Chapter 2

Review of Related Literature

This chapter presents the ideas, generalization or conclusions, methodologies and

others. Those that were included in this chapter helps in familiarizing information that are relevant
and similar to the present study.

Demographic Profile of the Learners

Age
Younger students, according to La Paro and Pianta (2000), were more reliant, relying more
on the teacher to specify what should be learned and how, whereas adult students were more
intrinsically motivated, self-directed, willing to ask for help from classmates, and saw themselves
as contributing members of the learning process. Meta-analysis and a study by Stipek and Byler
(2001) found that older students in school classrooms outperformed their younger colleagues
academically when compared to younger but still age-appropriate peers.
In a similar vein, Lincove and Painter (2006) examined student achievement in middle and
high school and discovered that the oldest students had "substantially higher achievement" than
the younger children in fourth grade (at age nine), but these differences had "disappeared by age
17."

Gender
Over the past two decades, a significant shift in the demographics of students attending
higher education has occurred (Schuetze & SLowey, 2002). Today's students are more likely to be
female, older, come from a variety of socioeconomic backgrounds, be returning students, and
have a history of serious psychological issues.
Despite having greater test scores, men typically do worse academically than women in
high school, college, and law school. Additionally, females frequently outperform males in terms of
the strength of the association between expected and actual grades as well as the correlations
between academic accomplishment in higher education and admission test results (Schuetze &
Slowey, 2002).

Religion
The phrase "religiosity" covers a wide range of religious observance, practice, and
conviction. The consequences of religiosity on adult behaviors have received the majority of
emphasis in previous research, but its impact on teenage behaviors has also received
considerable attention. Few studies have examined the relationship between religiosity and
academic success; the majority of this emphasis has focused on delinquency and other types of
deviant behavior, such as drug use and premarital sexual activity. It is regrettable that little study
has been done in this area given the implications that academic performance throughout
adolescence might have on future educational attainment, career success, and social status.
The few research on the subject demonstrate that young people's church attendance is
favorably correlated with their own educational expectations, which in turn lead to higher math and
reading exam scores (Regnerus 2000; Regnerus, Smith, and Fritch 2003). Additionally, the tenth
grade religious participation of teenagers is consistently and favorably related to later academic
success (Muller and Ellison 2001). This link is true for both urban and rural children, as well as for
African-American and Latino youths (Brown and Gary 1991; Jeynes 2002; Sikkink and Hernandez
2003). (Jeynes 2003). According to other academics, the correlation between religiosity and
academic success is unfounded and can be accounted for by differences in family finances.
According to this theory, teenagers who live with wealthy parents are more likely to be
religious and to succeed in school. Research that looked at broader indicators of academic
achievement, family income, and community income levels, however, has debunked this purported
association (Regnerus, Smith, and Fritch 2003). According to other study, whether or not a student
attends a private religious school helps explain the association between academic achievement
and religious observance. This body of research asserts that private religious schools encourage
self-discipline, moral development, and high standards and are more likely to enroll kids who are
religiously devoted (Bryk, Lee, and Holland 1993; Coleman, Hoffer, and Kilgore 1982).
However, later research has shown that when the type of school (whether private religious
or not) is taken into account, the association between academic achievement and religious
commitment essentially stays unaltered (Jeynes 2003).
There is, nonetheless, evidence that fundamentalist affiliation and belief have a significant
negative influence on educational attainment (Darnel and Sherkat 1997). Proponents of this
position claim that many fundamentalist Christians and Evangelicals are suspicious of the
usefulness of secular education because it ―serves to undermine both secular and divine
authority by promoting ‗humanism‘ and denigrating faith‖ (Darnell and Sherkat 1997: 307).
However, Beyerlein and 4 Interdisciplinary Journal of Research on Religion Vol. 5 (2009), Article
10 Smith (2004) have demonstrated that the negative association between fundamentalist beliefs
and educational attainment does not persist when thorough measures of religious beliefs and a
sufficient number of Protestant denominations are examined. A more compelling argument is that
that effect of religiosity on academic achievement can be explained by variations in family capital
and community capital (Muller and Ellison 2001). The evidence that family social capital positively
influences academic achievement is persuasive (e.g., Parcel and Dufur 2001). Moreover, students
who come from favorable family and community backgrounds not only are more likely to earn
better grades, but also tend to be more religious. Muller and Ellison (2001), in a comprehensive
assessment of this view, found that the effects of religiosity on students‘ educational expectations,
time spent on homework, number of mathematics courses taken, and probability of graduation are
partially mediated by family capital and community capital. Nevertheless, Muller and Ellison‘s
(2001) analysis had several shortcomings that raise questions about their results. First, their
measures of family and community capital were limited. For example, the measure of family social
capital was based on questions about the following three issues: (1) what parents expected of their
children, (2) how often parents discussed school with their children, and (3) how often parents and
children discussed things that were studied in class. Although these were solid elementary
measures of family capital, Muller and Ellison looked simply at how involved a parent was in the
child‘s education and not at the overall quality of the relationship between parent and child
(Coleman 1988). Muller and Ellison‘s measure of community capital was also limited. They used
questions that asked about (1) how well the parents knew their teens‘ friends‘ parents and (2) how
much the adolescents‘ peer group valued academic success. It is clear that these were
assessments of peer associations rather than of community capital. Second, Muller and Ellison‘s
operationalization of religious involvement was not sufficient. They assessed religious involvement
on the basis of three questions about (1) frequency of religious attendance, (2) participation in
religious activities, and (3) whether or not students considered themselves to be religious. These
give a truncated view of religiosity; other variables such as prayer or views of scripture were not
available in their dataset.1 Moreover, this measurement scheme provides only a limited picture,
since it ignored the issue of parents‘ religiosity. Yet it is clear that adolescents‘ religiosity is
affected in a large degree by their parents‘ religiosity in that religious parents provide an
environment that socializes adolescents to family norms and practices. Research demonstrates
that parents‘ 1 In their study, Muller and Ellison (2001) use the National Educational Longitudinal
Study dataset, which includes limited measures of religiosity. McKune and Hoffmann: Religion and
Academic Achievement Among Adolescents 5 religiosity has a direct effect on their children‘s
religiosity (Myers 1996; Regnerus, Smith, and Smith 2004). There are other reasons for presuming
that religiosity ought to have an effect on academic achievement regardless of family and
community social capital. First, religious involvement provides opportunities for youths to gain skills
that help them to succeed in school, such as discipline, respect for authority, and a tendency to
take responsibility for their own actions (Jeynes 2003). Similarly, religious institutions, in the main,
―largely reinforce traditional paths to success‖ (Regnerus 2000: 364). Religious involvement also
provides a context in which students can develop social contacts that help them in their education,
and it puts them in contact with religious leaders and youth group coordinators, who often serve as
positive role models (Gardner 2004). Religious involvement also deters involvement in deviant
activities. Students who spend more time in religious activities tend to spend less time involved in
deviant activities (Johnson et al. 2000), and this pattern might foster conventional behaviors such
as working on school projects, doing homework, seeing education as a worthwhile pursuit, and
avoiding deviant peer networks. In addition, religion has a causal influence on the moral and
actions of adolescents that is not entirely reducible to nonreligious explanations involving social
control, solidarity, deterrence, or other social phenomena (Nonnemaker, McNeely, and Blum
2006). Indeed, ―there is something particularly religious in religion, which is not reducible to
nonreligious explanations‖ (Smith 2003: 19). Perceived relationships with the divine exert ―pro-
social influences in the lives of youth not by happenstance or generic social process, by precisely
as an outcome of American religions‘ particular theological, moral, and spiritual commitments‖
(Smith 2003: 20).

Family Income
An essential connection has been made recently between a family's socioeconomic
condition and the learning environment that is provided to children. It is generally accepted that
parental social and economic standing can have a substantial impact on students' achievement in
educational institutions. Low socioeconomic class families are less likely to have the time or
financial means to give their kids the necessary academic help. The body of research in this area
indicates that the home literacy environment, the amount of books owned, and parent stress are all
strongly related to children's early reading abilities (Barbarin & Aikens, 2015). However, parents
from lower socioeconomic status groups might not be able to afford the costs of resources like
books, computers, or tutors to help their children.
The economic status of parents, their education and reading habits are linked to each other.
Moreover, parental education and reading habits have a significant influence on their kid's
motivation towards learning. Parents with higher socioeconomic status are in a better position to
improve the academic activities of their children as compared to parents with low socioeconomic
status(Cowen, 2011). However, some times the educational performance of these students is
more questionable and controversial because the children do not follow their parent' training and
do not get a good career. In addition, children with high socioeconomic status are more at risk of
depletion, grade and math problems than children from low-status families (Agboola & Tsai 2012).
Studies also highlight the fact that enrollment rates in schools from low-income groups are
significantly lower than the children coming from families with higher socioeconomic status
(Pallardi, 2008). Moreover, the dropout rates are higher for students from low-income groups as
compared to the high-income families in secondary education (Center National Education
Statistics, 2008). This leads us to believe that the students from poor families are less likely to
complete their primary and secondary education even if they get enrolled in the schools. The
social and economic status of parents, therefore, is a key factor to determine the academic
performance of the students.

Ethnicity
The extent to which a person feels related to his or her ethnic group is the definition of
ethnic identity (Phinney, 1996). This idea has an impact on attitudes and actions (Altschul,
Oyserman, & Bybee, 2006). A student's academic success may also be impacted by his or her
ethnic identification, claim Spencer, Noll, Stoltzfus, and Harpalani (2001). It is crucial that school
staff and mental health workers are knowledgeable with the affects of all facets of an adolescent in
order for academic settings to be conducive to academic performance. School personnel must
concentrate on helping children from a holistic framework. 
Many school staff members are only given time to concentrate on a student's academic
performance (Holcomb-McCoy, 2007). There is a lack of studies examining how different cultural
or racial identities affect adolescents' academic performance. Educational academics have looked
into the connection between ethnic identity and academic success, with varying degrees of
success (Zarate, Bhimji, & Reese, 2005). According to several studies, minority adolescents'
ethnic identities have a greater impact on their academic achievement than their Caucasian peers
(Phinney, Cantu, & Kurtz, 1997; Worrell, 2007; Yasui, Dorham, & Dishion, 2004). Some young
people of Caucasian descent may not consider their ethnicity to be a crucial part of who they are
(Yasui et al., 2014).However, minority teenagers struggle not only with academic challenges but
also with figuring out who they really are (Erikson, 1950).
Phinney (1992) found that the stages of ethnic identity can impact student academic
performance. Adolescent academic performance is influenced by the search to connect with an
ethnic identity. This search includes exploration of some developmental components, such as
sexual identity and ethnic identity (Erikson, 1968; Phinney, 1996; Spencer et al., 2001). Ethnic
identity may act as a shield against elements that decrease school engagement and academic
self-efficacy. Wakefield and Hudley (2007) indicated that a firm positive ethnic identity could
possibly provide support for academic achievement and mental health. If an adolescent feels
linked to his or her ethnic group, and the ethnic group is thought of as having the skills that are
needed to excel academically, then better academic outcomes will result (Kerpelman et al., 2008).
Therefore, it is very important that educators who work with early adolescents acknowledge,
explore, and understand Ideas and Research You Can Use: VISTAS 2016 5 the ethnic identity
process, because it can have a remarkable influence on academic success (Phinney, 1989a).
Phinney (1992) found high school students with more developed ethnic identities were less likely
to believe negative stereotypes that may hamper their academic success, and they reported
having higher academic scores. However, research has shown that other ethnic group students
with high ethnic identity levels have high academic scores (Zarate et al., 2005).

Level of Effectiveness of Traditional Teaching Method

Traditional Learning/teaching method

In Traditional Method of teaching the instructor is viewed as the pivot in the classroom,
responsible for all actions and guaranteeing that all class room message goes through him or the
deductive strategy for instructing. Conventional technique is content focus. In this, instructor
remains more dynamic, more subjective and less affective (Singh (2004).Conventional techniques
are concerned with the review of true information and mainly disregard higher levels of rational
outcomes (Rao, 2001). Traditional teaching strategy works against the normal working of human
mind (Weber, 2006). Students are involved in repetitive learning. Instructor forces the students to
repeat the material that has been told to them. Corporal punishment, hatred of the teachers and
frightening role of commanding teacher is noticeable generally in our classrooms. During the long
conventional teaching periods, interests and consideration of learners can’t be looked after
(Cangelosi, 2003)
Traditional curriculum is still widely utilized in America due to its tried-and-tested framework
and cultural norm. The Philippines also follows suit while also completely refurbishing the
curriculum to a new program called the K-12.(Bannister.edu.ph, 2022)
Traditional teaching is concerned with the teacher being the controller of the learning
environment. Power and responsibility are held by the teacher and they play the role of instructor
(in the form of lectures) and decision maker (in regards to curriculum content and specific
outcomes). They regard students as having ‘knowledge holes’ that need to be filled with
information. In short, the traditional teacher views that it is the teacher that causes learning to
occur (Novak, 1998). Learning is chiefly associated within the classroom and is often competitive.
The lesson’s content and delivery are considered to be most important and students master
knowledge through drill and practice (such as rote learning). Content need not be learned in
context. (Theroux 2002, Johnson &Johnson 1991).  The most common seating arrangement used
by the traditionalists is rows.
Traditional teaching was the long-established teaching style in Philippine education system
wherein the students are passive in terms of participating in class, due to they only have to seat
quietly on their places and listen to the teachers’ didactic method. Teachers transmit knowledge
and understanding of ideas and values to the students (Chi-kin et al., 2010), other term is “spoon
feeding”. When the classroom is teacher-centered, the classroom becomes orderly and the
teacher can control the flow of the class easily. And since the teacher direct the classroom
activities, the teacher doesn’t have to worry if the student may miss out important topic. The only
active participation that the student may play is through recitation. Aside from this, the students do
memorize the lessons and do written assignments at home. Their examination may be in oral
recitation, quizzes and major written exam. In here, students only develop “declarative knowledge”
where they do only memorize, identify, recite, describe, and classify the knowledge inputted by the
teachers (Biggs & Tang, 2007). It is a teacher-centered approach emphasized tasks where the
learner’s absorbed knowledge is based mainly on the instructor’s teaching preparation and style.
Therefore, students who are not good in memorizing has the highest probability to fail the subject
making the students feel intellectually weak and cannot move forward to the next degree.
On the laboratory part, the teachers are instructing all the needed tasks and the students
must follow exactly on how the principle must be done. This major role leaves the teachers lack of
time to their other interests to pursue developing other opportunities they might explore (Seery,
2010).
A research conducted by Hiebert et al. (2003) showed that teachers teaching mathematics
and science major subjects are more into traditional style in almost all of the countries. The groups
which have similar pedagogical practice are likely to have similar result (OECD, 2009). Chachia
(2010) argued that "acquiring factual body of knowledge and testing it through tests and exams",
the possibility of resistance in changing traditional teaching approach is due to the consideration of
parents, teachers and even students that grades from the assessment was the vital and concrete
evidence of giving response about learning. (grin.com, 2022)
In the past few years, the Philippine education teaching style is under the traditional
teaching style where the teachers’ concern is to identify what content they should teach and what
teaching methods they must use, which is contrary to the modern teaching style (out-comes based
style), where the teachers’ concern is on what the students will know and be able to do after
teaching the intended learning outcome (Chi-Kin et al., 2010).
The primary role of the teacher in traditional teaching is a dispenser of information of
information to orchestrator of learning and helping students turn information into knowledge. While
the students are a young person who goes to school, spend specified amount of time in certain
courses, receives passing grade then afterwards to be graduated, if not they have to retake the
courses and retain in their level not until they passed the subjects. (grin.com, 2022)
The term "traditional learning" describes a situation in which a teacher interacts with a group
of students in a conventional brick and mortar classroom setting. The class meets for a set amount
of time, during which the students study about a variety of courses and topics and frequently gain
practical work experience. Despite the widespread use of technology in schools and other
institutions, handwritten notes, assignments, tests, etc. are still a part of the teaching-learning
process. The government and the education board have approved the textbooks, which are used
in a standardized manner in the curriculum. Additionally, the students are totally reliant on the
teacher to impart knowledge about the subject.
Classroom Discussion
To be effective, classroom discussions must be practiced at the beginning of each school
year so students will have a clear understanding of what is expected of them. To best teach
discussion, different methods and methodologies should be incorporated in the classroom. A
positive classroom environment must be established at the beginning of the year. The teacher
must set the discussion expectations, and the students must understand that they are responsible
for their own learning. Teachers must provide ownership to each learner’s comment after he or she
has spoken. This requires the teacher to put the student’s name and his or her statement together
so that other pupils in the classroom will know to whom to direct their next comment or question.
Not only does this repeat the statement from the student, but it also allows him or her to feel a
sense of ownership to his or her statement (Atwood, Turnball, & Carpendale, 2010; Emdin, 2010;
Larson, 2000; Marcum-Dietrich, 2010; Mitchell, 2010). This allows for the teacher to “build a
classroom environment in which all are equal participants” (Mitchell, p.173). Other methods and
methodologies include speaking to students in a language they understand 5 such as their social
talk with peers (Emdin, 2010), allowing the opportunity for students to use important science words
and concepts in their discussions (Shemwell & Furtak, 2010), expecting students to make eye
contact with each other, and turning to the speaker while also not talking while another student is
talking (Emdin, 2010). 
Students play an important role in classroom discussion. They must feel a high level of
comfort before being able to communicate their views about a topic with their peers. The best way
to facilitate this level of confidence is to allow students time to work in cooperative learning groups
before having to speak in front of an entire room of their classmates. Teachers may supervise and
observe these first few meetings before actively engaging as a participant in the discussions with
the students. Once students are more comfortable with the discussion format, a whole group
discussion can ensue which may give them the confidence to share different points of view. When
this occurs, learners will be able to use the evidence they have gathered for the topic being
discussed to defend their ideas. Other students may also want to offer new ideas to the discussion
topic. The ideas expressed will depend on the students’ prior experiences (Atwood, Turnball, &
Carpendale, 2010; Larson, 2000; Mitchell, 2010). 
The Predict-Observe-Explain (POE) strategy also allows students to express their ideas to
their classmates. Instead of students following “cookbook” style laboratory activities, they can
discuss and take part in their own design of experiments. In cooperative learning groups, learners
can predict what materials and steps should be included in their experiment, they can observe
their decisions by testing their ideas, and as a class, they can explain if their ideas were successful
or unsuccessful. This allows for 6 participants to have a common goal, but different ideas about
how an experiment may work. It also gives students a chance to talk positively to each other about
a common topic (Emdin, 2010; Larson, 2000; Mercer, 2010; Mitchell, 2010). Another way to get
students talking as scientists is to teach them to ask questions as scientists. Mitchell (2010) refers
to these questions as “thinking” questions. “Thinking questions are ones that indicate reflection on
the content and on the students’ understandings and experiences,” (Mitchell, 2010, p.183). Instead
of students saying “I’m confused” or “I don’t understand,” they ask questions that pertain to the
topic at hand. This strategy allows the teacher to understand what students still need help on and
what they understand. 
Teachers provide the strategies needed for students to develop good science
communication for the classroom. Mitchell (2010) identified twelve important behaviors for
teachers that are needed to induce an effective communication environment. Samples of these
behaviors include allowing students to create instructions, encouraging students to listen to other
peers for learning purposes, and identifying assessment that evaluates student learning daily.
Once teachers reflect on their own teaching and establish what twelve behaviors are appropriate
for them, a sense of ownership can be established in the classroom by the teacher. One teacher
strategy that can be effective if implemented correctly is Challenge the Right Answer. For some
teachers, this strategy may be intimidating. Students are allowed to question the teacher’s answer
or the information in the textbook. This strategy identifies students’ thoughts about a topic. Instead
of students accepting the teacher or the textbook’s word as the truth, students can challenge 7
what has been stated leading to a possible classroom discussion. This allows for “student talk that
is exploratory, tentative, and hypothetical,” (Mitchell, 2010, p. 175). Once again, learners will
explore their prior knowledge and experiences.
Lecture Method
Many university instructors prefer to educate using the lecture-based style. These teachers
continue to use this form of instruction in the classroom despite the suggestions of researchers
and educationalists to change it. The teaching-learning environment continues to be more student-
centered than teacher-centered. The performance and achievement of pupils may be negatively
impacted by this pedagogical attitude. The cooperative learning method, which allows students to
work in small groups while studying, is one of the alternatives offered by these academics and
educators. Giving them this opportunity will allow them to converse, share experiences, and
benefit from one another. By using facial expressions, strategies, and gestures, the subject matter
is clarified for the students as well as explained to them using this method. It is affordable and
suitable for a big number of pupils. However, this approach has four key drawbacks: it makes
students passive learners, denies them the ability to put what they learn into practice, disregards
individual variations, and does not foster students' capacity for reasoning (Sharma, 2020)
 The pros and cons of the lecture-based strategy were discussed in literature. The benefits
are typically connected to covering a lot of material in a short period of time, organizing the
information logically for oral presentation, and eliminating the requirement for the learning material.
The drawbacks stem from pupils' failure to acknowledge one another's individual differences, their
focus being solely on the teacher, and their forgetfulness (Study Lecture Notes, 2020). According
to Paris (2020), lecturing is a form of instruction that entails an instructor making an oral
presentation to a class of students. Paris lists three key benefits of this teaching strategy. These
benefits stem from having complete control over the course of the class, the explanation of
information from the teacher and a reminder to the students to take notes when they deem it
necessary. The study also notes two key drawbacks of the lecture-based approach. These
drawbacks are related to the limited opportunities offered to students to share their own
experiences, the passive experience they undergo, and the lack of public speaking ability among
all instructors.

Academic Achievement
Students fail to use this knowledge when they require, even in problem solving
scenarios. Hasselbring et al (1994) explain students’ knowledge will not be useful unless they
understand that it is vital to realize why, when and how various skills and concepts are relevant.
They further assert that critical thinking is an essential need of students and they must learn to
think independently.
Teachers ask students to recite and memorize the content of study and what they teach in
the classroom and also students one by one recite the lesson when their turn comes. Except for
those who are reciting, other students listen and wait for their turn. In this way, the whole lesson is
completed by students. Then students are asked to memorize the lesson and on the basis of this
recitation, teachers take assignment, written test or oral test.(digitalclassworld.com. 2022)
The traditional method of teaching is an old way of teaching where teachers are the main
players in the classroom while students are mere listeners. The common ways of teaching are the
use of chalk and talk, visual aids, reporting, and different activities that lead to teacher-student
interaction. Surely, the teacher's method of teaching has a great impact on the academic
performance of the students. The researchers conducted this study to know the effectiveness of
the traditional method of teaching in the academic performance of General Academic Strand
(GAS) students and to find recommendations to improve the methods of teaching and enhance the
academic performance of the students. This research used a descriptive design in such a way that
the questionnaire was administered to twenty (20) male and thirty (30) female students chosen
randomly. The survey questionnaire was constructed to determine how traditional methods of
teaching affect the academic performance of the students. The theory of Mather and Champagne
(2015) states that the traditional method of teaching or back to basics refers to the long-
established customs found in schools. Qualitative analysis was utilized for the data collected.
Many respondents responded that by using the traditional method of teaching, the students could
understand their lesson. The discussion was one of the most common factors that affect the
students in terms of knowledge, skill development, and value formation. Students could present
their work based on the discussion, motivating them to do the given task and to cooperate with
each other. The researchers have proposed some teaching methods to help students learn more
and achieve high academic performance in terms of Knowledge, Skills, and Values: use of visual
aids aligned with the lesson during their discussion; use activities that would raise students’
interest to avoid boredom; and use some inspirational quotes. (ojs.aaresearchindex.com, 2022)

21stCentury Learners
The traditional educational paradigm of simple knowledge transfer from teacher to students
is no longer applicable to a modern day emphasis on creative learning, which means that old
models for classroom design are outdated and ineffective, education experts Eric C. Sheninger
and Thomas C. Murray write in their new book ”Learning Transformed: 8 Keys to Designing
Tomorrow’s Schools, Today.” 
Classrooms that are sticking to traditional settings of neatly lined desks and chairs suffer
from what the authors coin as the “Cemetery Effect” — an environment where students are being
taught as if they are going to work in industrial era factories. This type of learning can no longer
work in the modern era, they say, and schools can enhance the setting by adopting a model that is
“learner-centered, is personalized, and leverages the power of technology.” 
Some ways that educators have tried to adapt to modern day learning goals include making
sure that, in addition to integrating technology into lessons, they create a classroom space that
is well-lit and promotes personalization, has interesting furniture placement that demonstrates
flexibility and choice, and allows students to choose whether they’d like to sit or stand while
working. Beyond enhancing immediate learning, administrators are also realizing that less rigid
learning environments are more conducive to collaboration and more effectively prepare students
to enter an increasingly creative and diverse workforce. (k12dive.com.2022)

Teacher Centered
In teacher-centered learning — the more traditional or conventional approach — the
teacher functions in the familiar role of classroom lecturer, presenting information to the students,
who are expected to passively receive the knowledge being presented.
(onlinedegrees.sandiego.edu.2022)
 In teacher-centered classrooms, control is of primary importance and “authority is
transmitted hierarchically” (Dollard & Christensen, 1996, p. 3), meaning the teacher exerts control
over the students. Critics of teacher-centeredness argue that in these classrooms, compliance is
valued over initiative and passive learners over active learners (Freiberg, 1999). To help teachers
maintain control over students, instructional methods that promote a focus on the teacher are
frequently used, such as lectures, guided discussions, demonstrations and “cookbook” labs
(Edwards, 2004). These forms of instruction lend themselves to having the teacher stand in the
front of the classroom while all students work on the same task. Similarly, the physical design of
the classroom often promotes a focus on the teacher and limits student activity that disrupts that
focus. In other words, rooms are often organized so that desks face toward the primary focal point,
the teacher (Boostrom, 1991). In addition, teachers exert their control through a system of clearly
defined rules, routines and punishments that are mandated rather than developed with the
students (Freiberg, 1999). Generally, teachers identify the rules necessary for an orderly
classroom and time is set aside for the teaching of these rules during the first several days of
school. When students exhibit undesirable behavior, advocates of a teacher-centered approach
often rely on punishments, such as reprimands, frowns, time outs and loss of special privileges
(Lovitt, 1990). Finally, in teacher-centered classrooms, teachers may rely on extrinsic motivation to
influence student behavior. Here, completion of a task is seen as a prerequisite for obtaining
something desirable (Chance, 1993) such as social rewards (e.g. praise), activity rewards (e.g.
free time, computer time) and tangible rewards (e.g. candy and stickers).

Chalkboard Drill
One of the oldest and most widely used teaching tools in use today is the chalkboard,
originally known as the blackboard. Since the chalkboard surface is now available in colors other
than black, the term "blackboard" is no longer relevant (Onyejemezi, 1996, p. 451). The
chalkboard is readily available in every classroom and is immediately ready for use by the teacher
due to its straightforward construction. The chalkboard is viewed by Akude (2004, p. 70) as "a
visual material that is highly indispensable for the teacher." He claims that the instructor makes
great use of it during class to spread information and show pertinent examples. There are several
shapes and types of chalkboards. Ifegbo (2006, pp. 210–211) states that there are two types of
chalkboards: movable chalkboards, and fixed chalkboards. Chalkboards that are mobile are
mounted on easels or wooden legs. By moving the pins in the perforated holes on the easels or
legs of the movable chalkboards, the heights of the boards on the easels can be changed to
accommodate the students' eye levels. To put it another way, the chalkboard can be attached to
two legs that have rollers. Mobile or movable chalkboards are utilized on both sides when
instructing. Chalkboards that are mounted to the walls of the classroom are fastened there
permanently.

Memorization Technique
Memory retention is of utmost importance to pupils' academic success. However, students
with retention issues may struggle to remember lectures in class. They may also struggle to solve
mathematical problems that require a series of steps because doing so requires accessing math
facts from long-term memory while also recalling what they have already done and what they still
need to do. Memory is defined by Radvansky (2017) as mental processes utilized to gather, store,
or retrieve information. Its processes are actions that include utilising information in particular ways
to make it available later or to add it back into the present processing stream. Wang and Hou
(2016) claim that posting private memories online helps people remember them. Memory and
attention are regarded as sisters, and prior studies revealed that 10% of pupils had bad attention
and 46% had ordinary attention (Lamba et al., 2014, Podila, 2019). As a result, pupils find it
difficult to memorize in class. Particularly, increasing students' motivation in the classroom is a
major concern for educators and researchers due to its relationship to students' achievement.
Even when their concentration is good, it may not be useful without memory. 
The amount of research that has been done on the teaching and learning process
demonstrates how important student memory retention is (Pantziara&Philippou, 2015).In this
context, the researcher is interested in determining what elements—such as motivational practices
and experiences, goal-setting and accomplishments, individualized learning, teaching strategies
and learning activities, educational resources and learning tools—might influence students'
memory retention and how well they perform academically in mathematics. 
In order to fill in the gaps of the existing related literature, particularly looking into its impact
on students' academic performance, these factors are being identified through intensive reading of
related studies and looking into variables that are effective in other subject areas as well as the
ones not made mentioned in Mathematics. Additionally, the researcher is taking these things into
account based on her observations and experiences. Regarding the connection between the
aforementioned elements and pupils' academic achievement, no prior research was discovered.
This is the rationale behind the study's design: to help students improve their ability to solve
mathematical problems and assure more effective learning through good memory retention
techniques.
The focus has gradually but significantly shifted over the past few decades from teachers and
teaching to students and learning. Numerous studies have shown the significance of language
learners' use of language learning strategies. Language learners must employ a variety of ways to
get over their challenges with second/foreign language learning and production. Language
learners may consciously or unconsciously employ language learning strategies. To remember
what they have learnt, they employ mnemonic devices and other memory techniques.
Memorization is regarded as one of the cognitive methods utilized by language learners in the
research on learning strategies. Keeping and recalling information is the main goal of the approach
known as memorization. Both Oxford and Ehrman (1995) and Kato (1996) demonstrate in their
research how memory-related methods relate to L2 proficiency. According to Oanh (2006),
experience in teaching EFL has shown that memory can be a useful learning approach if done
correctly as a tool to aid in the internalization of what has been taught by the learners so that it can
be applied to in real-time communication. The interviewees for Ding's 2007 study believed that
imitation and text memorizing were the most efficient ways to learn English. Other scholars have
documented the finding in Chinese context (Parry, 1998; Ting, 1998, as cited in Ding, 2007).
According to Cohen and Oxford (2003), memorizing is a method that pupils employ to advance the
development of their linguistic abilities. Memorization techniques can have an impact on the
language learning process by improving recall and attention as well as rehearsal, integration, and
encoding of language material. According to Maria-Luise (1997), associative memory is sensitive
to the frequency of input, which helps to explain why learning can be improved by employing
straightforward memorization techniques like repetition. Although Oxford (2003) may be correct in
saying that "memory-related methods assist learners link one L2 item or concept with another but
do not necessarily involve deep knowledge" (p. 13), when applied properly, many advantages can
be gained from their utilization. Rehearsal results in additional encoding of the form in long-term
memory after the form has been noticed in short-term memory. The learner needs to actively fill in
the gap in order to remember the information. Even if the students are aware of the gaps, they are
frequently compelled to free up their working memory space for the subsequent influx of
information, which causes them to give up on the observed novel forms rather than assimilating
them into their linguistic expertise (Robinson, 1995, p. 318).Cohen (1996) classifies language use
strategies into four categories: retrieval strategies, rehearsal strategies, cover strategies, and
communication strategies. He classifies memorization as one of the cover strategies. He maintains
that: Cover strategies are those strategies that learners use to create the impression that they
have control over material when they do not. They are a special type of compensatory or coping
strategies which involve creating an appearance of language ability so as not to look unprepared,
foolish, or even stupid. A learner’s primary intention in using them is not to learn any language
material, nor even necessarily to engage in genuine. An example of a cover strategy would be
using a memorized and not fully-understood phrase in an utterance in a classroom drill in order to
keep the action going (p.4) But it must be made clear that memorization is not used as a kind of
compensation. It is an aid to the learner to make things more accessible for the learner. Sivell
(1980, p. 52) lists the benefits of memorizing for pupils, including a sense of success and
accomplishment, security and familiarity, aural and visual pleasure, and a body of information.
Teachers should handle pupils' urge to memorize with empathy and admiration rather than
condemnation. The teacher can find strategies to get around the drawbacks that are said to come
with memorized language.