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When the Elements Were Discovered

Part I- Fundamentals of chemical compositions

Chapter 2
Periodic Relationships Among
the Elements

I. The periodic law. Electron configurations can be determined using a periodic

table.
The properties of the elements are periodic functions of their  The ground state configuration is the lowest energy, most
atomic numbers. stable arrangement.
The outermost electrons have the greatest influence on the  An excited state configuration is a higher energy
properties of elements. Adding an electron to an inner d orbital arrangement (it requires energy input to create an excited
results in less striking changes in properties than adding an electron
state).
to an outer s or p orbital.
 Valence electrons are the electrons utilised for bonding.
 Knowledge of periodicity is valuable in understanding
bonding in simple compounds.
 Many physical properties, such as melting points, boiling Example The ground state configuration of S:
points, and atomic volumes, show periodic variations. S (z= 16) 1s22s22p6 3s23p43d0
 Describe the variations that are most useful in predicting
chemical behavior. The excited state configuration of S:
 The variations in these properties depend on electron S* (z= 16) 1s22s22p6 3s23p33d1
configurations, especially the configurations in the S** (z= 16) 1s22s22p6 3s13p33d2
outermost occupied shell, and on how far away that shell is
from the nucleus. 2 4

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ns2np6
Ground State Electron Configurations of the Elements
ns1

ns2np5
ns2np1

ns2np2
ns2np3

ns2np4
ns2

d10
d1

d5

4f
5f
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The periodic table and electron structure of atoms in periodic table I.2. Group (vertical column)
A group or family is a vertical column in the periodic table.
I.1.Period (row) Groups usually have more significant periodic trends than
Each period (row) begins filling a new shell (new value of n). periods and blocks, explained below. Modern quantum
Elements to the right of the d orbital block have the d orbitals mechanical theories of atomic structure explain group trends by
in the (n - 1) shell already filled. We often find it convenient to proposing that elements within the same group generally have
collect all sets of orbitals with the same value of n together, to the same electron configurations in their valence shell
emphasize the number of electrons in the outermost shell,
that is, the shell with the highest value of n.
n=1
n=2
n=3
n=4
n=5
n=6
n=7

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…from the electron configuration of each element Group B

Representative Elements. The A group elements in the periodic table are  Family d or f elements: with outer electron configuration is (n-1)dxnsy (x=1 to 10
called representative elements. Their “last” electron is assigned to an outer and y = 0 to 2)
shell s or p orbital. These elements show distinct and fairly regular variations  Number of group = total number electron on subshell (n-1)dx and nsy (from group
in their properties with changes in atomic number. 3B to 7B)
 Notice: (n – 1)d4ns2  (n – 1)d5ns1
Noble Gases. For many years the Group VIIIA elements—the noble
(n – 1)d9ns2  (n – 1)d10ns1
gases—were called inert gases because no chemical reactions were
known for them. We now know that the heavier members do form (n – 1)d1ns2 (n – 1)d10ns2
(n – 1)d2ns2
compounds, mostly with fluorine and oxygen. Except for helium, (n – 1)d10ns1
(n – 1)d3ns2
each of these elements has eight electrons in its outermost occupied
(n – 1)d5ns1 (n – 1)d ns
6,7,8 2

shell. Their outer shell may be represented as having the electron (n – 1)d5ns2
configuration . . . ns2np6.
d-Transition Elements. Elements in the B groups in the periodic table are
known as the d-transition elements or, more simply, as transition elements or
transition metals. The elements of four transition series are all metals and are
characterized by electrons being assigned to d orbitals. Stated differently, the
d-transition elements contain electrons in both the ns and (n - 1)d orbitals, but
not in the np orbitals. IIIB
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Group A I.3. Element blocks

 Family s or p elements: with outer electron configuration is nsxnpy (x=1 to 2  A block of the periodic table is a set of elements unified by the orbitals
and y = 0 to 6) their valence electrons or vacancies lie in.
 Number of group = total of valence electron number in their valence shell = total  Each block is named after its characteristic orbital: s-block, p-block, d-
electron number in outer shell block, and f-block.
ns2np6 – Group VIIIA
ns2np5 – Group VIIA
ns2np4 – Group VIA
ns1 – Group IA
ns2np3 –Group VA
ns2 – Group IIA
ns2np2 – Group IVA
ns2np1 – Group IIIA

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I.4. Element Families

II.2.1. Period (row)
Elements may be categorized according to element families.
The period (row) = the number of electrons in the outermost
Knowing how to identify families, which elements are
shell (the highest value of n in the electron configuration)
included, and their properties helps predict behavior of
unknown elements and their chemical reactions. Example The electron configuration of phosphorus (P) is given
9 Element Families P (z= 15) 1s22s22p6 3s23p3
Another common method of categorization recognizes nine element
families: What does the period of P belongs to in the Periodic Table?
1. Alkali Metals: Group 1 (IA) - 1 valence electron
2. Alkaline Earth Metals: Group 2 (IIA) - 2 valence electrons Solution: P (z= 15) 1s22s22p6 3s23p3
3. Transition Metals: Groups 3-12 - d and f block metals have 2 valence
electrons
4. Boron Group or Earth Metals: Group 13 (IIIA) - 3 valence electrons the highest value of n is n=3
5. Carbon Group or Tetrels: - Group 14 (IVA) - 4 valence electrons
6. Nitrogen Group or Pnictogens: - Group 15 (VA) - 5 valence electrons => P belongs to the period 3.
7. Oxygen Group or Chalcogens: - Group 16 (VIA) - 6 valence electrons
8. Halogens: - Group 17 (VIIA) - 7 valence electrons
9. Noble Gases: - Group 18 (VIIIA) - 8 valence electrons 13 15

II.2.2. Element Block (or family of elements)

II.2. Relate the electron configurations of the
elements to its place in the periodic table.
Predicting the place in the periodic table of following Electron
Configurations
 The Element Block (or family of elements) is filling subshell
in the electron configuration
 Elements in block s and p will be belong to GROUP A
 Elements in block d and f will be belong to GROUP B

 Period (row) = the number of electrons in the outermost

Example The electron configuration of phosphorus (P) is given
shell (the highest value of n in the electron configuration)
 Element Block (or family of elements) = s, p, d or f block? P (z= 15) 1s22s22p6 3s23p3
What does the Element Block and Group of P belongs to?
 Type group = Group A or Group B? Solution: P (z= 15) 1s22s22p6 3s23p3
 Number of group = Depending on (1) element’s group (A or the filling subshell is p
B) and (2) Total of valence electron number
 P belongs to the Element Block p.
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 P is belonged to group A

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II.2.3. Group number: a. ATOMIC RADIUS

Depending on (1) element’s group (A or B) and (2) Total of
valence electron number

 Elements in GROUP A:
Group number = total of valence electron number = total of
electrons in outer shell.

 Elements in GROUP B:
Group number = total of valence electron number = total of
number electrons in outer shell plus number electrons in a
subshell near outer shell.

metallic radius covalent radius

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III. Periodic variation in physical properties

a. ATOMIC RADIUS

b. IONIC RADIUS

c. IONIZATION ENERGY

d. ELECTRON AFFINITY
e. ELECTRONEGATIVITY

f. VARIATION IN CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF THE

REPRESENTATIVE ELEMENTS

g. Effective nuclear charge (Zeff)

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b. IONIC RADIUS c. IONIZATION ENERGY

Ionization energy is the minimum energy (kJ/mol) required

to remove an electron from a gaseous atom in its ground
state.

I1 + X (g) X+(g) + e- I1 first ionization energy

I2 + X+(g) X2+(g) + e- I2 second ionization energy

Cation is always smaller than atom from I3 + X2+(g) X3+(g) + e- I3 third ionization energy
which it is formed.
Anion is always larger than atom from
which it is formed. I1 < I2 < I3

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The Radii (in pm) of Ions of Familiar Elements

General Trends in First Ionization Energies

Increasing First Ionization Energy

Increasing First Ionization Energy

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d. ELECTRON AFFINITY e. ELECTRONEGATIVITY

Electron affinity is the negative of the energy change that
occurs when an electron is accepted by an atom in the
gaseous state to form an anion.

X (g) + e- X-(g)

F (g) + e- X-(g) DH = -328 kJ/mol EA = +328 kJ/mol

O (g) + e- O-(g) DH = -141 kJ/mol EA = +141 kJ/mol

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f. Effective nuclear charge (Zeff) is the “positive charge” felt

by an electron.

Zeff = Z - s 0 < s < Z (s = shielding constant)

Zeff  Z – number of inner or core electrons

Z Core Zeff Radius (pm)

Na 11 10 1 186

Mg 12 10 2 160

Al 13 10 3 143

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Si 14 10 4 132 28

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Effective Nuclear Charge (Zeff)

increasing Zeff
increasing Zeff

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g. VARIATION IN CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF THE

REPRESENTATIVE ELEMENTS

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