Developmental biology

Sexual reproduction (Amphimixis)

Flowers are the reproductive structures of angiosperm plants. Flowers are produced in plant
during its reproductive phase. It consists of sterile parts calyx and corolla, meant for protection
and the fertile parts Androecium and Gynoecium. Androecium is the male reproductive part and
Gynoecium is the female reproductive part.
Male reproductive part
Male reproductive part in flower is stamen. It consists of an anther attached at the top of
filament. The mature anther is four lobed. Each lobe contains a pollen sac or microsporangium.
The internal structure of anther shows following structures.

• Epidermal layer: Outermost single layer of protective cells.

• Endothecium: It is a single layer below epidermis. It consists of large, thin-walled cells
which break down when the anther matures and break down.
• Middle layer: The tissue after the endothecium that fills up the whole anther is middle
layer. It breaks down when the anther matures to provide nutrition to the developing
microspore.
• Tapetum: The single layer of elongated cells that surround the spororgenous tissue is
tapetum. It absorbs nutrients for developing microspores.
• Sporogenous tissue: The cells of this tissue take part in the formation of microspores
(pollen grains).

Microsporogenesis
The process of formation of microspores or pollen grains from sporogenous tissue is known as
microsporogenesis. The cells of the sporogenous tissue undergo mitosis to increase the no. of
cells, each of which is known as spore mother cell. Each of these cells undergoes meiosis to form
4 haploid microspores. The 4 haploid microspores separate and develop thick wall around it. The
wall is two layered, outer exine and inner entine. The exine is tough and provided with spinous
outgrowths. The entine is thin, delicate and made of cellulose. There are one or more thin place
called germ pores.

Male gametophyte
Microspores develop into male gametophyte. The nuclei of pollen grain divide mitotically to
produce small generative cell and large vegetative (tube) cell. The pollen grains are released in
this stage by breaking anther wall and pollination occurs. After pollination the pollen grains
swells and exine ruptures at germ pore. The tube cell grows out in the form of tube along with
intine through germ pore. The tube nucleus lies at the tip of pollen tube and regulates the growth
of pollen tube.The generative cell divides into two equal cells which act as male gametes. The
male gametophyte is represented by pollen tube with two male gametes and tube nucleus.

Female reproductive part

The female reproductive part in angiosperm is called carpel. It consists of an ovary, style and
stigma. The ovary consists of one or more ovules (Megasporangium)
Structure of ovule (Megasporangium) and megasporogenesis
An ovule arise from the base of the ovary. It is attached to the ovary by a short stalk called
funicle. The point of attachment of body of ovule to the funicle is called hilum. A young ovule
consists of uniform mass of cells called nucellus. As the ovule grows, two protective layer called
integuments grow up from the base of nucellus and surround it leaving a small opening called
micropyle at one end. The region just opposite of micropyle is called chalaza.

One cell of nucellus near micropyle functions as megaspore mother cell. Other remaining
nucellus cells works as the wall of megasporangium. The megaspore mother cell undergoes
meiosis and produce four haploid linear cells. Among these four haploid cells, only 1 cell act as
megaspore, other 3 cells break down and become non-functional.
Female gametophyte
The megaspore develops to gemale gametophyte or embryo sac. The functional megaspore
enlarges and undergoes 3 successive mitotic divisions to produce 8 nuclei, 4 nuclei at each pole
of the cell. One nuclei from each pole migrate toward center and fuse to give rise to secondary
nuclei or central cell. Remaining 3 nuclei in the micropylar end form egg apparatus. Among
these 3 cells, central one is egg cell and other 2 cells on its side are called synergids, which are
considered to produce certain chemicals that help to direct the growth of pollen tube towards the
egg. Remaining 3 nuclei at the opposite of micropylar end differentiates into antipodal cells.
They help to provide nutrition by breaking down for the developing zygote.

Pollination and fertilization

Pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma of same flower or different
flower is called pollination. It is of two types.
• Self pollination
• Cross pollination
Self pollination (Autogamy): The transfer of pollen grains from anther of a flower to stigma of
a same or genetically similar flower (flower of the same plant) is self pollination. The self
pollinating flowers are genetically small, colourless, odourless, and nectarless. Self pollination
may occur in open flower (chasmogamous flower) or closed flower (cleistogamous flower). It is
of three types
 • Homogamy: The transfer of pollen grain from the anther of a bisexual flower to the stigma
of the same flower is called homogamy. The anther and stigma of a bisexual flower
mature simultaneously and the pollen grains reach stigma either by contact or by other
external agencies like wind, rain, insects etc. It may be of following types
o Direct autogamy: Self pollination brought about by the contact of anther and
stigma due to movement of floral parts on account of growth, bending or folding.
Eg. Cotton plant, potato, mirabilis.
o Indirect autogamy: Self pollination brought about by external agencies like rain
wind, insects etc. Eg. Caltha, Lilac
• Cleistogamy: Self pollination that occur on a closed bisexual flower is called cleistogamy.
Eg. Ground nut, pea etc.
• Geitonogamy: The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of one flower to
the stigma of another flower of the same plant is called geitonogamy. External agencies
like wind or insect is required.
Advantages of self pollination
• Parental characters are preserved for long period of time.
• Pure lines for experimental hybridization are maintained.
• Small no. of pollen grain is sufficient.
• External agencies are not required.
Disadvantages of self pollination
• Harmful characters cannot be removed.
• New characters cannot be introduced.
• It does not cause any variation. So plants become less adapted to change in environment.
• The plant is less resistance to diseases and pests.
Cross Pollination (Allogamy): The transfer of pollen grains from the anther of one flower to the
stigma of genetically different flower (flower of different plant) is cross pollination. The flower
may be of same or different species. External agencies like wind, water, animals are required for
pollination. It occurs in open flower. On the basis of pollinating agent or vector, it is of following
types
• Anemophily: Cross pollination brought about by wind is called anemophily and the
flowers are known as anemophilous flower. Eg. Maize, Cannabis etc. The features of
anemophilous flowers (Conditions for anemophily) are
o Flowers are small
o Stamens are long and hang outside the flower
o Pollen grains are produced in large quantity
o Pollen grains are small, light, dry and non-sticky
o Stigmas are large, broad, feathery and well exposed to catch the pollen grains.
• Hydrophily: Cross pollination brought about by water is called hydrophily and the flowers
are known as hydrophilous flowers. Eg. Hydrilla. Vallisnaria etc. It occurs mostly in
aquatic plants. The features of hydrophilous flowers are :
o The flowers are small and inconspicuous.
o The flowers lack scent, colour and nectar.
o Pollen grains and stigmas are unwettable.
o Stigma is sticky.
• Zoophily: Cross pollination brought about by animals is called zoophily. It is of different
types.
o Entomophily: Cross pollination brought about by insects like bee, ants etc. The
insect pollinated flowers are entomophilous flower. Eg. Sunflower
o Ornithophily: Cross pollination brought about by birds. Eg. Bombax
o Chirepterophily: Cross pollination brought about by bats. Eg. Anthocephalus
cadamba
o Malacophily: Cross pollination brought about by snails. Eg. Colocassia
o Controlled hand pollination: Pollination brought about by man to ensure cross
pollination between selected varieties.
Conditions for cross pollination
• Unisexuality: Flowers are unisexual. male and female flowers are separate.
• Dichogamy: In dichogamy, male and female flowers mature at different time. It is of two
types
o Protandry: Anthers mature earlier than stigma of same flower. Eg. Sunflower,
rose
o Protogyny: Stigma mature earlier than anthers of same flower. Eg. Ranunculus,
magnolia
• Suppression of one sex: In some bisexual flowers, one of the two sex organ (stamen or
carpel) is completely suppressed and become sterile.
• Self sterility: Pollen grain of a flower cannot germinate on the stigma of same flower. Eg.
Potato, tomato.
• Heterostyly: Occurrence of two or more than two types of flowers having different length
of styles and stamens. Eg. Oxalis
• Herkogamy: In herkogamy, certain physical barriers between anther and stigma prevent
self pollination. Eg. In calotropis the pollen grains are present in a sac like structure
called pollinium.
Advantages of cross pollination
• Undesirable or defective characters are removed.
• New and useful characters are introduced.
• It may lead to the formation of new varieties and species.
• It increases adaptability of varieties toward the environment.
• More seeds are produced after cross pollination.
• Plants are more resistant to diseases and pests.

Disadvantages of cross pollination

• Dependent on external agencies
• Large no. of pollen grains are necessary
• It is not a sure and certain process
• Useful characters may spoil.
• Undesirable characters may remain.
Fertilisation
Fertilisation is the process of fusion of male and female gametes. After pollination, the pollen
grains deposited on the stigma germinate and the growth of pollen tube takes place. A pollen
tube is a tube like outgrowth of the pollen grain that grows down to the ovule through the style
and transports male gametes to the ovule. The generative cell of anther divides to form two male
gametes. The two male gametes grow through the tissues of stigma and style and reach up to the
embryo sac, which is directed by synergid cells by producing chemicals.
Path of pollen tube
The pollen tube that carry two male gametes reach up to the egg present in the embryo sac by
any one of the following 3 pathways.
• Porogamy: The pollen tube enters ovule directly through micropyle.
• Chalazogamy: The pollen tube enters the ovule through chalaza.
• Mesogamy: The pollen tube enters the ovule through the funiculus or integument and then
follow the path through micropyle.
Gametic fusion
The pollen tube consists of two male gametes. When the pollen tube reaches embryo, it burst to
release two male gametes. One male gamete fuses with egg cell to form zygote. This process of
fusion is known as syngamy. The zygote develops into an embryo which is a future plant. Other
male gamete fuses with central cell. It is also known as triple fusion and the product is triploid
cell that develop into nutritive tissue endosperm.
Thus in an endosperms fertilization occur two times (syngamy and triple fusion). This is known
as double fertilization (The fusion of one male gamete with the egg and other male gamete with
the secondary nuclei or central cell).
After fertilization, the antipodal cells and synergid cells breakdown and provide nutrition for
developing zygote.
Development of embryo
After double fertilization, ovule develops into seed and ovary develops into fruit. The fertilized
eggs grows to embryo.
Dicot embryo
The zygote undergoes transverse mitotic division into small apical cell and large basal cell. The
basal cell divides to form a row of 7-8 cells called suspensor. The function of suspensor is to
transfer food materials from mother plant to growing embryo. The suspensor disintegrates when
embryo becomes mature. The apical cell divides transversely and longitudinally producing eight
cells in two rows of four cells called octant stage. Further division give rise to globular
proembryo. It consists of outer single layered dermatogen covering mass of cells inside. Further
development produces a mature embryo. It consists of plumule, radicle and two cotyledons.

Monocot embryo
The zygote undergoes transverse division to form small terminal
cell and a large basal cell. The basal cell lies towards the
micropylar end and act as suspensor. Terminal cell divides by a
transverse division to form two cells and give rise to 3 celled
proembryo. The lowermost cell divides vertically and middle
cell divides transversely. It undergoes further division to form
octant stage. The octant stage later develop into a simple
terminal cotyledon. The suspensor cell give rise to plumule and
radicle.

Asexual reproduction (Apomixis)

It is the process in which an organism reproduces without fusion of two gametes. It is also
known as vegetative reproduction. New plants are formed from vegetative parts of plant like
root, stem, leaf etc. It is the only method of multiplication in those plants which do not flower
and seed naturally. It is of two types
• Natural vegetative reproduction
• Artificial vegetative reproduction
Natural vegetative reproduction
It is the process in which the plants propagate and reproduce naturally. It takes place from
following ways.
• Roots: Roots swell due to storage of food on which adventitious buds arise. These buds
develop into new plant after separating from parent plant. Eg. Sweet potato
• Underground stems:
o Rhizomes: Rhizomes are the underground prostrate stem with nodes and
internodes. On the nodes buds arise that grows into a new plant. Eg. Ginger,
bamboo, banana, turmeric
o Corm: It is an underground vertical stem with nodes and internodes. They are
covered with scale leaves and serves as organ for food storage. Buds arise from
the scale leaves which grow into new corm. Eg. Colocassia
o Tuber: Tuber is a swollen portion of an underground branch of stem. The tuber is
marked by depression called eye on which buds develop that give rise to new
plant eg. Potato
o Suckers: They are the short underground stem branches at the base of aerial
shoot. When these suckers are separated a no. of independent plants are developed
e.g. Mint.
o Bulb: It is an underground stem with reduced size, which is surrounded by a
thick fleshy scale leaves that protect buds. Each bud will produce a new bulb. Eg.
Onion
• Aerial stems: Some aerial stems of plant possess several buds with sufficient water and
stored food. These parts can form new plants when detached and planted. E.g Sugarcane
• Bulbils: they are specialized fleshy buds found on axils of leaves/fruits. Bulbils form new
plants when they fall on the ground. E.g. Pineaple
• Leaves: Some leaves produce adventitious buds. When these leaves fall on the soil new
plants are developed from adventitious buds. E.g. Bryophyllum
Artificial vegetative propagation: It is the process of vegetative propagation carried out by
human beings to produce plants vegetatively. It includes cutting, layering, grafting, gootee, tissue
culture etc.
• Cutting: It is the simple and most widely used method for artificial propagation. In this
method, vegetative parts of a plant are removed by cutting. The cut parts are placed in
soil from where root develops and lateral buds grow into stem. Eg. Rose, sugarcane
• Layering: Stems of many plants produces roots and new shoot when it comes in contact
with soil. Such stems are then detached from the plant to develop into new plant. This
process is called layering. In layering stems are bent to the ground and covered with soil
keeping the tip exposed. Bark of a small portion of stem is usually removed before the
stem is covered which helps to grow roots efficiently. After root formation stem is
detached.
• Gootee (Air layering): It is used for the plants with hard branches that cannot be bent up to
the ground. In this process an injury is made in the branch. The injury is covered with
grafting clay and then with moisture proof plastic. Roots grow after few weeks. The
branch is separated and planted.
• Grafting: It is the process of joining one part of plant to the rooted stem of other closely
related plant. The plant used for root system is known as stock and the other part used for
aerial part is known as scion. On the basis of preparation of stock and scion, grafting are
of following types.
o Whip/tongue/slice grafting: In whip grafting, the stock and scion are obliquely
cut with a notch.
o Wedge grafting: In wedge grafting, the stock is cut in a V shape and scion is cut
like wedge.
o Crown grafting: In crown grafting, many scions are placed around the stock.
o Side grafting: In side grafting only one scion is inserted in the side of a stock.
 o Approach grafting: In approach grafting, both stock and scion plants are injured
at equal level and the injured parts are joined with the help of grafting wax and
tied with rope. When the connection is established, scion is cut from below and
stock from above the grafting area. Thus shoot system of desired variety grows on
the root system of another variety.
o Bud grafting: In bud grafting, the scion consists of a bud only. In this method, the
bark of the stock is incised in the area of incision. Grafting wax is then applied
and bud scion is firmly tied. All the buds of stock plant are removed so that they
are not able to compete with grafted bud.
• Tissue culture: It is a process of plant propagation in which a plant tissue is cultured in an
artificially prepared nutrient medium under controlled laboratory condition. This method
is also known as micro-propagation.
Advantages of vegetative propagation
• It is easier, quicker and less expensive method.
• Parental characters are preserved.
• It is the only method of reproduction in plants which do not produce seeds.
• Large no. of plants can be obtained by vegetative propagation
• Disease free plants can be obtained by tissue culture.
Disadvantages
• The quality of the plants cannot be improved.
• Offsprings do not show any genetic variation
• Unwanted characters cannot be removed.