Overview of CAD/CAM

CAD (Computer Aided Design):-

It can be defined as the use of computer to assist creation, modification, synthesis analysis
and/or optimization of design

CAM(Computer Aided Manufacturing):-

It can be defined as use of computer system to assist, to plan, to manage & control the
manufacturing operation through the direct or indirect computer interface with the manufacturing
machine

Application of computers in design

Recognisance of Need:-
Every design process starts with recognisance of need or identification of defect.
Recognisance of need is outcome of either of requirement or dis containment of existing system. It
is highly creating act and computer system doesn’t make any role in this phase.

Definition of Problems:-
Definition of problems involves through specification for item to be designed. This
specification fir item to be designed. This specification includes physical & functional characteristic
for example cost, quality,& Operating performance.

Synthesis:-
Once the problem is defined the next step is synthesis. The synthesis is the process of
selecting the mechanism (Configuration) of the system material, size and shape of the component so
as to get a desired output with the given input. It involves number of iteration(repeatations).
In CAD the geometrics modelling is used to asses the synthesis .
Geometric modelling defined as the complete representation of object(system),with the graphics or
non-graphical information. IT generates the mathematical description of geometry & non geometry
of an object on graphic screen. The Image (model)can be 2D or 3D. In 3D modelling one has the
option of 3D wireframe surface ,Solid-modelling .As the geometric model is stored in the computer
database , it can be easily modified or utter any number of times

Analysis and optimization:-

Every synthesis must be followed by analysis The analysis is critically examining & already
existing or proposed design in order to judge it’s suitability to task. Analysis determines whether
the performance complies with requirement. All possible solution are analysed & optimum is
selected.
Different types of analysis are
1. Stress vs Strain
2. Kinematic
 3. Vibration
4. Thermal
5. Fluid How etc.

In CAD , the engineering analysis of complicated object can be carried out in shortest time
by using engineering analysis software Finite Element Analysis (FEA) where analysis is carried out
on geometric model of system & output is presented in the texture as well as graphical form on the
graphic screen.

Evaluation:-
It is the measuring of design against the specification set in the definition of problems . It
often requires fabrication & testing of prototype to asses performance quality & relatability .It is the
final proof of successful design. The fabrication & testing of prototype is time consulting & costly.
In cad the geometric model is created on the computer & evaluation is done by using simulated
software. The design review can be carried out by features by automatic interference checking
between the component of assembly .

Presentation:-
Presentation of design is the final phase in the design process. The design is presented by
drawing , part list, material specification etc. In CAD, automated drafting involves the creation of
hard copy engineering drawing directly from CAM database ,The 3D solid model of an object can
be viewed on the graphic screen from any given orientation. The visualization can be enhanced by
using different colours & shapes .The CAD also generates information like part list, Material
specification etc directly from geometric model.

Benefits of CAD/CAM:-
Productivity improvement in design:-
CAD helps in the design productivity by reducing the time required for developing
conceptional design analysis & drafting . It is also possible to reduce manpower requirement

Shorter Lead Times:-

CAD is inherently faster than traditional manual design process .It reduces the number of
iterations & speed up the task of preparing bill of material. Using CAD system, a finish set of
drawings & documentation can be prepared in a relatively shorter time. Shorter lead time in design
results in reduction of the ellasped time between customer order & delivery of finished product.

Flexibility in design:-
Apart from generating design with improved accuracy ,CAD offers the advantages of easy
modification of design to accommodate customer specific requirement.
Design Analysis:-
The design analysis routine available in CAD system help to optimise the design. The use of
analysis software reduces the time & improves Design accuracy & reduces the material calculations
of mass properties can be made almost instantaneously.

Fewer design errors:-

Interactive CAD system have building capacity for avoiding errors in design,drafting &
documentation. Errors are further avoided because interactive CAD system perform time
consuming & repeatative function such as multiple symbol placement.

Standardization of design drafting & documentation:-

The CAD system provide single database for design , analysis & drafting process with
interactive CAD: Drawing are standardise as they are drawn. It is also possible to reuse module in
developing range of products. Drawing are more understandable with the line in use of 3Dview &
solid modelling to comprihent the feature of the component readily. Many software packages allows
3D-views generation from 2D-model.This has several advantages in manufacturing point of view.

Improved Procedures of Engineering Changes:-

Control & implementable of engineering changes can be signification improved with CAD.
Original drawing & reports are available revision information can be retained & new drawing wih
changes can be created without destroying previous features.
 Geometric Modelling Technique
Computer aided design and drafting (CADD) is a powerful technique to create the drawings.
Traditionally, the components and assemblies are represented in drawings with the help of
elevation, plan, and end views and cross sectional views. In the early stages of development of
CADD, several software packages were developed to create such drawings using computers.

GEOMETRIC MODELLING:-
Computer representation of the geometry of a component using software is called a
geometric model. Geometric modelling is done in three principal ways.
They are:
i. Wire frame modelling
ii. Surface modelling
iii. Solid modelling
These modelling methods have distinct features and applications.

WIRE FRAME MODELLING:-

In wire frame modelling the object is created by using 2-D entities such as point, Straight
line, Poly line, Curves, Circles etc. The object is represented by its edges. The model appears like
a frame constructed out of the wire & hence it is called wire frame model.
The wireframe model can be classified into
1. 2D – Wireframe modelling :- It is suitable for flat objects.
2. 2 1/2D wire frame modelling :- It represents so objects as long as it does not have side wall
details.
3. 3D wire frame modelling :- It is used for 3D representation of objects with side wall details.

In the case of complex parts wire frame models can be confusing. Some clarity can be
obtained through hidden line elimination. Though this type of modelling may not provide
unambiguous understanding of the object, this has been the method traditionally used in the 2-D
representation of the object, where orthographic views like plan, elevation, end view etc are used to
describe the object graphically.

Advantages:-
1. Wireframe models are simple are simple to construct
2. Wireframe models requires less memory for storage as compare to surface & solid models.
3. Wireframe model forms basic for 3D modelling
 4. The computing time is required to retrieve/edit/update a wireframe model is less as compare
to surface or solid

Limitations:-

1. It is very difficult & time consuming to generate the wireframe model require for
complicated object
2. Creation of wireframe model require more input data, compare to that of solid models.
3. The wireframe model of complicate objects are confusing to the view for interpretation,
especially if their is no automatic hidden removal facility.
4. It is not possible to calculate the properties such as mass, volume, moment of inertia etc.
5. The wireframe models are of limit use from the point of view of engineering applications.
They are not suitable for applications such as generating cross section ,checking interference
between mating parts. NC tool path generation & process planning.
6. The wireframe model of an object is most ambiguous representation than its surface
(complicated) & solid model.

SURFACE MODELLING:-
In this approach, a component is represented by its surfaces which in turn are represented by
their vertices and edges. Modelling of curves and surfaces are essential to describe an object that
comes across mech engineering, aerospace product design and automotive design.
Surfaces are the basic building blocks in manufacturing codes for auto mobile panels,Aircraft bulbs
heads and the complex doubly curved shapes of aerospace structures , Marine structure,Consumer
products like plastic containers, and Engineering products like mix flow impellers , foundry
patterns, dies and moulds.

Advantages :-
1. In graphics this helps to create the shaded images of product.
2. In manufacturing surface model helps to generate the NC tool path for complex shaped
components that are encountered in aerospace structure, dies & bolts and automobile panels.
3. The surface models provide the better visulisation as compare to wireframe model.
4. The surface model of an object it is more complicated and less ambiguos
5. Surface model makes possible to calculate such as mass & volume.
Limitations:-
1. The surface model are more complex & hence require more computation time and computer
memory storage compare to wireframe model.
2. The surface model requires more training & math background on the part of user.
3. Some times the surface models are awkward to create & required manipulation wireframe
entities. for example with hole in it may have created with the help of wireframe of entities.

Surface Modelling Technique

Plane Surface: -
Plane surface is defined by 3 non coincident point. It is simplest surface.

Ruled (lofted) surface: -

A lofted surface is formed by two boundary curves (Rials) which are wireframe entities.The
corresponding two boundary points are joined by straight line & surface between them is obtained
by linear interpolation.

Linear sweep (Tabulated Surface): -

Creating a plane surface by linear sweep of line. It is translation of line or profile through
certain distance perpendicular to profile.

Revolving Surface: -
Revolving the straight line about an axis, cylindrical, Conical surface etc can be generated
by this technique.

Combination of plane surface: -

The wedge shape part can be generated with 6 surfaces.

Analytical Surfaces: -
Planes, Cylinders, Cones, Ellipsoid, Parabolic, Hyperbolic etc. Can be defined by
mathematical equation interms of X,Y & Z co-ordinates

Sculptured Surfaces/ Free Formed: -

Surfaces created by spline curve in one or both direction in 3D-Space.These surfaces are
used in manufacturing of car body, panel, aircraft structure, mixed flow empelor , plastic container,
several consumer in engineering products.
Representation of curves & Surfaces
1) Generic form
2) Parametric form
The curves and surfaces are describe & represented by set of equation. These equation.
These equation can be categorised into two forms.

Generic form: -
In which any generic point(X, Y, Z) satisfy relationship in implicit from in X, Y & Z that is
function of f(x, y, z)=0.This is a single constraint. The implicit form is convenient for 2D-Curve of
1st & 2nd order. Typically curves that can be cover line, arc & circle.
A single constraint describe a surface while two if considered together can form a curve
which is intersection of two surfaces. This may be expressed in explicit form in the following
manner.
x = g1(y, z)
y = g2(x, z)
z = g3(x, y)

Parametric form: -
A parametric curves is one who is defining equation in simple, common independent
variable know as. In this form representation is done by function. The curve may be represented by
x = x(u)
y = y(u)
z = z(u)
where x , y, z are co ordinates of point on curve, u is some parameter of which x, y, z are the
functions and the parametric variable is constraint in the interval. u ε(0,1)

Feature of Parametric form: -

1. Separation of variable.
2. Each variable is treated alike.
3. More degree of freedom/control.
4. Parametric equation can be transfer directly.
5. Infinite slopes can be handled with computational break down.
6. Easy to express as vector.
7. Responsive to plotting & digitizing.
8. Inherently bounded.
Design of curved shapes: -
1. It should satisfies following requirement.
2. Mathematical representation of shapes to be possible
3. Modelling of shapes should involve mini computation
4. It should be possible to generate CNC program to machining or to prepared a mould or die ,
make the part as in plastic injection moulding or casting etc

Design Approaches: -
Interpolation approach is one which essentially tries to pass a curve on a surface through all given
data point called interpolant.
Approximation approach
In Approximation approach application tries to pass through smooth curve from surface which
may be close to given data points. But may not actually passes through them.

Cubic Splines
This class of spline is most often used to set up paths for objects motion or to provide representation
for an existing object or drawing , interception splines are used to design the object shape.
Parametric splines curves are defined as piece voice polynomial curves when a certain order of
continuity. A polynomial of degree N has continuity of derivation of order (N-1).Para cubic splines
are used to interpolate to given data points not to design free from curves.
Given a set of control points cubic interpolation splines are obtain by fitting the input points
with a piecewise polynomial curve that passes through every control point . The parametric cubic
spline to connect points & utilises cubic equation .Therefore 4 condition are required to determine
the coefficient of equation.
We can describe the parametric cubic polynomial that is to be fitted between each pair of control
points with following set of equations.
x(u) = c3xu3 + c2xu2 + c1xu + c0x
y(u) = c3yu3 + c2yu2 + c1yu + c0y
z(u) = c3zu3 + c2zu2 + c1zu + c0z
The parametric equation for cubic line is given by
p(u) = Σ CiUi

Advantages : -
1. Cubic Polynomial offers reasonable compromise between flexible & speed of computation.
2. Compare to higher order polynomial cubic spline require less calulation & storage and
memory & they are more stable compared to lower order polynomial cubic splines are more
flexible for modelling
Bezier Curve
Bezier curve is defined in terms of location of (n+1) points. These points are call data or
control points. They form the vertices of what is called control or Bezier shape curve which
uniquely defined curve shape . Only first and last control points or vertices lie on the curve. The
other vertices define the order derivatives & shape of the curve. The curve is also always tangent to
the 1st and last polygon segment.
In addition the curve shape tends to follow the polygon shape. These 3 observation enable to
user to sketch or predict the curve shape once its control points are given
P(u) = ΣpiBi, n(u)
0 <= u <= 1
Order of defining the control points changes the resulting curve concequently. The arrow
provided on each curve is defined by the following polynomial of deg
P(u) = Σ piBi, n(u)
0 <= u <= 1
When P(u) is any point on the curve and pi is a control point Bi,n are the Bertern
Polynomial. The Bernstein polynomial serves as the blending or basis function for the Bezier curve
& is given by
Bi,n(u) = c(n,i)ui(1-u)(n-1)
c(n, i ) -+ Binomial coefficient

Advantages of Bezier Curve

The shape of Bezier curve is controlled by its defining points only. 1 st derivative & not used
in the curve development as in case of cubic spline as this allows the relationship between
Input(lines) 7 output(curves).The order or the degree of Bezier curve is variable & is related to the
number of points defining it. (n+1) points defined nth degree curve which permits higher order
continuity. This is not the case for cubic for the spline where the degree always cubic for the spline
segment. The cubic spline because it has higher order derivatives.

Disadvantages
The curve doesn’t pass through control points which may be inconvenient for some
designers. The curve lacks the local control. It only has global control nature. If one control points
is changes. Therefore the designed can not selectively changes. Therefore the designed can not
selectively change the part of curve.
Characteristics or properties of Bezier Curve
1. The curve interpolates the first and last control points that is it passes through P0 and Pn
2. The curve is tangent , to the 1st and last segment of charterers
3. The curve is symmetric with respect to u & (1-u).This means that the sequance of control
points defining the curve can be reversed without change of curve shape that is reversing the
direction of parametrization doesn't change the curve shape.
4. Each control point is most influential on the curve shape, therefore each control points is
weighed by it’s blending function for each u value
5. The curve shape can be modified by either changing one or more vertices of it’s polygon or
by keeping the polygon fix & specifying multiple coincides points at vertex.
6. Closed Bezier curve can sample generated by closing it’s charterer polygon or choosing P0
& Pn to be coincident.

B-Spline Curve

1. B-spline curves provide another effective method besides that of Bezier of generating curves
defined by polygon.
2. In facts, B-spline curves have proper & powerful generation Bezier curve .In additional to
sharing most of advantages of Bezier curve they have following advantages.
3. They provide local control of curve shape as opposed the global control by using spatial set
of bending function that provides local influence.
4. They also provide the ability to add control points without increasing the degree of curve:
5. B-spline curve has ability to interpolate or approximate the given set of data points.
Interpolation is useful in displaying or engineering results such as stress & displacement
distribution in a part while approximation is good to is useful when the designer is having
major
6. In contrast to Bezier curve the theory of B-spline curve the theory of B-spline curve
separates the degree of resulting curve from the given control points .while 4 control points
always control cubic Bezier curve. They can generate linear, quadratic /cubic B-spline
curve. This flexibility in degree of resulting curve is achieved by choosing basic (blending
function) of B-spline curve with an additional degree of freedom that did not exist in
Bustian polynomial (Bezier curve).This basic function of B-spline, Thus the name B-spline
curve.
Similar to Bezier curve a B spline is defined by (n+1) control point & is given by the equation
p(μ) = Σ PiNiK(μ)
0<= μ <= μ max
PiNiK(μ) are B-spline function K is control the deg(K-1),of the resulting B-spline curve.
Characteristics & properties of B-spline Curve

1. The local control of the curve can be achieved by changing the position of control point,
using multiple control point, using multiple characters by placing several points at the same
location or by choosing the different degree.
2. The B-spline curve passes through 1st & last control points P0 & Pn+1 & is tangent to the 1st
& last segment of the control polygon,similar to the Bezier curve
3. Increasing the degree of the curve tighten it. In general , less the degree closure the curve
gets to control point. K =1 a zero degree curve results the curve then becomes the control
point. K=1 a zero degree curve then become the control point themselves. When K=2 the
curve becomes polygon segment themselves.
4. Second degree curve is always tangent to the middle of internal polygon segment.
5. If K = the number of control points (n+1) then the resulting curve becomes a Beizer curve
6. Multiple control points induce regions of high curvature of B-spline curve. This is useful in
creating sharp corner in curve.
7. Increasing degree of curve makes it more difficult to control & to calculate accurately.
Therefore the cubic B-spline curve is sufficient for large number of application.
 Solid Modelling representation
scheme
1. Construction Solid Geometry (C.S.G. or C.rep)
2. Boundary representation (B-rep)
3. Hybrid Scheme
4. Pure Primitive Instancing
5. Spatial Enumeration
6. Cell decomposition

Constructive Solid Geometry(CSG)

A CSG approach in one of two most popular & widely used approaches scheme to create
Solid models of an object . In CSG approach a solid model of an object is created by using 3D
geometry entities called as primitives .These primitives can be defined by a mathematical set of
Bolean operations to create the solid.
Following are the most commonly used primitives
Block:- Block can be deifined by width W,height H & Deapth D
Cylinder :- Right circular cylinder is defined by its radius R and lengthH
Cone:- Cone is defined by radius R and Height H
Sphere :- It is defined by Radius R
Wedge :- Right angled wedge is defined by width W, Deapth D & height H
Torus :- Can be generated by the revolution of circle about an axis in its palne .It defined by inner
radius Ri outer radius Ro
Mathematically each primitives is defined as regular points set (x,y,z).In a CSG approach two or
more primitives are combined by a Boolain Operations to create desired model.The Boolean
operations used are i) union ii) differnace iii) Intersection .The union is used to combine two
primitves & diifernce is used to subtract one primitive from other.

Advantages of CSG:-
1. It is easy to construct solid model or object out of primitives & boolean operation
2. It is consize and required min storage to store model
3. CSG must be converted internally into P-edit to display the model for generating its line
drawing
4. Application algorithms based on CSG scheme are very reliable & compitative with those
based on these scheme
Disadvantages:-
The major disadvantage of CSG is its in ability to represents irregular surfaces & half space.

Boundary Representation / Modelling (B-rep)

B-rep is one of the most popular & widely used skill[other is CSG] to create solid models of
physical object.The principle behind boundry modelling is that part geometry is difficult form part
topology & that they can be defined separately . Topology of an object is the property edges & faces
are connected.The geometry of an object defines the dimensions & positions of its fixes in space.In
general term topplogy merely describes connectively of vertices , edges & faces in the object.
Example Cubes and parallelopied are identical topology but differ in geometry.
Introducing the dimension , position of vertices,edges & faces provides the object withn geometry
which is together with its topology unique or completely defines it in space.The database in B-rep
model contains both its topology and geometry.Topology is created by performing eucliden in
calcaulation. Eular operation are used to create , manipulate , edit the faces , vertices , edges of B-
model as the set of operators edit the premitives of CSG model.
In addition to ensuring the validity of B-rep model to avoiding the non-sense object .Eular operation
provides the designer with drafting.Since B-representaion solid model are to be graphically by
adding verices , edgres , faces to the model in such way to obey the eular laws.Eulars operators are
considered lower level operators than Boolean operators in the sense they combine E+V+F to form
B-rep model validity of topology is checked by Euler law given as
F-E+V-l = 2(B-G) Genus(Hole)
or F-E+V = 2 (L-Loop interior)
Advantages :-
It is very appropraite to construct solid model of unusal shape of that are difficult to build using
premities for example aircraft , fuse lag and automobile body
It is relatively simple to construct B-represntaion model in to solid model because B-model
defination is similar to the wireframe defination
for enigneering application algorithm based on B-representaion are reliable & compitatives with
those on CSG.
Disadvantages
One of the major disadvantages in B-rep is tha t it requires large amount of storage because it stored
the explicit defination of model boundries.
The model is defined by its vertices edges & faces which tend to go fairly fast for complex model
B-represenation is not suitable for many appplication such as tool path generation.