2500 400
6.25 shows the x value in which the 200
function gets minimized.

0
-10 -5 0 5 10
Multiple input arguments:
You can create anonymous functions having more than one input. For
example, to define the function 𝑥 𝑦 , type
Question:
Q13- Write an anonymous function to calculate 𝑒 𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
The result for x=4, y=3 is
a) 403.4 (correct)
b) 340.2
c) 278.9
d) 169.4
Question:
Q14- Create an anonymous function for 10 cos 𝑒 and use it to plot the
function over the range 0 𝑥 2. Which of the following graphs
represents the plot.
(a) (b) 10
9.5
8.5
7.5
6.5
5.5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
(C) (d)
Correct
Multi input arguments:
As another example, consider the function defining a plane, z Ax By.
The scalar variables A and B must be assigned values before you create the
function handle. For example,
Calling one function with another:
One anonymous function can call another to implement function
composition. Consider the function 5 sin(x3). It is composed of the functions
g(y) 5 sin(y) and f (x) x3. In the following session the function whose
handle is h calls the functions whose handles are f and g.
Question:
Q15- Assume 𝑓 @ 𝑥 𝑥. ^3; 𝑔 @ 𝑥 5 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 ;
Use MATLAB to calculate ℎ 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑔 𝑓 𝑥 5 ∗ 𝑦;
The value retuned by ℎ 6,1 is
a) 9.7
b) 14.2
c) 8.48 (correct)
d) 13.8
Question:
Q17- Create four anonymous functions to represent the function 6𝑒 ,
which is composed of the functions ℎ 𝑧 6𝑒 , 𝑔 𝑦 3 cos 𝑦 , and
𝑓 𝑥 𝑥 . Use the anonymous functions to plot 6𝑒 over the range
0 𝑥 4.
(GENG-8030)

By:
Lecture number:
(4)
Winter 2022
Programming:
Algorithm: an ordered sequence of precisely defined instructions that
performs some task in a finite amount of time.
Ordered means that the instructions can be numbered, but an algorithm must
have the ability to alter the order of its instructions using a control structure.
There are three categories of algorithmic operations:
Sequential operations: Instructions executed in order.
Conditional operations: Control structures that first ask a question to be

answered with a true/false answer and then select the next instruction based on
the answer.
Iterative operations (loops): Control structures that repeat the execution of a

block of instructions.
Structured programming:
A technique for designing programs in which a hierarchy of modules is used,
each having a single entry and a single exit point, and in which control is
passed downward through the structure without unconditional branches to
higher levels of the structure.
In MATLAB these modules can be built-in or user-defined functions.
Advantages of structured programming:
1. Structured programs are easier to write because the programmer can
study the overall problem first and then deal with the details later.
2. Modules (functions) written for one application can be used for other
applications (this is called reusable code).
3. Structured programs are easier to debug because each module is

designed to perform just one task and thus it can be tested separately
from the other modules.
4. Structured programming is effective in a teamwork environment

because several people can work on a common program, each person
developing one or more modules.
5. Structured programs are easier to understand and modify, especially if

meaningful names are chosen for the modules and if the documentation
clearly identifies the module's task.
Steps for developing a computer solution:
1. State the problem concisely.
2. Specify the data to be used by the program. This is the “input.”
3. Specify the information to be generated by the program. This is the

“output.”
4. Work through the solution steps by hand or with a calculator; use a

simpler set of data if necessary.
5. Write and run the program.
6. Check the output of the program with your hand solution.
7. Run the program with your input data and perform a reality check on
the output.
8. If you will use the program as a general tool in the future, test it by
running it for a range of reasonable data values; perform a reality check
on the results.
Effective documentation can be accomplished with the use of:
1. Proper selection of variable names to reflect the quantities they

represent.
2. Use of comments within the program.
3. Use of structure charts.
4. Use of flowcharts.
5. A verbal description of the program, often in pseudocode.
Documenting with charts:
Two types of charts aid in developing structured programs and in
documenting them.
These are structure charts and flowcharts.
A structure chart is a graphical description showing how the different parts

of the program are connected together.
Use of flowcharts:
Flowcharts are useful for developing and documenting programs that
contain conditional statements, because they can display the various paths
(called “branches”) that a program can take, depending on how the
conditional statements are executed.
Flowchart of ‘if’
Finding bugs:
Debugging a program is the process of finding and removing the “bugs,” or
errors, in a program.
1. Syntax errors: such as omitting a parenthesis or comma, or spelling a

command name incorrectly. MATLAB usually detects the more
obvious errors and displays a message describing the error and its
location.
2. Runtime errors: errors due to an incorrect mathematical procedure.

These are called runtime errors. They do not necessarily occur every
time the program is executed; their occurrence often depends on the
particular input data. A common example is division by zero.
Locating runtime errors:
To locate a runtime error, try the following:
1. Always test your program with a simple version of the problem, whose
answers can be checked by hand calculations.
2. Display any intermediate calculations by removing semicolons at the

end of statements.
3. To test user-defined functions, try commenting out the function line
and running the file as a script.
4. Use the debugging features of the Editor/Debugger, which is discussed

later.
5. Breakpoint.
Developing large programs:
1. Writing and testing of individual modules (the unit-testing phase).
2. Writing of the top-level program that uses the modules (the build
phase). Not all modules are included in the initial testing. As the build
proceeds, more modules are included.
3. Testing of the first complete program (the alpha release phase). This
is usually done only in-house by technical people closely involved
with the program development. There might be several alpha releases
as bugs are discovered and removed.
4. Testing of the final alpha release by in-house personnel and by

familiar and trusted outside users, who often must sign a
confidentiality agreement. This is the beta release phase, and there
might be several beta releases.
Relational operators:
Operator Meaning
< Less than.
<= Less than or equal to.
> Greater than.
>= Greater than or equal to.
== Equal to.
~= Not equal to.
For example, suppose that x = [6,3,9] and y = [14,2,9]. The following
MATLAB session shows some examples.
The relational operators can be used for array addressing.
For example, with x = [6,3,9] and y = [14,2,9], typing
z = x(x<y)
finds all the elements in x that are less than the corresponding elements in y.
The result is z = 6.
The arithmetic operators ൅ , െ , *, / , and \ have precedence over the
relational operators. Thus the statement
z=5>2+7
is equivalent to
z = 5 >(2+7)
and returns the result z = 0.
We can use parentheses to change the order of precedence; for example, z =

(5 > 2) + 7 evaluates to z = 8.
The logical class:
When the relational operators are used, such as
x = (5 > 2)
they create a logical variable, in this case, x.
Logical is a first-class data type and a MATLAB class, and so logical is

equivalent to other first-class types such as character and cell arrays.
Logical variables may have only the values 1 (true) and 0 (false).
The logical class:
Just because an array contains only 0s and 1s, however, it is not necessarily
a logical array. For example, in the following session k and w appear the
same, but k is a logical array and w is a numeric array, and thus an error
message is issued.
Accessing arrays using logical arrays:
When a logical array is used to address another array, it extracts from that
array the elements in the locations where the logical array has 1s.
So typing A(B), where B is a logical array of the same size as A, returns the
values of A at the indices where B is 1.
Specifying array subscripts with logical arrays extracts the elements that
correspond to the true (1) elements in the logical array.
Logical operators:
Operator Name Definition
~A returns an array the same dimension as A; the new
~ NOT array has ones where A is zero and zeros where A is
nonzero
A & B returns an array the same dimension as A and B;
& AND the new array has ones where both A and B have nonzero
elements and zeros where either A or B is zero.
A | B returns an array the same dimension as A and B; the
| OR new array has ones where at least one element in A or B is
nonzero and zeros where A and B are both zero.
&& Short- Operator for scalar logical expressions. A && B returns
Circuit true if both A and B evaluate to true, and false if they do
AND not.
|| Short- Operator for scalar logical expressions. A || B returns true
Circuit if either A or B or both evaluate to true, and false if they
OR do not.
Order of precedence for operator types:
Precedence Operator type
First Parentheses; evaluated starting with the innermost pair.

Second Arithmetic operators and logical NOT (~); evaluated
from left to right.
Third Relational operators; evaluated from left to right.
Fourth Logical AND.
Fifth Logical OR.
Order of precedence for operator types:
Precedence Operator type
First Parentheses; evaluated starting with the innermost pair.

Second Arithmetic operators and logical NOT (~); evaluated
from left to right.
Third Relational operators; evaluated from left to right.
Fourth Logical AND.
Fifth Logical OR.
Logical functions:
Logical function Definition

all(x) Returns a scalar, which is 1 if all the elements in the vector x are
nonzero and 0 otherwise.
all(A) Returns a row vector having the same number of columns as the
matrix A and containing ones and zeros, depending on whether or
not the corresponding column of A has all nonzero elements.
any(x) Returns a scalar, which is 1 if any of the elements in the vector x is
nonzero and 0 otherwise.
Logical functions:
any(A) Returns a row vector having the same number of columns as A and
containing ones and zeros, depending on whether or not the
corresponding column of the matrix A contains any nonzero
elements.
isfinite(A) Returns an array of the same dimension as A with ones where the
elements of A are finite and zeros elsewhere.
Logical functions:
ischar(A) Returns a 1 if A is a character array and 0 otherwise.
isempty(A) Returns a 1 if A is an empty matrix and 0 otherwise.
Logical functions:
isinf(A) Returns an array of the same dimension as A, with ones
where A has 'inf' and zeros elsewhere.
isnan(A) Returns an array of the same dimension as A with ones
where A has 'NaN' and zeros elsewhere. ('NaN' stands for
“not a number,” which means an undefined result.)
Logical functions:
isnumeric(A) Returns a 1 if A is a numeric array and 0 otherwise.
isreal(A) Returns a 1 if A has no elements with imaginary parts
and 0 otherwise.
Logical functions:
logical(A) Converts the elements of the array A into logical values.
xor(A,B) Returns an array the same dimension as A and B; the
new array has ones where either A or B is nonzero, but
not both, and zeros where A and B are either both
nonzero or both zero.
The find function:
find(A) Computes an array containing the indices of the nonzero
elements of the array A.
[u,v,w] = find(A) Computes the arrays u and v containing the row and
column indices of the nonzero elements of the array A
and computes the array w containing the values of the
nonzero elements. The array w may be omitted.
Logical operators and find function:
Logical operators and find function:
Note that the find function returns the indices, and not the values.
Question:
Q1- If x = [-10,14,2,5] and y = [-9,13,0,4], what will be the result of the
~y > x.
a) 1 0 0 0 (correct)
b) 1 1 1 1
c) 1 1 1 0
d) 0 1 1 1
Question:
Q2- Suppose that x = [-5,4,3,-8,6] and y = [-10,6,3,5,4]. What is the result of
the B = (x ~= y) operation?
a) 1 1 1 1 1
b) 1 1 1 0 0
c) 1 1 0 1 1 (correct)
d) 1 1 0 0 1
Question:
Q3- Suppose that x = [-2,5,4,7,1] and y = [3,5,-2,1,6]. Use MATLAB to find
the indices of the elements in x that are greater than the corresponding
elements in y.
a) 1 2 5
b) 3 4 (correct)
c) 2 3
d) 1 3 5
Question:
Q4-The height and speed of a projectile (such as a thrown ball) launched with a
speed of 𝑣 at an angle 𝐴 to the horizontal are given by ℎ 𝑡
𝑣 𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴 0.5𝑔 𝑡
𝑣 𝑡 𝑣 2𝑣 𝑔𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴 𝑔 𝑡
where 𝑔 is the acceleration due to gravity. The projectile will strike the ground
when h(t) = 0, which gives the time to hit 𝑡 2 𝑣 /𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴. Suppose that
𝐴 40°, 𝑣 20 𝑚/𝑠, and 𝑔 9.81 𝑚/𝑠 .
Use the MATLAB relational and logical operators to find the first time when ℎ
6. Hint: When computing the times 𝑡 and 𝑡 , you have to keep in mind that
the first element in the array 𝑡 corresponds to 𝑡 0 (that is, 𝑡 1 = 0).
The if statements:
The if statement's basic form is
if logical expression
statements
end
Every if statement must have an accompanying end statement. The end

statement marks the end of the statements that are to be executed if the logical
expression is true.
The else statements:
The basic structure for the use of the else statement is
if logical expression
statement group 1
else
statement group 2
end
if b~=c
disp('b~=c') % Statement 1
else
disp('a~=c') % Statement 2
end
The logical expression in the else structure:
The logical expression may be an array. If so, the test returns a value of true
only if all the elements of the logical expression are true!
For example, if we fail to recognize how the test works, the following statements
do not perform the way we might expect.
The logical expression in the else structure:
Instead, consider what happens if we test for x positive.
Corrected code
First scenario
Second scenario
The elseif statement:
First scenario Second scenario
Flowchart of the general if-elseif-else structure:
Example of an if-elseif-else structure:
For example, suppose that y = log(x) for x > 10, y =sqrt(x) for 0 <= x <= 10,
and y = exp(x) - 1 for x < 0.
How the code may work for these scenarios?
Strings and conditional statements:
A string is a variable that contains characters. Strings are useful for creating
input prompts and messages and for storing and operating on data such as
names and addresses.
To create a string variable, enclose the characters in single quotes. For
example, the string variable name is created as follows:
The following string, number, is not the same as the variable number created
by typing number = 123.
Strings and conditional statements:
The following prompt program is a script file that allows the user to answer
Yes by typing either Y or y or by pressing the Enter key. Any other response
is treated as a No answer.
x = input('prompt', 's')
S represents a string
This function displays the string prompt on the screen, waits for input from
the keyboard, and returns the entered value in the string variable x.
Question:
Q5- Write a script file using conditional statements to evaluate the following
function, assuming that the scalar variable x has a value. The function is
𝑦 𝑥 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 0,
𝑦 3𝑥 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 𝑥 10
𝑦 9 sin 5𝑥 50 31 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 10.
Use your file to evaluate y for x = 11,

and check the results by hand.
Question:
Q6- Create a MATLAB function called fxy to evaluate the function f(x,y)
defined as follows:
𝑥𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 0
𝑥𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 0
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦
𝑥 𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 0
𝑥 𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 0
For x=-5 , y=7 the value returned by the function f(x,y) is
Question:
Q7- Given a number x and the quadrant 𝑞 𝑞 1, 2, 3, 4 , write a function,
func1, to compute 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 in degrees, taking into account the quadrant. The
program should display an error message if | 𝑥 | 1. The value returned by
func1( -0.6, 3) is
For loops:
A simple example of a for loop is
for k = 5:10:35
x = k^2
end
The loop variable k is initially assigned the value 5, and x is calculated from x
= k^2. Each successive pass through the loop increments k by 10 and
calculates x until k exceeds 35. Thus k takes on the values 5, 15, 25, and 35,
and x takes on the values 25, 225, 625, and 1225. The program then continues
to execute any statements following the end statement.
Flowchart of For loops:
Loop variable expression:
Note the following rules when using for loops with the loop variable
expression k = m:s:n:
• The step value s may be negative.

Example: k = 10:-2:4produces k = 10, 8, 6, 4.
• If s is omitted, the step value defaults to one.
• If s is positive, the loop will not be executed if m is greater than n.
• If s is negative, the loop will not be executed if m is less than n.
• If m equals n, the loop will be executed only once.
• If the step value s is not an integer, round-off errors can cause the loop to
execute a different number of passes than intended.
Loop variable expression:
For example, the following code uses a continue statement to avoid computing
the logarithm of a negative number.
Using a logical array as a mask:
We can often avoid the use of loops and branching and thus create simpler and
faster programs by using a logical array as a mask that selects elements of
another array. Any elements not selected will remain unchanged.
The following session creates the logical array C from the numeric array A
given previously.
Example of the mask technique:
We can use this mask technique to compute the square root of only those
elements of A given in the previous program that are no less than 0 and add 50
to those elements that are negative. The program is:
Question:
Q8–Write a script file to compute the sum of the first 15 terms in the series,
5𝑘 2𝑘, k = 1, 2, 3, . . . , 15.
a) 5960 (correct)
b) 1815
c) 6643
d) 3983
Question:
Q9-Write a program to produce the following matrix:
Then calculate 𝑦 𝐴 , the value of 𝑦 3,2 is

a) 400 (correct)
b) 576
c) 600
d) 900
While loops:
The while loop is used when the looping process terminates because a
specified condition is satisfied, and thus the number of passes is not known in
advance. A simple example of a while loop is:
The typical structure of a while loop:
while logical expression

statements
end
For the while loop to function properly, the following two conditions must
occur:
1. The loop variable must have a value before the while statement is
executed.
2. The loop variable must be changed somehow by the statements.
Flowchart of the while loop:
Question:
Q10- Use a while loop to determine how many terms in the series 3𝑘 , 𝑘
1, 2, 3, . . . , are required for the sum of the terms to exceed 5620. What is the
sum for this number of terms?
a) 25, 9327
b) 21, 7753
c) 19, 6327 (correct)
d) 17, 4315
Question:
Q11-Use a while loop to find two decimal places the largest value of x before
the error in the 𝑒 1 𝑥 exceeds 15 percent.
a) 0.89
b) 2.04 (correct)
c) 1.75
d) 3.21
(GENG-8030)

By:
Lecture number:
(5)
Winter 2022
Nomenclature for a typical xy plot:
Generating a plot:
Example: The following MATLAB session plots 𝑦 0.4 1.8𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0
52, where 𝑦 represents the height of a rocket after launch, in miles, and 𝑥 is
the horizontal (downrange) distance in miles.
Rockect height vs distance

4
3.5
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Distance (miles)
Obtaining a hard copy of the plot:
The plot will appear in the Figure window. You can obtain a hard copy of the
plot in several ways:
1. Use the menu system. Select Print on the File menu in the Figure
window. Answer OK when you are prompted to continue the printing
process.
2. Type print at the command line. This command sends the current plot
directly to the printer.
Closing the figure window:
When you are finished with the plot, close the figure window by selecting
Close from the File menu in the Figure window.
Note that using the Alt-Tab key combination in Windows-based systems will
return you to the Command window without closing the figure window.
If you do not close the window, it will not reappear when a new plot command
is executed. However, the figure will still be updated.
Requirements of a correct plot:
The following list describes the essential features of any plot:
1. Each axis must be labeled with the name of the quantity being plotted and
its units! If two or more quantities having different units are plotted (such
as when plotting both speed and distance versus time), indicate the units in
the axis label if there is room, or in the legend or labels for each curve.
2. Each axis should have regularly spaced tick marks at convenient
intervals—not too sparse, but not too dense—with a spacing that is easy to
interpret and interpolate. For example, use 0.1, 0.2, and so on, rather than
0.13, 0.26, and so on.
3. If you are plotting more than one curve or data set, label each on its plot or
use a legend to distinguish them.
4. If you are preparing multiple plots of a similar type or if the axes’ labels
cannot convey enough information, use a title.
5. If you are plotting measured data, plot each data point with a symbol such
as a circle, square, or cross (use the same symbol for every point in the
same data set). If there are many data points, plot them using the dot
symbol.
Requirements of a correct plot:
6. Sometimes data symbols are connected by lines to help the viewer
visualize the data, especially if there are few data points. However,
connecting the data points, especially with a solid line, might be
interpreted to imply knowledge of what occurs between the data points.
Thus you should be careful to prevent such misinterpretation.
7. If you are plotting points generated by evaluating a function (as opposed

to measured data), do not use a symbol to plot the points. Instead, be sure
to generate many points, and connect the points with solid lines.
The grid and axis commands:
The grid command displays gridlines at the tick marks corresponding to the
tick labels. Type grid on to add gridlines; type grid off to stop plotting
gridlines. When used by itself, grid toggles this feature on or off, but you
might want to use grid on and grid off to be sure.
You can use the axis command to override the MATLAB selections for the
axis limits. The basic syntax is axis([xmin xmax ymin ymax]). This command
sets the scaling for the x- and y-axes to the minimum and maximum values
indicated. Note that, unlike an array, this command does not use commas to
separate the values.
The fplot function:
The fplot function chooses a small enough spacing to display the function’s
full behavior.
The fplot function:
The same function plotted with the plot command. A spacing of 0.01 misses
some oscillations.
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
-2.5
-3
1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Plotting polynomials with the polyval function:
To plot the polynomial 3 𝑥 5 2 𝑥 4 100 𝑥 3 2𝑥 2 7x 90 over the
range 6 𝑥 6 with a spacing of 0.01, you type:
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
-1000
-2000
-3000
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
x
Question:
Q1- Plot the equation 𝑦 0.4 1.8𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 𝑥 35
𝑎𝑛𝑑 0 𝑦 3.5.
Title = Rocket height versus distance
X axis label= Distance (miles)
Y axis label=Height (miles)
Rocket height versus distance

3.5
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Distance (miles)
Question:
Q2- Use the fplot command to plot and investigate the function
tan cos 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥
𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 𝑥 2𝜋. How many values of x are needed to obtain the same plot
using the plot command?
Question:
Q3- Plot the imaginary part versus the real part of the function 0.2 0.8𝑖
for 0 𝑛 20. Choose enough points to obtain a smooth curve. Label
each axis and put a title on the plot. Use the axis command to change the tick-
label spacing.
Plot of (0.2+0.8i)n for n=[0,20]

1
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
Real
Saving figures:
To save a figure that can be opened in subsequent MATLAB sessions, save it
in a figure file with the .fig file name extension.
To do this, select Save from the Figure window File menu or click the Save
button (the disk icon) on the toolbar.
If this is the first time you are saving the file, the Save As dialog box appears.
Make sure that the type is MATLAB Figure (*.fig). Specify the name you want
assigned to the figure file. Click OK.
Hints for improving plots:
The following actions, while not required, can nevertheless improve the
appearance of your plots:
1. Start scales from zero whenever possible. This technique prevents a false
impression of the magnitudes of any variations shown on the plot.
2. Use sensible tick-mark spacing. If the quantities are months, choose a

spacing of 12 because 1/10 of a year is not a convenient division. Space
tick marks as close as is useful, but no closer. If the data is given monthly
over a range of 24 months, 48 tick marks might be too dense, and also
unnecessary.
3. Minimize the number of zeros in the data being plotted. For example, use
a scale in millions of dollars when appropriate, instead of a scale in dollars
with six zeros after every number.
4. Determine the minimum and maximum data values for each axis before
plotting the data. Then set the axis limits to cover the entire data range
plus an additional amount to allow convenient tick-mark spacing to be
selected.
For example, if the data on the x-axis ranges from 1.2 to 9.6, a good choice
for axis limits is 0 to 10. This choice allows you to use a tick spacing of 1 or
2.
5. Use a different line type for each curve when several are plotted on a
single plot and they cross each other; for example, use a solid line, a
dashed line, and combinations of lines and symbols. Beware of using
colors to distinguish plots if you are going to make black-and-white
printouts and photocopies.
6. Do not put many curves on one plot, particularly if they will be close to
each other or cross one another at several points.
7. Use the same scale limits and tick spacing on each plot if you need to
compare information on more than one plot.
Plotting functions:
Other useful plotting functions are title and gtext. These functions place text
on the plot. Both accept text within parentheses and single quotes, as with
the xlabel function.
The title function places the text at the top of the plot.
The gtext function places the text at the point on the plot where the cursor is
located when you click the left mouse button.
1
Sin(x)
0.5
-0.5
-1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
X
Subplots:
You can use the subplot command to obtain several smaller “subplots” in the
same figure. The syntax is subplot (m,n,p). This command divides the Figure
window into an array of rectangular panes with m rows and n columns. The
variable p tells MATLAB to place the output of the plot command following
the subplot command into the pth pane.
For example, subplot(3,2,5) creates an array of six panes, three panes deep
and two panes across, and directs the next plot to appear in the fifth pane (in
the bottom-left corner).
Application of the subplot command:
Subplots:
The following script file created a figure, which shows the plots of the
functions 𝑦 𝑒 . sin 10𝑥 5 for 0 𝑥 5 , and 𝑦 |𝑥
100| and 𝑦 𝑥 for 6 𝑥 6.
Data markers and line types:
To plot y versus x with a solid line and u versus v with a dashed line, type
plot(x,y,u,v,‘--’), where the symbols ‘--’ represent a dashed line.
To plot y versus x with asterisks (*) connected with a dotted line, you must
plot the data twice by typing plot(x,y,‘*’,x,y,‘:’).
Data markers and line types:
To plot y versus x with green asterisks (*) connected with a red dashed line,
you must plot the data twice by typing plot(x,y,‘g*’,x,y,‘r--’).
Specifiers for data markers, line types and colors:
Data markers† Line types Colors

Dot (.) . Solid line — Black k
Asterisk (*) * Dashed line –– Blue b
Cross (´) Dash-dotted line –. Cyan c
Circle (◦) ◦ Dotted line …. Green g
Plus sign ( ) Magenta m
Square ( ▫ ) s Red r
Diamond ( ◊ ) d White w
Five-pointed star (w) p Yellow y
Labeling curves and data:
The legend command automatically obtains from the plot the line type used for
each data set and displays a sample of this line type in the legend box next to
the string you selected.
4
sinh(x)
3.5 tanh(x)
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
X
Application of hold command:
Application of hold command:
Question:
Q4- Pick a suitable spacing for 𝑡 0: 0.01: 8; 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 8: 0.01: 8; and then
use the subplot command to plot the following functions
𝑧 𝑒 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠 20𝑡 6 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 𝑡 8

𝑢 6 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑣 20 𝑓𝑜𝑟 8 𝑣 8.
0.5
-0.5
-1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
t
12
11
10
8
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
v
Question:
Q5- Plot the following two data sets on the same plot. For each set, x = 0, 1, 2, 3,
4, 5. Use a different data marker for each set. Connect the markers for the first set
with solid lines. Connect the markers for the second set with dashed lines. Use a
legend, and label the plot axes appropriately. The first set is y = 11, 13, 8, 7, 5, 9.
The second set is y = 2, 4, 5, 3, 2, 4.
Question:
Q6- Plot 𝑦 sinh 𝑥 and 𝑦 0.5𝑒 on the same plot for 0 𝑥 2. Use a
solid line type for each, the gtext command to label the sinh x curve, and the
0.5𝑒 curve. Label the plot axes appropriately.
3.5
2.5
1.5
1 0.5exp(x)
0.5 sinh(x)
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
x
Why use a log scale?:
Why use a log scale?:
Logarithmic plots:
It is important to remember the following points when using log scales:
1. You cannot plot negative numbers on a log scale, because the logarithm of
a negative number is not defined as a real number.
2. You cannot plot the number 0 on a log scale, because log10 0 ln 0

∞. You must choose an appropriately small number as the lower limit
on the plot.
3. The tick-mark labels on a log scale are the actual values being plotted;
they are not the logarithms of the numbers. For example, the range of x
values in the plot in Figure 5.3–2 is from 10 1 0.1 to 102 100.
4. Gridlines and tick marks within a decade are unevenly spaced. If 8

gridlines or tick marks occur within the decade, they correspond to values
equal to 2, 3, 4, . . . , 8, 9 times the value represented by the first gridline
or tick mark of the decade.
Logarithmic plots:
5. Equal distances on a log scale correspond to multiplication by the same
constant (as opposed to addition of the same constant on a rectilinear
scale).
For example, all numbers that differ by a factor of 10 are separated by

the same distance on a log scale. That is, the distance between 0.3 and 3
is the same as the distance between 30 and 300. This separation is
referred to as a decade or cycle.
The plot shown in Figure 5.3–2 covers three decades in x (from 0.1 to
100) and four decades in y and is thus called a four-by-three-cycle plot.
Logarithmic plots:
MATLAB has three commands for generating plots having log scales. The
appropriate command depends on which axis must have a log scale.
1. Use the loglog(x,y) command to have both scales logarithmic.
2. Use the semilogx(x,y) command to have the x scale logarithmic and the y
scale rectilinear.
3. Use the semilogy(x,y) command to have the y scale logarithmic and the x
scale rectilinear.
Polar plots:
𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝜃, 𝜌 : plot using polar coordinates , in radians, versus the radius 𝜌.
Obtain a polar plot of 𝑦 2𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 𝑥 2𝜋.
Polar plot of y=2x

90 15
120 60
10
150 30
5
180 0
210 330
240 300
270
Please read the polar plots concept!.
Question:
Q7- Plot the following functions using axes that will produce a straight-line
plot. The power function is 𝑦 2𝑥 . , and the exponential function is 𝑦
10 . 0.01 𝑥 3, 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑙𝑜𝑔, 𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦
101
y=2*x. -0.5 y=10. 1-x
101
100
10-1
100 10-2
10-2 10 0 0 1 2 3
x x
Question:
Q8- Plot the function 𝑦 8𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 1 𝑥 1 with a tick spacing of 0.25
on the 𝑥 axis and 2 on the y axis.
y=8*x.3
8
-2
-4
-6
-8
-1 -0.75 -0.5 -0.25 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
x
Specialized plot commands:
Command Description
bar(x,y) Creates a bar chart of y versus x.
plotyy(x1,y1,x2,y2) Produces a plot with two y-axes, y1 on the left and
y2 on the right.
polar(theta,r,’type’) Produces a polar plot from the polar coordinates
theta and r, using the line type, data marker, and
colors specified in the string type.
stairs(x,y) Produces a stairs plot of y versus x.

stem(x,y) Produces a stem plot of y versus x.
Specialized plot commands:
1 1
0.8
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.2
0 0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.5
-0.6
-0.8
-1 -1
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
1
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
Plotting implicit functions:
MATLAB provides the function fimplicit(f) to plot the implicit function
defined by the equation f(x,y) 0 over the default interval [ 5 5] for x and y.
For example, to plot the hyperbola defined by x^2 y^2 1 0 over the
default interval of [ 5 5], you type
If the limits for x are [−2 2] and the limits for y are [−4 4], you would type
4
4
3
3
2
2
1
1
0 0
-1 -1
-2
-2
-3
-3
-4
-4
-5 0 5 -2 -1 0 1 2
Three dimensional line plots:
The following program uses the plot3 function to generate the spiral curve.
Surface plots:
The following session shows how to generate the surface plot of the function
𝑧 𝑥𝑒 for 2 x 2 and 2 y 2, with a spacing of 0.1.
A mesh is a representation of a larger geometric domain by smaller discrete

cells.
Contour plots:
The following session generates the contour plot of
𝑧 𝑥𝑒 , for 2 x 2 and 2 y 2,
with a mesh spacing of 0.1.
Surface plots of implicit functions:
MATLAB provides the function fimplicit3(f) to plot the three-dimensional
implicit function defined by the equation
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 0 over the default interval 5 5 for 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧.
You can specify the interval with the syntax 𝑓𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡3 𝑓, 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 .
For example, to plot the upper half of the hyperboloid
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 0 you specify the interval as for z as 0 5 , and for x and y,
use the default interval 5 5 , as follows.
Other three-dimensional plotting functions:
Function Description
surf(x,y,z) Creates a shaded 3D mesh surface plot.
surfc(x,y,z) Same as surf but draws contours under the surface.
waterfall(x,y,z) Same as mesh but draws mesh lines in one direction only.
Example:
Plots of the surface 𝑧 𝑥𝑒 created with the mesh function and
its variant forms: a) surf, b) surfc, c) waterfall, d) meshc,
Question:
Q9- Obtain the plot of the following implicit function, known as the
Ampersand curve. Use the axis equal command.
𝑦 𝑥 𝑥 1 2𝑥 3 2 𝑥 𝑦 2𝑥
axis equal sets the aspect ratio so that the data units are the same in every
direction.
Ampersand curve
0.5
-0.5
-1
0 0.5 1 1.5
Question:
Q10- Use plot3 and fplot3 to plot the 3-D line plot described by 𝑥
sin 𝑡 , 𝑦 cos 𝑡 , 𝑧 ln 𝑡 for 0 𝑡 30.
Question:
Q11-Use mesh, fmesh, contour, and fcontour to create a surface plot and a
contour plot of the function 𝑧 𝑥 2 2𝑥𝑦 𝑦 .
Question:
Q12- Use the fimplicit3 function to create a surface plot of the function
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 0
(GENG-8030)

By:
Lecture number:
(6)
Winter 2022
Model building and regression:
An important application of the plotting techniques is function discovery, the
technique for using data plots to obtain a mathematical function or
“mathematical model” that describes the process that generated the data.
Function Discovery: A systematic way of finding an equation that best fits

the data is regression (also called the least-squares method).
Using the linear, power and exponential functions to describe data:
Each function gives a straight line when plotted using a specific set of axes:
1. The linear function y ൌ mx ൅ b gives a straight line when plotted on

rectilinear axes. Its slope is m and its intercept is b.
2. The power function y ൌ bxm gives a straight line when plotted on log-log
axes.
3. The exponential function y ൌ b(10)mx and its equivalent form y ൌ bemx

give a straight line when plotted on a semi-log plot whose y-axis is
logarithmic.
Function discovery:
The power function y ൌ 2x െ0.5 and the exponential function y ൌ 101െx plotted
on linear, semi-log, and log-log axes..
Semi-log
Linear
Log-log
Steps for function discovery:
1. Examine the data near the origin. The exponential function y ൌ b(10)mx or
y ൌ b(e)mx can never pass through the origin (unless of course b ൌ 0, which is
a trivial case).
The linear function y ൌ mx ൅ b can pass through the origin only if b ൌ 0. The
power function y ൌ bxm can pass through the origin but only if m ൐ 0.
2. Plot the data using rectilinear scales. If it forms a
straight line, then it can be represented by the linear
function and you are finished. Otherwise, if you have data
at x ൌ 0, then
a. If y(0) ൌ 0, try the power function.
b. If y(0) ് 0, try the exponential function.
If data is not given for x ൌ 0, proceed to step 3.

3. If you suspect a power function, plot the data using log-log scales. Only
a power function will form a straight line on a log-log plot. If you
suspect an exponential function, plot the data using the semi-log scales.
Only an exponential function will form a straight line on a semi-log
plot.
4. In function discovery applications, we use the log-log and semi-log plots
only to identify the function type, but not to find the coefficients b and m.
The reason is that it is difficult to interpolate on log scales.
Power function y ൌ bxm
Exponential function y ൌ b(10)mx
The polyfit function:
Command Description
p = polyfit(x,y,n) Fits a polynomial of degree n to data described by

the vectors x and y, where x is the independent
variable. Returns a row vector p of length n 1
that contains the polynomial coefficients in order of
descending powers.
𝑝 𝑥 𝑝 𝑥 𝑝 𝑥 ⋯ 𝑝 𝑥 𝑝
The linear function: y mx b. In this case the variables w and z in the

polynomial w p1z p2 are the original data variables x and y, and we can
find the linear function that fits the data by typing p = polyfit(x,y,1). The first
element p1 of the vector p will be m, and the second element p2 will be b.
Power function:
The power function: y bxm.
In this case
log10 y m log10x log10b
which has the form
w p 1z p2
where the polynomial variables w and z are related to the original data
variables x and y by w log10 y and z log10x. Thus we can find the power
function that fits the data by typing
p = polyfit(log10(x),log10(y),1)
The first element p1 of the vector p will be m, and the second element p2 will
be log10b. We can find b from b 10p2 .
Exponential function:
The exponential function: y b(10)mx.
In this case
log10 y mx log10b
which has the form
w p 1z p2
where the polynomial variables w and z are related to the original data
variables x and y by w log10 y and z x. We can find the exponential
function that fits the data by typing
p = polyfit(x, log10(y),1)
The first element p1 of the vector p will be m, and the second element p2
will be log10b. We can find b from b 10p2 .
Example: Fitting a linear function:
Sonar measurements of the range of an approaching underwater vehicle are
given in the following table, where the distance is measured in nautical
miles (𝑛𝑚𝑖). Assuming the relative speed v is constant, the range as function
of time is given by 𝑟 𝑣𝑡 𝑟 where 𝑟 is the initial range at 𝑡 0.
Estimate the speed v and when the range will be zero.
Time, t (min) 0 2 4 6 8 10
Range, r (nmi) 3.8 3.5 2.7 2.1 1.2 0.7
4
r = −0.3286t + 3.9762.
3.5
2.5
1.5
1
r=0 at t = 12.1 minutes
0.5
0 2 4 6 8 10
t(min)
Example: Fitting an exponential function:
The temperature of coffee cooling in a mug at room temperature (68°F) was
measured at various times. The data follow.
Time t (sec) Temperature T (°F)
0 145
620 130
2266 103
3482 90
Develop an exponential function model of the coffee’s temperature as a
function of time, and use the model to estimate how long it took the
temperature to reach 120°F.
𝑇 68 𝑏 10
we must solve the equation
120 68
77.4 10 1.55e 4 for t.
𝑡 1112 sec
Question:
Q1-The distance a spring stretches from its “free length” is a function of how
much tension force is applied to it. The following table gives the spring
length y that the given applied force f produced in a particular spring. The
spring's free length is 4.7 in. Find a functional relation between f and x, the
extension from the free length, 𝑓 𝑘𝑥 𝑏. The spring constant k is:
Force f (lb) Spring length y (in.)

0 4.7
0.94 7.2
2.30 10.6
3.28 12.9
a) 0.1
b) 0.2
c) 0.3
d) 0.4 (correct)
Question:
Q2. The population data for a certain country are as follows:
Year 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Population (millions) 10 10.9 11.7 12.6 13.8 14.9
Obtain an exponential function that describes these data. How many years after
2012 will the population be double its 2012 size (20 millions)?
The least squares criterion:
The Least Squares Criterion: used to fit a function f (x). It minimizes the
sum of the squares of the residuals, J. J is defined as
m
J    f  xi   yi 
2
i 1
We can use this criterion to compare the quality of the curve fit for two or
more functions used to describe the same data. The function that gives the
smallest J value gives the best fit.
Illustration of least squares criterion:
Example: Regression using polynomials:
Consider the data set where 𝑥 1, 2, 3, . . . , 9 and
𝑦 5, 6, 10, 20, 28, 33, 34, 36, 42. Fit polynomials of first through fourth
degree to this data and compare the results.
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
0 5 10 0 5 10
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
0 5 10 0 5 10
Fourth order is the best option with a minimized error!
Assessing the quality of a curve fit:
Denote the sum of the squares of the deviation of the y values from their
mean y by S, which can be computed from
m
S    yi  y 
2
i 1
This formula can be used to compute another measure of the quality of the
curve fit, the coefficient of determination, also known as the r-squared value.
It is defined as
m m
J
J    f  xi   yi  S    yi  y 
2
r  1
2 2
i 1 i 1 S
The value of S indicates how much the data is spread around the mean, and
the value of J indicates how much of the data spread is unaccounted for by
the model.
Thus the ratio J/S indicates the fractional variation unaccounted for by the
model.
Assessing the quality of a curve fit:
For a perfect fit, J 0 and thus r 2 1. Thus the closer r 2 is to 1, the
better the fit. The largest r 2 can be is 1.
It is possible for J to be larger than S, and thus it is possible for r 2 to be

negative. Such cases, however, are indicative of a very poor model that
should not be used.
As a rule of thumb, a good fit accounts for at least 99 percent of the data
variation. This value corresponds to r 2 0.99.
Effect of coefficient accuracy:
• High-degree polynomials can produce large errors if their coefficients are

not represented with a large number of significant figures.
Scaling the data:
The effect of computational errors in computing the coefficients can be
lessened by properly scaling the 𝑥 values. You can scale the data yourself
before using polyfit. Some common scaling methods are
1. Subtract the minimum 𝑥 value or the mean 𝑥 value from the 𝑥 data, if
the range of 𝑥 is small, or
2. Divide the 𝑥 values by the maximum value or the mean value, if the
range is large.
Example: Scaling the data:
The following data give the number of vehicles (in millions) crossing a
bridge each year for 10 years. Fit a cubic polynomial to the data and use the
fit to estimate the flow in the year 2010.
Year 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Vehicle flow(millions) 2.1 3.4 4.5 5.3 6.2 6.6 6.8 7 7.4 7.8
No meaningful solution/formulation, so it may need scaling!
Example: Scaling the data:
Correct solution using scaling!
Acceptable r2 3
2
0 2 4 6 8 10
𝑓 𝑡 0.0087 𝑡 2000 0.1851 𝑡 2000 1.5991 𝑡 2000 2.0362

f (2010)=8.21
Question:
Q3 -The plot of a fourth-degree polynomial for the following data is:
𝑥 0, 1, . . . , 5 and 𝑦 0, 1, 44, 40, 11, 47
50
40
30
20
10
-10
0 1 2 3 4 5
50
40
Acceptable r2 30
20
10
-10
-20
0 1 2 3 4 5
Question:
Q4- The U.S. census data from 1790 to 1990 is stored in the file census. dat,
which is supplied with MATLAB. Type load census to load this file. The
first column, cdate, contains the years, and the second column, pop, contains
the population in millions. First try to fit a cubic polynomial to the data. If
you get a warning message, scale the data by subtracting 1790 from the
years, and fit a cubic. The coefficient of determination (r-squared value) is:
Acceptable r2
Example pop in 1965
Question:
Q5- The following data give the stopping distance 𝑑 as a function of initial
speed 𝑣, for a certain car model. Find a quadratic polynomial that fits the
data. Determine the quality of the curve fit by computing 𝑟 .
𝑣 𝑚𝑖/ℎ𝑟 20 30 40 50 60 70
𝑑 𝑓𝑡 25 50 130 185 250 330
a) 0.9921 350
b) 0.9943 (correct) 300
c) 0.9962 250
d) 0.9998
200
150
100
50
0
20 30 40 50 60 70
Question:
Q6-The following function is linear in the parameters 𝑎 and 𝑎 .
𝑦 𝑥 𝑎   𝑎 ln 𝑥 .
Use least-squares regression with the following data to estimate the values of
𝑎 and 𝑎 .
x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
y 10 14 16 18 19 20 21 22 23 23
a a 14.4353 a 2.4543
b a 7.34764 a 6.6895
c a 5.7518 a 9.9123 (correct)
d a 3.4344 a 11.472
Multiple linear regression:
Suppose that y is a linear function of two or more variables 𝑥1, 𝑥2, . . . ,
for example, 𝑦 𝑎 𝑎 𝑥 𝑎 𝑥 .
How to find the coefficient values 𝑎 , 𝑎 , and 𝑎 to fit a set of data

𝑦, 𝑥 , 𝑥 in the least-squares sense?
The solution for the coefficients is given by a = X\y.
Example: Multiple linear regression:
Obtain a linear model 𝑦 𝑎 𝑎 𝑥 𝑎 𝑥 to describe the relationship.
Breaking strength (kN) % of element 1 % of element 2

y x1 x2
7.1 0 5
19.2 1 7
31 2 8
45 3 11
Linear-in-parameters regression:
Sometimes we want to fit an expression that is neither a polynomial nor a
function that can be converted to linear form by a logarithmic or other
transformation.
In some cases we can still do a least-squares fit if the function is a linear

expression in terms of its parameters.
Example: The following data gives the output voltage of a certain device as
a function of time. Obtain a function that describes this data.
/
𝑣 𝑡 𝑎 𝑎 𝑒 (first-order model)
The first-order model written for each of the n data points results in n
equations, which can be expressed as follows:
Xa = y′
Example: Linear-in-parameters regression:
𝑦 𝑡 𝑎 𝑎 𝑒 (first-order model)
Data for t and y
Cftool:
𝑦 𝑡 𝑎 𝑎 𝑒 (first-order model)
Question:
Q7- Obtain a linear model 𝑦 𝑎 𝑎 𝑥 𝑎 𝑥 for the following data to
describe the relationship. The maximum error is
y x1 x2
3.8 7.5 6
a) Max_error = 1.0847 (correct)
5.6 6 9
b) Max_error = 2.1249
6 13.5 10.5
c) Max_error = 3.8926
5 16.5 18
d) Max_error = 4.3285
5.8 19.5 21
5.6 21 25.5
Question:
Question:
Q8- Using cftool toolbox, find a polynomial function that fits following t and
y data.
(GENG-8030)

By:
Lecture number:
(7)
Winter 2022
Linear algebraic equation:
Linear algebraic equations such as;
5𝑥 2𝑦 13
7𝑥 3𝑦 24
occur in many engineering applications. For example, electrical engineers

use them to predict the power requirements for circuits; mechanical, and
aerospace engineers use them to design structures and machines; and
industrial engineers apply them to design schedules and operations.
Matrix methods for linear equations:
Consider the following set:
2𝑥 9𝑥 5
3𝑥 4𝑥 7
This set can be expressed in vector-matrix form as

2 9 𝑥 5
3 4 𝑥 7
which can be represented in the following compact form
𝑨𝒙 𝒃
and the solution can be determined

𝟏b
𝒙=𝑨
Limitations of matrix methods:
• The matrix inverse method will warn us if a unique solution does not
exist, but it does not tell us whether there is no solution or an infinite
number of solutions.
• The method is limited to cases where the matrix A is square, that is,
cases where the number of equations equals the number of unknowns.
• A method is needed to determine whether an equation set has a solution

and whether it is unique.
Singular problem:
A singular problem refers to a set of equations having either no unique
solution or no solution at all. For example, the set:
3𝑥 4𝑦 5
6𝑥 8𝑦 10
is singular and has no unique solution because the second equation is

identical to the first equation, multiplied by 2. The graphs of these two
equations are identical. All we can say is that the solution must satisfy 𝑦
3𝑥 5 /4, which describes an infinite number of solutions.
Example:
The equations
6𝑥 – 10𝑦 2
3𝑥 – 4𝑦 5
have graphs that intersect at the solution 𝑦 4, 𝑥 7.
On the other hand, the set

3𝑥 4𝑦 5
6𝑥 8𝑦 3
is singular but has no solution. The graphs of these two equations are distinct
but parallel (see the next slide). Because they do not intersect, no solution
exists.
Intersection:
No intersection or no solution exists:
Homogenous equations:
Consider the following set of homogeneous equations (which means that
their right sides are all zero
6𝑥 𝑎𝑦 0
2𝑥 4𝑦 0
where a is a parameter. Multiply the second equation by 3 and subtract the

result from the first equation to obtain
𝑎 12 𝑦 0
The solution is 𝑦 0 only if 𝑎 12 ; if 𝑎 12, there is an infinite

number of solutions for x and y, where 𝑥 2𝑦.
Matrix notation to represent multiple equations as a single matrix
equation:
For example, consider the following set:
3𝑥 4𝑥 7
2𝑥 9𝑥 5

2 9 x1 5
3 4 x2 7
Ax b
For the equation set Ax b,
• if |A| 0, then there is no unique solution.
• Depending on the values in the vector b, there may be no solution at all,

or an infinite number of solutions.
MATLAB inv command:
The MATLAB command inv(A) computes the inverse of the matrix A. The
following session solves the following equations using MATLAB.
2𝑥 9𝑦 5
3𝑥 4𝑦 7
If you attempt to solve a singular problem using the inv command,

MATLAB displays an error message.
Existence and uniqueness of solutions:
The set 𝑨𝒙 𝒃 with 𝑚 equations and 𝑛 unknowns has solutions if and only
if
𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑨 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑨 𝒃 (1)
Let 𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑨 .
• If condition (1) is satisfied and if 𝑟 𝑛, then the solution is unique.
• If condition (1) is satisfied but 𝑟 𝑛, an infinite number of solutions

exists and 𝑟 unknown variables can be expressed as linear combinations
of the other 𝑛 𝑟 unknown variables, whose values are arbitrary.
Homogenous case:
The homogeneous set Ax 0 is a special case in which b 0.
For this case 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑨 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑨 𝒃] always, and thus the set always has the
trivial solution x 0.
A nonzero solution, in which at least one unknown is nonzero, exists if and

only if 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑨 𝑛.
If 𝑚 𝑛, the homogeneous set always has a nonzero solution.
If the number of equations equals the number of unknowns and if |A| 0,

then the equation set has a solution and it is unique.
If |A| 0 or if the number of equations does not equal the number of

unknowns, then the pseudoinverse method 𝑥 𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑣 𝑨 ∗ 𝑏 gives the
minimum-norm solution (TRY This at home).
Left division method:
MATLAB provides the left-division method for solving the equation set Ax
b. The left-division method is based on Gauss elimination. To use the left-
division method to solve for x, type x = A\b. For example,
When there are more equations than unknowns, the left-division method
will give a solution with some of the unknowns set equal to zero.
Example:
Use the left-division method to solve the following set.
3𝑥 2𝑥 9𝑥 65
9𝑥 5𝑥 2𝑥 16
6𝑥 7𝑥 3𝑥 5
Because A is 3 × 3 and rank(A) = 3, which is the

number of unknowns, a unique solution exists.
Undetermined systems:
An underdetermined system does not contain enough information to solve
for all of the unknown variables, usually because it has fewer equations
than unknowns.
Thus an infinite number of solutions can exist, with one or more of the
unknowns dependent on the remaining unknowns.
𝑥 3𝑦 6
All we can do is to solve for one of the unknowns in terms of the other;
for example, 𝑥 6 3𝑦. An infinite number of solutions satisfy this
equation.
will give a solution with some of the unknowns set equal to zero. For
example,
Example:
Determine the forces in the three equally spaced
supports that hold up a light fixture. The supports
are 5 ft apart. The fixture weighs 400 lb, and its
mass center is 4 ft from the right end. Obtain the
solution using the MATLAB left-division method
and the pseudoinverse method.
𝑇1 𝑇2 𝑇3 400 0 𝑇1 , 𝑇2, 𝑇3 are the tension forces in

400 4 10𝑇1 5𝑇2 0 the supports
𝑇1 𝑇2 𝑇3 400
10𝑇1 5𝑇2 1600
Example:
No variable is
necessary zero
One variable is
always zero
Question:
Q1- Use the matrix inverse method to solve the following set.
3𝑥 4𝑥 6𝑥 = 15
2𝑥 8𝑥 12𝑥 = 5
𝑥 7𝑥 61𝑥 = 10
𝑥 is equal to:
a) 4.2638 (correct)
b) 1.2432
c) 0.4965
d) 0.0371
Question:
3𝑥 4𝑥 2𝑥 5
6𝑥 3𝑥 6𝑥 2
6𝑥 8𝑥 4𝑥 3
𝑥 is equal to:
a) 12.134
b) 1.2432
c) 0
d) Inf (correct)
Question:
Q3- Represent the following equations in vector-matrix form 𝐴𝑥 𝑏:
5𝑥 4𝑦 3𝑧 5
4𝑥 3𝑦 2𝑧 23
2𝑥 6𝑦 3𝑧 63
The rank of 𝑐 𝐴 𝑏 and the value of z are?

a) 3, 5.2422 (correct)
b) 3, 3.2825
c) 2, 6.7848
d) 2, Inf
An ill-conditioned set of equations:
An ill-conditioned set of equations is a set of equations close to being
singular.
The ill-conditioned status depends on the accuracy with which the solution
calculations are made.
When the internal numerical accuracy used by MATLAB is insufficient to

obtain a solution, MATLAB prints a message to warn you that the matrix is
close to singular and that the results might be inaccurate.
Example: An ill-conditioned set of equations:
3𝑥 4𝑥 5
6𝑥 8𝑥 2
3𝑥 4𝑥 5
6.000000000000001𝑥 8𝑥 2
Question:
Q4- Use the pseudoinverse method (pinv) to solve the following set of
equations
3𝑥 15𝑥 6𝑥 4
𝑥 2𝑥 3𝑥 10
𝑥 is equal to:
a) 0
b) -4.7879
c) 1.0427 (correct)
d) 3.1214
(GENG-8030)

By:
Lecture number:
(8)
Winter 2022
Numerical methods for calculus and differential equations:
Integral
Integral of f(x) interpreted as the area A under the curve of f(x) from x a
to x b
Integral:
Illustration of (a) rectangular and (b) trapezoidal numerical integration.
Numerical integration functions:
Command Description
integral(fun,a,b) Uses an adaptive Simpson’s rule to compute
the integral of the function whose handle is
fun, with ‘a’ as the lower integration limit and
‘b’ as the upper limit.
trapz(x,y) Uses trapezoidal integration to compute the

integral of y with respect to x, where the array
y contains the function values at the points
contained in the array x.
Although the integral function is more accurate than trapz, it is restricted to
computing the integrals of functions and cannot be used when the integrand
is specified by a set of points. For such cases, use the trapz function.
Using the trapz function. Compute the integral


 sin x dx
0
First use 10 panels with equal widths of 𝜋/10. The script file is
The answer is 1.9797, which gives a relative error of 100 ((2 1.9797)/2)
1%.
Script to integrate cos 𝑥2 from 0 to 2𝜋, create the function:
Polynomial integration:
q = polyint(p,C) returns a polynomial q representing the integral of

polynomial p with a user-specified scalar constant of integration C.
For example, the integral of 12𝑥 9𝑥 8𝑥 5 is obtained from 𝑞

𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑡 12,9,8,5 , 10 .
Which corresponds to 3𝑥 3𝑥 4𝑥 5𝑥 10.
Double integrals:
A = integral2(fun, a, b, c, d) computes the integral of 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 from x a to
b, and y c to d.
Here is an example using an anonymous function to represent 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦

𝑥𝑦 .
𝐴 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
Triple integrals:
𝐴 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙3 𝑓𝑢𝑛, 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑓 computes the triple integral of
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 from 𝑥 𝑎 to 𝑏, 𝑦 𝑐 to 𝑑 , and 𝑧 𝑒 to 𝑓.
Here is an example using an anonymous function to represent.
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 .
Question:
Q1-A tank having vertical sides and a bottom area of 100 ft2 is used to store
water. The tank is initially empty. To fill the tank, water is pumped into the
top at the rate given in the following table. Determine the water height h(t)
at t = 10 min.
Time (min) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Flow rate (ft3/min) 0 80 130 150 150 160 165 170 160 140 120
The relation between height h and the volume inflow rate r is

𝑑ℎ 1
100 𝑟 → ℎ 𝑟𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 100
Question:
Q2-An accelerometer is used in aircraft, rockets, and other vehicles to
estimate the vehicle’s velocity and displacement. The accelerometer
integrates the acceleration signal to produce an estimate of the velocity, and
it integrates the velocity estimate to produce an estimate of displacement.
Suppose the vehicle starts from rest at time t = 0, and its measured
acceleration is given in the following table.
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑠 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚/𝑠 0 2 4 9 16 17 24 32 41 48 51
The estimated velocity v after 10s is.
Question:
Q3-Use the integral function to compute the integral
1
𝐴 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
Numerical differentiation:
Illustration of three methods for estimating the derivative 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑥.
A backward difference
B forward difference
C central difference
MATLAB provides the diff function to use for computing derivative
estimates. Its syntax is d = diff(x), where x is a vector of values, and the
result is a vector d containing the differences between adjacent elements in
x.
That is, if 𝑥 has n elements, d will have 𝑛 1 elements, where
𝑑 𝑥 2 𝑥 1 ,𝑥 3 𝑥 2 ,...,𝑥 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 1 .
For example, if x = [5, 7, 12, -20], then diff(x) returns the vector [2, 5, -32].
Polynomial differentiation functions:
Command Description
b = polyder(p) Returns a vector b containing the coefficients
of the derivative of the polynomial
represented by the vector p.
b = polyder(p1,p2) Returns a vector b containing the coefficients

of the polynomial that is the derivative of
(p1)(p2).
[num, den] = polyder(p2,p1) Returns the vectors num and den containing
the coefficients of the numerator and
denominator polynomials of the derivative
p2/p1
𝑝1 5𝑥 2
𝑝2 10𝑥 4𝑥 3
𝑝 𝑝 50𝑥 40𝑥 7𝑥 6
𝑑 𝑝
20𝑥 4
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑝 𝑝
150𝑥 80𝑥 7
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑝 /𝑝 50𝑥 40𝑥 23

𝑑𝑥 25𝑥 20𝑥 4
Solving first order differential equations:
An ordinary differential equation (ODE) is an equation containing
ordinary derivatives of the dependent variable. An equation containing
partial derivatives with respect to two or more independent variables is a
partial differential equation (PDE). Solution methods for PDEs are an
advanced topic, and we will not treat them in this text.
The Euler method is the simplest algorithm for numerical solution of a

differential equation.
MATLAB provides several functions, called solvers, such as ode45 and

ode15s functions to solve ODE.
ode45 is used as follows to solve 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑡 𝑓 𝑡, 𝑦
Syntax is: [t,y] = ode45(@ydot,tspan,y0)
where @ydot is the handle of the function file whose inputs must be 𝑡 and 𝑦,
and whose output must be a column vector representing 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑡; that is,
𝑓 𝑡, 𝑦 . The number of rows in this column vector must equal the order of
the equation.
• The array tspan contains the starting and ending values of the independent
variable t, and optionally any intermediate values.
• The array y0 contains the initial values of 𝑦. If the equation is first order,
then y0 is a scalar.
Response of an RC circuit:
The circuit model for zero input voltage v is
𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑡 10𝑦 0 𝑦 0 2
Analytical solution : 𝑦 2𝑒
1.5
0.5
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Time(s)
Nonlinear example:
The equation for the height is
dh 0.0344 h

dt 10h  h 2
Draining of a
spherical tank
10
-2
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Time(s)
Extension to higher order equations:
To use the ODE solvers to solve an equation higher than order 2, you must
first write the equation as a set of first-order equations.
For example, consider the equation
y  7 y  4 y  sin(t )
5 
Define 𝑥 𝑦 and 𝑥 𝑦. Then the above equation can be expressed as

two equations:
x1  x2
1 4 7
x2  sin(t )  x1  x2
5 5 5
This form is sometimes called the Cauchy form or the state-variable form.
x1  x2
1 4 7
x2  sin(t )  x1  x2
5 5 5
Suppose we want to solve the equation for 0
t 6 with the initial conditions x1(0) 3,
x2(0) 9.
10
4 Plot of x2
2
-2
-4
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
(GENG-8030)

By:
Lecture number:
(7)
Winter 2022
Linear algebraic equation:
Linear algebraic equations such as;
5𝑥 2𝑦 13
7𝑥 3𝑦 24
occur in many engineering applications. For example, electrical engineers

use them to predict the power requirements for circuits; mechanical, and
aerospace engineers use them to design structures and machines; and
industrial engineers apply them to design schedules and operations.
Matrix methods for linear equations:
Consider the following set:
2𝑥 9𝑥 5
3𝑥 4𝑥 7

2 9 𝑥 5
3 4 𝑥 7
𝑨𝒙 𝒃
and the solution can be determined

𝟏b
𝒙=𝑨
Limitations of matrix methods:
• The matrix inverse method will warn us if a unique solution does not
exist, but it does not tell us whether there is no solution or an infinite
number of solutions.
• The method is limited to cases where the matrix A is square, that is,
cases where the number of equations equals the number of unknowns.
• A method is needed to determine whether an equation set has a solution

and whether it is unique.
Singular problem:
A singular problem refers to a set of equations having either no unique
solution or no solution at all. For example, the set:
3𝑥 4𝑦 5
6𝑥 8𝑦 10
is singular and has no unique solution because the second equation is

identical to the first equation, multiplied by 2. The graphs of these two
equations are identical. All we can say is that the solution must satisfy 𝑦
3𝑥 5 /4, which describes an infinite number of solutions.
Example:
The equations
6𝑥 – 10𝑦 2
3𝑥 – 4𝑦 5
have graphs that intersect at the solution 𝑦 4, 𝑥 7.
On the other hand, the set

3𝑥 4𝑦 5
6𝑥 8𝑦 3
is singular but has no solution. The graphs of these two equations are distinct
but parallel (see the next slide). Because they do not intersect, no solution
exists.
Intersection:
No intersection or no solution exists:
Homogenous equations:
Consider the following set of homogeneous equations (which means that
their right sides are all zero
6𝑥 𝑎𝑦 0
2𝑥 4𝑦 0
where a is a parameter. Multiply the second equation by 3 and subtract the

result from the first equation to obtain
𝑎 12 𝑦 0
The solution is 𝑦 0 only if 𝑎 12 ; if 𝑎 12, there is an infinite

number of solutions for x and y, where 𝑥 2𝑦.
Matrix notation to represent multiple equations as a single matrix
equation:
For example, consider the following set:
3𝑥 4𝑥 7
2𝑥 9𝑥 5

2 9 x1 5
3 4 x2 7
Ax b
For the equation set Ax b,
• if |A| 0, then there is no unique solution.
• Depending on the values in the vector b, there may be no solution at all,

or an infinite number of solutions.
MATLAB inv command:
The MATLAB command inv(A) computes the inverse of the matrix A. The
following session solves the following equations using MATLAB.
2𝑥 9𝑦 5
3𝑥 4𝑦 7
If you attempt to solve a singular problem using the inv command,

MATLAB displays an error message.
Existence and uniqueness of solutions:
The set 𝑨𝒙 𝒃 with 𝑚 equations and 𝑛 unknowns has solutions if and only
if
𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑨 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑨 𝒃 (1)
Let 𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑨 .
• If condition (1) is satisfied and if 𝑟 𝑛, then the solution is unique.
• If condition (1) is satisfied but 𝑟 𝑛, an infinite number of solutions

exists and 𝑟 unknown variables can be expressed as linear combinations
of the other 𝑛 𝑟 unknown variables, whose values are arbitrary.
Homogenous case:
The homogeneous set Ax 0 is a special case in which b 0.
For this case 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑨 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑨 𝒃] always, and thus the set always has the
trivial solution x 0.
A nonzero solution, in which at least one unknown is nonzero, exists if and

only if 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑨 𝑛.
If 𝑚 𝑛, the homogeneous set always has a nonzero solution.
If the number of equations equals the number of unknowns and if |A| 0,

then the equation set has a solution and it is unique.
If |A| 0 or if the number of equations does not equal the number of

unknowns, then the pseudoinverse method 𝑥 𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑣 𝑨 ∗ 𝑏 gives the
minimum-norm solution (TRY This at home).
Left division method:
MATLAB provides the left-division method for solving the equation set Ax
b. The left-division method is based on Gauss elimination. To use the left-
division method to solve for x, type x = A\b. For example,
will give a solution with some of the unknowns set equal to zero.
Example:
Use the left-division method to solve the following set.
3𝑥 2𝑥 9𝑥 65
9𝑥 5𝑥 2𝑥 16
6𝑥 7𝑥 3𝑥 5
Because A is 3 × 3 and rank(A) = 3, which is the

number of unknowns, a unique solution exists.
Undetermined systems:
An underdetermined system does not contain enough information to solve
for all of the unknown variables, usually because it has fewer equations
than unknowns.
Thus an infinite number of solutions can exist, with one or more of the
unknowns dependent on the remaining unknowns.
𝑥 3𝑦 6
All we can do is to solve for one of the unknowns in terms of the other;
for example, 𝑥 6 3𝑦. An infinite number of solutions satisfy this
equation.
will give a solution with some of the unknowns set equal to zero. For
example,
Example:
Determine the forces in the three equally spaced
supports that hold up a light fixture. The supports
are 5 ft apart. The fixture weighs 400 lb, and its
mass center is 4 ft from the right end. Obtain the
solution using the MATLAB left-division method
and the pseudoinverse method.
𝑇1 𝑇2 𝑇3 400 0 𝑇1 , 𝑇2, 𝑇3 are the tension forces in

400 4 10𝑇1 5𝑇2 0 the supports
𝑇1 𝑇2 𝑇3 400
10𝑇1 5𝑇2 1600
Example:
No variable is
necessary zero
One variable is
always zero
Question:
3𝑥 4𝑥 6𝑥 = 15
2𝑥 8𝑥 12𝑥 = 5
𝑥 7𝑥 61𝑥 = 10
𝑥 is equal to:
a) 4.2638 (correct)
b) 1.2432
c) 0.4965
d) 0.0371
Question:
3𝑥 4𝑥 2𝑥 5
6𝑥 3𝑥 6𝑥 2
6𝑥 8𝑥 4𝑥 3
𝑥 is equal to:
a) 12.134
b) 1.2432
c) 0
d) Inf (correct)
Question:
Q3- Represent the following equations in vector-matrix form 𝐴𝑥 𝑏:
5𝑥 4𝑦 3𝑧 5
4𝑥 3𝑦 2𝑧 23
2𝑥 6𝑦 3𝑧 63
The rank of 𝑐 𝐴 𝑏 and the value of z are?

a) 3, 5.2422 (correct)
b) 3, 3.2825
c) 2, 6.7848
d) 2, Inf
An ill-conditioned set of equations:
An ill-conditioned set of equations is a set of equations close to being
singular.
The ill-conditioned status depends on the accuracy with which the solution
calculations are made.
When the internal numerical accuracy used by MATLAB is insufficient to

obtain a solution, MATLAB prints a message to warn you that the matrix is
close to singular and that the results might be inaccurate.
Example: An ill-conditioned set of equations:
3𝑥 4𝑥 5
6𝑥 8𝑥 2
3𝑥 4𝑥 5
6.000000000000001𝑥 8𝑥 2
Question:
Q4- Use the pseudoinverse method (pinv) to solve the following set of
equations
3𝑥 15𝑥 6𝑥 4
𝑥 2𝑥 3𝑥 10
𝑥 is equal to:
a) 0
b) -4.7879
c) 1.0427 (correct)
d) 3.1214
(GENG-8030)

By:
Lecture number:
(8)
Winter 2022
Numerical methods for calculus and differential equations:
Integral
Integral of f(x) interpreted as the area A under the curve of f(x) from x a
to x b
Integral:
Illustration of (a) rectangular and (b) trapezoidal numerical integration.
Command Description
integral(fun,a,b) Uses an adaptive Simpson’s rule to compute
the integral of the function whose handle is
fun, with ‘a’ as the lower integration limit and
‘b’ as the upper limit.
trapz(x,y) Uses trapezoidal integration to compute the

integral of y with respect to x, where the array
y contains the function values at the points
contained in the array x.
Although the integral function is more accurate than trapz, it is restricted to
computing the integrals of functions and cannot be used when the integrand
is specified by a set of points. For such cases, use the trapz function.
Using the trapz function. Compute the integral


 sin x dx
0
First use 10 panels with equal widths of 𝜋/10. The script file is
The answer is 1.9797, which gives a relative error of 100 ((2 1.9797)/2)
1%.
Script to integrate cos 𝑥2 from 0 to 2𝜋, create the function:
Polynomial integration:
q = polyint(p,C) returns a polynomial q representing the integral of

polynomial p with a user-specified scalar constant of integration C.
For example, the integral of 12𝑥 9𝑥 8𝑥 5 is obtained from 𝑞

𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑡 12,9,8,5 , 10 .
Which corresponds to 3𝑥 3𝑥 4𝑥 5𝑥 10.
Double integrals:
A = integral2(fun, a, b, c, d) computes the integral of 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 from x a to
b, and y c to d.
Here is an example using an anonymous function to represent 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦

𝑥𝑦 .
𝐴 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
Triple integrals:
𝐴 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙3 𝑓𝑢𝑛, 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑓 computes the triple integral of
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 from 𝑥 𝑎 to 𝑏, 𝑦 𝑐 to 𝑑 , and 𝑧 𝑒 to 𝑓.
Here is an example using an anonymous function to represent.
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 .
Question:
Q1-A tank having vertical sides and a bottom area of 100 ft2 is used to store
water. The tank is initially empty. To fill the tank, water is pumped into the
top at the rate given in the following table. Determine the water height h(t)
at t = 10 min.
Time (min) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Flow rate (ft3/min) 0 80 130 150 150 160 165 170 160 140 120
The relation between height h and the volume inflow rate r is

𝑑ℎ 1
100 𝑟 → ℎ 𝑟𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 100
Question:
Q2-An accelerometer is used in aircraft, rockets, and other vehicles to
estimate the vehicle’s velocity and displacement. The accelerometer
integrates the acceleration signal to produce an estimate of the velocity, and
it integrates the velocity estimate to produce an estimate of displacement.
Suppose the vehicle starts from rest at time t = 0, and its measured
acceleration is given in the following table.
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑠 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚/𝑠 0 2 4 9 16 17 24 32 41 48 51
The estimated velocity v after 10s is.
Question:
Q3-Use the integral function to compute the integral
1
𝐴 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
Illustration of three methods for estimating the derivative 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑥.
A backward difference
B forward difference
C central difference
MATLAB provides the diff function to use for computing derivative
estimates. Its syntax is d = diff(x), where x is a vector of values, and the
result is a vector d containing the differences between adjacent elements in
x.
That is, if 𝑥 has n elements, d will have 𝑛 1 elements, where
𝑑 𝑥 2 𝑥 1 ,𝑥 3 𝑥 2 ,...,𝑥 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 1 .
For example, if x = [5, 7, 12, -20], then diff(x) returns the vector [2, 5, -32].
Command Description
b = polyder(p) Returns a vector b containing the coefficients
of the derivative of the polynomial
represented by the vector p.
b = polyder(p1,p2) Returns a vector b containing the coefficients

of the polynomial that is the derivative of
(p1)(p2).
[num, den] = polyder(p2,p1) Returns the vectors num and den containing
the coefficients of the numerator and
denominator polynomials of the derivative
p2/p1
𝑝1 5𝑥 2
𝑝2 10𝑥 4𝑥 3
𝑝 𝑝 50𝑥 40𝑥 7𝑥 6
𝑑 𝑝
20𝑥 4
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑝 𝑝
150𝑥 80𝑥 7
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑝 /𝑝 50𝑥 40𝑥 23

𝑑𝑥 25𝑥 20𝑥 4
An ordinary differential equation (ODE) is an equation containing
ordinary derivatives of the dependent variable. An equation containing
partial derivatives with respect to two or more independent variables is a
partial differential equation (PDE). Solution methods for PDEs are an
advanced topic, and we will not treat them in this text.
The Euler method is the simplest algorithm for numerical solution of a

differential equation.
MATLAB provides several functions, called solvers, such as ode45 and

ode15s functions to solve ODE.
ode45 is used as follows to solve 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑡 𝑓 𝑡, 𝑦
Syntax is: [t,y] = ode45(@ydot,tspan,y0)
where @ydot is the handle of the function file whose inputs must be 𝑡 and 𝑦,
and whose output must be a column vector representing 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑡; that is,
𝑓 𝑡, 𝑦 . The number of rows in this column vector must equal the order of
the equation.
• The array tspan contains the starting and ending values of the independent
variable t, and optionally any intermediate values.
• The array y0 contains the initial values of 𝑦. If the equation is first order,
then y0 is a scalar.
Response of an RC circuit:
The circuit model for zero input voltage v is
𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑡 10𝑦 0 𝑦 0 2
Analytical solution : 𝑦 2𝑒
1.5
0.5
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Time(s)
Nonlinear example:
The equation for the height is
dh 0.0344 h

dt 10h  h 2
Draining of a
spherical tank
10
-2
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Time(s)
To use the ODE solvers to solve an equation higher than order 2, you must
first write the equation as a set of first-order equations.
For example, consider the equation
y  7 y  4 y  sin(t )
5 
Define 𝑥 𝑦 and 𝑥 𝑦. Then the above equation can be expressed as

two equations:
x1  x2
1 4 7
x2  sin(t )  x1  x2
5 5 5
This form is sometimes called the Cauchy form or the state-variable form.
x1  x2
1 4 7
x2  sin(t )  x1  x2
5 5 5
Suppose we want to solve the equation for 0
t 6 with the initial conditions x1(0) 3,
x2(0) 9.
10
4 Plot of x2
2
-2
-4
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Pendulum example:
The pendulum shown consists of a

concentrated mass m attached to a rod
whose mass is small compared to m. The
rod’s length is L. The equation of motion for
this pendulum is
𝑔
𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0
𝐿
Suppose that 𝐿 1 𝑚 and 𝑔 9.81 𝑚/𝑠 .

Use MATLAB to solve this equation for θ 𝑡
if θ 0 0.5 rad.
Pendulum example:
𝑥 𝑥 𝜃
𝑔
𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝐿 2
1.5
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
0 1 2 3 4 5
A mass and spring:
A mass and spring with viscous surface friction. Its equation of motion is
my  cy  ky  f (t )
A mass and spring:
The equation 𝑚𝑦 𝑐𝑦 𝑘𝑦 𝑓 𝑡 of motion can be put into the state
variable form. Assuming 𝑥 𝑦 and 𝑥 𝑦 we have
These can be put into matrix form as shown below.
A mass and spring:
Plot of x1
For 0 𝑡 5, 𝑥 0 0 and 𝑥 0
0 The equations can be solved and the
solution plotted follows.
Plot of x2
Question:
Q4-Use MATLAB to evaluate the following double integral:
𝐴 𝑥 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
Question:
Q5- Use MATLAB to evaluate the following triple integral:
𝐴 𝑥𝑦𝑧𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
Question:
Q6- Use MATLAB to compute and plot the solution of the following
equation. 10𝑦 𝑦 20 7 sin 2𝑡 𝑦 0 15
𝑦 at 𝑡 60 is around:
a y~50
b y~40
c y~30
d y~20 (correct) 21
20
19
18
17
16
15
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Question:
Q7- Plot the position and velocity of a mass with a spring and damping,
having the parameter values 𝑚 2, 𝑐 3, and 𝑘 7. The applied force is
𝑢 35, the initial position is 𝑦 0 2, and the initial velocity is 𝑦 0
3.
The displacement at 𝑡 5 is
a d~4m
b d~5m (correct) 6
c d~6m 5.5
d d~7m 5
4.5
3.5
2.5
1.5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
(GENG-8030)

By:
Lecture number:
(9)
Winter 2022
Simulink:
Simulink is a graphical programming environment for modeling,
simulating and analyzing systems.
Graphical Blocks : Its primary interface is a graphical block diagramming

tool and a customizable set of block libraries.
Simulink is widely used in automatic control and digital signal

processing for simulation and Model-Based Design.
𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑡 10 𝑓 𝑡
Block diagram elements:
(a) The summer element.
(b) Simulation diagram for
𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑡 𝑓 𝑡 10𝑦
The Simulink library browser:
Simulink model for a differential equation:
Use Simulink to solve the following problem for 0 𝑡 10.
𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑡 10𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑦 0 0
The exact solution is 𝑦 𝑡 10 1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 .
Set the Initial

condition to 0
Simulink model for a differential equation:
𝑦 𝑡 10 1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡
Block parameters window:
Note that blocks have a Block Parameters window that opens when you
double-click on the block.
This window contains several items, the number and nature of which
depend on the specific type of block.
In general, you can use the default values of these parameters, except where
we have explicitly indicated that they should be changed.
You can always click on Help within the Block Parameters window to
obtain more information.
Note that most blocks have default labels.
You can edit text associated with a block by clicking on the text and
making changes.
Block parameters window:
You can save the Simulink model as an .slx file by selecting Save from the
File menu in Simulink.
The model file can then be reloaded at a later time.
You can also print the diagram by selecting Print on the File menu.
Simulink model with “Mux” and “To workspace” blocks:
20
15
10
-5
-10
0 2 4 6 8 10
Question:
Q1-Create a Simulink model to plot the solution of the following equation for
0 𝑡 6. 𝑦 7𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝑡 5 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑡 𝑦 0 2 𝑦 0 3
Y at t=6s is equal to:
Both blocks are built by

sin block
Question:
Q2-The following equation has no analytical solution even though it is linear.
𝑥 𝑥 tan 𝑡 𝑥 0 0
The approximate solution, which is less accurate for larger values of t, is
1
𝑥 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 3𝑡 3 3𝑒
3
Create a Simulink model to solve this problem, and compare its solution with the
approximate solution over the range 0 𝑡 1
Linear state variables model:
The following are the equations of motion of the two-mass suspension model
shown below.
𝑚 𝑥 𝑘 𝑥 𝑥 𝑐 𝑥 𝑥
𝑚 𝑥 𝑘 𝑥 𝑥 𝑐 𝑥 𝑥 𝑘 𝑦 𝑥
𝑦 𝑥
𝑦 𝑥
Assuming 𝑧 𝑥 , 𝑧 𝑥 ,
𝑧 𝑥 , 𝑧 𝑥 ,
We have Two-mass
1 suspension model
𝑧 𝑧 , 𝑧 𝑘 𝑧 𝑐 𝑧 𝑘 𝑧 𝑐 𝑧
𝑚
1
𝑧 𝑧 , 𝑧 𝑘 𝑧 𝑐 𝑧 𝑘 𝑘 𝑧 𝑐 𝑧 𝑘 𝑦
𝑚
Linear state variables model:
1
𝑧 𝑧 , 𝑧 𝑘 𝑧 𝑐 𝑧 𝑘 𝑧 𝑐 𝑧
𝑚
1
𝑧 𝑧 , 𝑧 𝑘 𝑧 𝑐 𝑧 𝑘 𝑘 𝑧 𝑐 𝑧 𝑘 𝑦
𝑚
𝒛 𝑨𝒛 𝑩𝑦 𝑡
0 1 0 0 0
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 0 𝑘 𝑐
𝐴 𝐵 𝑎 𝑎
0 0 0 1 0 𝑚 𝑚
𝑘 𝑐
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝑚 𝑚
𝑦 𝑪𝒛 𝑫𝑢 𝑡 𝑘
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝑚
1 0 0 0 0
𝐶 𝐷
0 0 1 0 0
Question:
Q3-The input 𝑦 𝑡 is a unit step function,
and the initial conditions are zero. Use the
following values to determine the
response for a two-mass suspension
model.
𝑚 250 𝑘𝑔, 𝑚 40 𝑘𝑔,
𝑘 1.5 10 , 𝑘 1.5
10 𝑁/𝑚, and 𝑐 1917 𝑁 𝑠/𝑚.
x1
x2
Question:
x1
x2
Simulink model example of a rocket-propelled sled:
The rocket thrust initially is horizontal, but the
engine accidentally pivots during firing and rotates
with an angular acceleration of 𝜃 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 .
Compute the sled’s velocity 𝑣 for 0 𝑡 10 if
𝑣 0 0. The rocket thrust is 4000 N and the sled
mass is 450 kg.
𝐹 𝑚𝑎 4000 cos 𝜃 𝑡 450 𝑣 𝜋
𝜋 𝜋 4000𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡 450 𝑣
𝜃 𝑡 𝜃𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑡 100
100 100
80 𝜋
𝑣 𝑡 cos 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
9 100
No closed-form solution is available for the integral, which is called
Fresnel’s cosine integral.
Model of a Rocket-propelled Sled
𝜃 𝜃 𝑣
𝜃 𝑣 𝑡
𝜋 𝜋
t 𝑡 𝜋
50 100 cos 𝑡
100
Velocity
Transfer function response:
Response
Transient Steady
state
Input
Transfer function response and PID controller:
my  cy  ky  f (t )
Taking the Laplace transform of the governing equation, we get
𝑚𝑠 𝑌 𝑠 𝑐𝑠𝑌 𝑠 𝑘𝑌 𝑠 𝐹 𝑠
The transfer function between the input force F(s) and the output
displacement Y(s) then becomes
𝑌 𝑠 1
𝐹 𝑠 𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑠 𝑘
For instance if m=1 kg, c= 10 N s/m, k=20 N/m, then
𝑌 𝑠 1
𝑃 𝑠
𝐹 𝑠 𝑠 10𝑠 20
Input
Output
Output
Warning: Output is not following the input
Input
Output
Note: Output is now following the input

Electric circuits response:
Electric circuits response (AC input):
Current Voltage
Current Voltage
Electric circuits response (DC input):
R-Current Voltage
L-Current C-Current
R-Current L-Current
Electric circuits response (DC input):
C-Current Voltage
Electric circuits response (Non-linear input):
R-Current Voltage
C-Current
L-Current
Input
𝑉 𝑡 100sin 20𝜋𝑡 0 𝑡 3
Input
𝑉 𝑡 𝑡 100sin 20𝜋𝑡 3 𝑡
Electric circuits response (Non-linear input):
Input R-Current
C-Current

Computational Methods and Modeling For Engineering Applications (GENG-8030)

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Computational Methods and Modeling For Engineering Applications (GENG-8030)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Computational Methods and Modeling for

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,

Graduate assistants and markers:

The presented topics:

o Fundamentals and practices of MATLAB coding,

After passing this course:

Method of evaluation From final grade

o Mohammad Sedigh Toulabi, “GENG-8030 course notes,” 2021.

First Parentheses, evaluated starting with the innermost pair.

Second Exponentiation, evaluated from left to right.

Multiplication and division with equal precedence, evaluated

Addition and subtraction with equal precedence, evaluated

>> 3*4^2 + 5 ans = 53

>>(3*4)^2 + 5 ans = 149

a) 0.05, 0.3162 (correct)

Q2-The answer to compute the following expression, 3^4-11-8/4∗2, using

: Colon; generates an array having regularly spaced elements.

, Comma; separates elements of an array.

The number c1 1 2i is entered as follows: c1 = 1-2i.

format short Four decimal digits (the default); 13.6745.

format bank Two decimal digits; 126.73.

The numbers 0, 0.1, 0.2, …, 1 can be assigned to the variable u by typing u =

To find the roots of x3 – 3x2 + 20x – 14 = 0, the session is

𝑐𝑜𝑠 0 : 0.01: 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 100

1. 101, 1.24 (correct)

(a) correct (b)

B) By running a MATLAB program stored in

Program errors usually fall into one of the

2. Errors due to an incorrect

Q9- The volume of a sphere can be

Example for plot

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,

You can create vectors by ''appending'' one vector to another.

To create a row vector z consisting of the values from 7 to 8 in steps of 0.1,

If the increment q is omitted, it is presumed to be 1. Thus typing y = -3:2

For example, linspace(7,8,11) is equivalent to 7:0.1:8.

If n is omitted, the spacing is 1.

The logspace command creates an array of logarithmically spaced elements.

For example, x = logspace(-2,2,4) produces the vector x = [0.1000, 0.2154,

If n is omitted, the number of points defaults to 50.

The length command gives the number of elements in the vector.

The magnitude of a vector x having elements x1, x2, …, xn is a scalar, given by

Suppose a = [1,3,5] and b = [7,9,11] (row vectors). Note the difference

Remember, spaces or commas separate elements in different columns,

Computes either the number of elements of A if A is a vector or the

Returns the algebraically largest element in A if A is a vector.

size(A) Returns a row vector [m n] containing the sizes of the m n array A.

Multiplying a matrix A by a scalar w produces a matrix whose elements are the

Multiplication of an array by a scalar is easily defined and easily carried out.

However, multiplication of two arrays is not so straightforward.

MATLAB uses two definitions of multiplication:

(1) array multiplication (also called element-by-element multiplication), and

(2) matrix multiplication.

Symbol Operation Form Examples

Scalar-array addition A+B [6,3]+2=[8,5]

Scalar-array subtraction A-B [8,3]-5=[3,-2]

Array addition A+B [6,5]+[4,8]=[10,13]

Array subtraction A-B [6,5]-[4,8]=[2,-3]

.∗ Array multiplication A.*B [3,5].*[4,8]=[12,40]

./ Array right division A./B [2,5]./[4,8]=[2/4,5/8]

.\ Array left division A.\B [2,5].\[4,8]=[2\4,5\8]

The product w = x.*y is:

.∗ Array multiplication A.B [3,5].[4,8]=[12,40]