EN671: Solar Energy Conversion and Technology

Grid Connected PV System

Dr. Pankaj Kalita

Associate Professor, SESE
Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati

1
• Functioning and layout of a grid connected PV
System.
• Different components of a Grid connected PV System.
• Selection of different equipment.
• Role of different components for maximization of PV
system efficiency.

2
Grid Connected PV System
• A grid-connected PV system is made up of an array of panels mounted on
metallic support or integrated into a building.
• Panels are connected in series and parallel to achieve optimal voltage and
current, and feed into an inverter transforming direct current into
alternating current at a phase and at the same voltage as the grid.
• Operating voltage of an array of panels is around 150- 400 V DC for small
systems (1-3 kW) and 400-700 V DC for inverters of 10-500 kW.
• Maximum voltage is generally limited by
• Problems of insulating panels to avoid any current leakage
• The maximum voltage accepted by the inverter.
• The inverter will be equipped with a MPPT system that constantly adjusts
the entry voltage,which vary according to temperature and solar radiation.
3
 Overview
Basic flow diagram of grid-connected PV system

Household Electricity Net meter

PV array

Utility grid

DC-AC inverter 4
Overview
There are two general types of electrical designs for PV power systems

Without battery back-up

With battery storage

5
Layout of a grid connected PV system

6
Components of a PV plant

Civil and mechanical Power monitoring

Electrical Components
components components

 PV modules  Module mounting  SCADA

 Power conditioning units and structure  Weather station
 Cables  Mounting foundation
 Combiner box
 Connectors

7
 Solar PV modules
Commercially available PV modules are classified into two types:

Single/Monocrystalline silicon solar cell Multi/Polycrystalline silicon solar cell

Cell efficiency is Cell efficiency is

about 15 – 19% about 12 – 15%

o Silicon is formed into bars and cut into o Fragments of silicon are melted
wafers together to form the wafers.

8
Solar PV modules

Criteria for choosing grid-connected panels

─ Reliability and reputation of the manufacturer

─ Good price

─ Closely power-matching modules

─ Good mechanical quality, well-designed frame and easy to installed

panels

─ Good quality connections

─ Cooled anti-return diodes, with a junction box designed to dissipate

their heat (in case of a hotspot generation)

9
Grid Inverters
The major component in Grid-connected PV
systems is the DC-AC inverter or also called
the power conditioning unit (PCU).

• The Inverter changes the DC current stored in

the batteries or directly from the PV array into
usable AC current.
• Similar to the function of a Stand-alone inverter,
however essential differences are

o It must be a sine wave frequency and AC voltage to be fed into the grid
must be in phase with it.
o Comply with a number of regulations and safety requirements which are
more demanding than stand alone system.
o All inverters are connected to the grid incorporates MPPT.

10
 Grid Inverters
Several factors must be considered when selecting inverter

─ The power conversion efficiency

─ Rated power
─ Duty rating (the amount of time the inverter can
supply maximum load)
─ Input voltage
─ Voltage regulation
─ Voltage protection
─ Frequency requirement
─ Power factor
─ Islanding detection

11
Grid Inverters
Types of inverters

Module Multi-string Central

String inverters
inverters inverters inverters

12
Grid Inverters
Types of inverters

Module Multi-string Central

String inverters
inverters inverters inverters

─ Power: 100-300 W
─ No MPPT
─ Single phase Output
─ Typical efficiency: 95-96%
─ Advantages:
─ No DC cabling
─ Easy to add more modules
─ Disadvantages:
─ High cost per power rating
─ Replacing faulty ones is difficult

13
Grid Inverters
Types of inverters

Module Multi-string Central

String inverters
inverters inverters inverters

─ Power: 700-1200 W
─ MPPT
─ Single or three phase Output
─ Typical efficiency: 93-97%
─ Advantages:
─ Has MPPT
─ Readily available
─ Lower cost per power rating
than module inverter
─ Disadvantages:
─ Only one MPPT

14
Grid Inverters
Types of inverters

Module Multi-string Central

String inverters
inverters inverters inverters

─ Power: 2000-17000 W
─ Multiple MPPT
─ Single or three phase Output
─ Typical efficiency: 97%
─ Advantages:
─ Has multiple MPPTs
─ Readily available
─ Lower cost per power rating
than module inverter
─ Disadvantages:
─ More expensive
─ Increases system cost due to use
to DC protection on each string

15
Grid Inverters
Types of inverters

Module Multi-string Central

String inverters
inverters inverters inverters

─ Power: 30 kW- MW
─ Multiple or single MPPT
─ Three phase Output
─ Typical efficiency: 97%
─ Advantages:
─ Lower cost per power rating
than module inverter
─ Can have higher efficiency
─ One location for maintenance
─ Disadvantages:
─ No redundancy if inverter fails

16
 Types of Inverter
Central inverters
Inverter type Module inverters String inverters Multi-string inverters
(used for large grid systems)

Power range 100-300 W 700-1200 W 2000-17000 W 30kW-MW

MPPT No Yes Multiple Multiple or single
Output Single phase Single or three phase Single or three phase Three phase
Typical efficiency 95-96 % 93-97 % 97 % 97 %
1) Has MPPT 1) Has multiple MPPTs

1) No DC cabling 2) Readily available 2) Readily available 1) Lower cost per power rating

Advantages 2) Easy to add more 3) Lower cost per power 3) Lower cost per power 2) Can have higher efficiency

modules rating than modular rating than modular 3) One location for maintenance

inverters inverters

1) More expensive than a

1) High cost per
single string
power rating
Disadvantages 1) Only one MPPT 2) Increases system costs 1) No redundancy if inverter fails
2) Replacing faulty
because DC protection must
ones is difficult 17
be used on each string
Islanding
• A potential danger of grid-connected systems is islanding.
• Imagine that a potential PV system is installed in a street where
the electricity grid is shut-down to do maintenance work on the
electricity cables.
• If it is a sunny day, the PV system will produce power and would
deliver the power to the grid without protection. The electricity
worker thus can be in danger. This phenomenon is called
islanding and due to its danger it must be prevented.
• The inverter therefore must be able to detect, when the
electricity grid is shut-down and Inverter must stop delivering
power to the grid.
18
Cables
• Selection of accurate size and type of cable would enhance
the performance and reliability of the PV system.
• Correct sizing ensures very little loss of energy and
prevent causing fire due to overheating.
• The size of the cable must be large enough to carry the
maximum current expected without undue voltage losses.

The size of the wire to be used depends upon:

 The generating capacity of the Solar Panel (larger the

current generated, bigger the size)

 The distance from the solar panel system to the loads

(greater the distance, bigger the size)

19
Cables
Types of Solar cables
Solar DC Solar AC
Cables Cables

Module or DC main
string cables cables

20
Cables
Types of Solar cables
Solar DC Solar AC
Cables Cables

Module or DC main
string cables cables

 These cables are usually

integrated into the PV panels
 Equipped with suitable
connectors to be interconnected

21
Cables
Types of Solar cables Solar DC Solar AC
Cables Cables

Module or DC main
string cables cables

 For connecting the positive and

negative terminals from strings to
generator combine box or directly to
the solar inverter.
 Single-wire cables with double
insulation are practically proven
and offers high reliability.

22
Cables
Solar AC
Types of Solar cables Solar DC Cables
Cables

Module or DC main
string cables cables

 These cables connects the inverter to

the electric grid through protection
equipments.
 For three phase inverters: Five core
AC cables are used (for connection
to the low voltage grid).
 For single phase inverter: Three core
cables are used.

23
 Combiner box
Combiner boxes are used to bring multiple series strings together into single line. The
strings are typically combined in parallel. Combiner boxes are typically located close
to the photovoltaic array.

 Wires from individual PV modules or strings are

connected to the combiner box.
 These wires may be single conductor pigtails with
connectors that are pre-wired onto the PV modules.
 A combiner box typically includes a safety fuse or
breaker for each string.

24
 Solar connectors
Solar connectors are used to connect solar panels to form strings.

─ MC4 connectors are single-contact electrical connectors

MC4 commonly used for connecting solar panels
Connectors ─ The MC in MC4 stands for the manufacturer Multi-Contact
and the 4 for the 4 mm diameter contact pin.
─ The connectors come in both male and female types which are
designed to snap together.

25
Module Mounting
A grid-connected PV system is made up of an array of panels mounted on metallic
support or integrated into a building.

Roof Mounted Ground mounted

26
Module Mounting Roof mounted

o PV arrays are affix to brackets on the roofs,

generally with a few inches gap and parallel to the
surface of the roof.

o Roof mounts are less expensive because it uses

existing roof structure as a foundation.

Disadvantages
Advantages
 Hard to access – especially if the roof is
 Less expensive
steep or slippery
 Less material requirement for
 Harder to troubleshoot errors
installation
 Space constraints on the roof limits the
 Labor cost is lower
size of the system
 Utilizes unused space
 Replacement of the roof is difficult
within the panel’s lifetime
 Putting holes in the roof could lead to
water leakage

27
 Module Mounting Ground mounted

o PV array are held in place by racks or frames that

are attached to ground-based mounting supports.

o Ground mounts take more space, but easier to

access for installation and repair.

o Provide greater control over the orientation of PV

arrays to maximize production.

Advantages Disadvantages
 Easy to access  Installation is more labor intensive
 Easy to clean  Installation is more expensive
 Easier to troubleshoot  Requires more parts and pieces
 Not aesthetically pleasing to everyone

28
 SCADA
 SCADA (Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition) is used to monitor data
from a plethora of devices, including meters, inverters, weather stations,
trackers, DC strings and substation equipment.

 Provide the information about the health of the plant.

SCADA provides measurement options for

 Lifetime Power Production (kWh)
 Record of Daily Power Production for a Month or so (kWh)
 Money Saved Using Solar Power
 Amount of CO2 Reduction (kg, or tons)
 Record of any System Warnings or Faults
 Current System Power Generation (Watts)
 Total Everyday Energy Production (kWh)
 Photovoltaic Input Voltage (Volts)
 Photovoltaic Input Current (Amps)

29
Weather monitoring station
o Weather Monitoring Station (WMS) is one of the important instruments for a
solar power plant.
o A weather monitoring station can be immensely helpful in monitoring the
efficiency and performance of any solar power plant.
o The data from the WMS can be used to get many insights about the plant
operation and possible avenues to increase the plant output.

The Weather Monitoring Station provides measurement options for

→ Wind Direction
→ Wind Speed
→ Temperature
→ Humidity
→ Rainfall
→ Solar Radiation
→ Barometric Pressure 30
 Miscellaneous components
Cable glands
o It is a device designed to attach and secure the end of
a cable to the equipment.
o These mechanical cable entry devices constructed from
metallic or non-metallic materials.
o These are the four main materials from which cable glands
are made: Plastic, Brass, Aluminium, Stainless steel
Cable lugs
o To connect cables to electrical appliances, other cables,
surfaces, and mechanisms.
o Available in different types as copper ring type, tubular
type, pin type, aluminum lug, battery lugs, etc.

Cable ties, ferrules

o A cable tie is a type of fastener, for holding items together,

primarily electric cables or wires.
o This allows several cables to be bound together into a cable
bundle and/or to form a cable tree.
o Ferrules can be used in marking or labeling cables. Ferrules
can be sleeve type or universal T type. 31
Miscellaneous components
Cable Tray
o Cable tray system supports insulated electric cables used for
power distribution and communication.
o Cable trays are used as an alternative to open wiring
or electrical conduit systems.
o Common cable trays are made of galvanized steel, stainless
steel, aluminium, or glass-fiber reinforced plastic.
Lightning arrestor
o A significant concern for photovoltaic (PV) power plant operators is equipment
damage caused by direct or indirect lightning strikes.
o To avoid the destructive effects of lightning strikes, overvoltage protection must
be installed at the inverter and at various other locations in the PV facility.

Fuses
o Fuse plays a very important role in solar power projects.
o Fuses are used in the string combiner boxes, inverters, on the DC side of the
system.
o Fuses are also used in the AC side of the system.
o The AC fuses are different as compared to the DC fuses.
32
Summary
• Functioning and layout of a Grid connected PV System.
• Different components of a Grid connected PV System.
• Selection of different equipment.
• Role of different components for maximization of PV system
efficiency.

33
 Design of a grid connected PV system
Preliminary
study
 Study of the geographical
setting of the location
 Analysis of climatic condition
 Selection of system
 Selection of PV technology
(module)
Design of the Performance
system analysis
 Selection of components  System energy production
(modules, inverter, cables  Performance ratio
combiner box etc.)  System losses
 PV array-inverter matching
 No. of modules
 No. on inverters
 Cable loss calculation
 Shading analysis
34
 Preliminary study

Prior to designing any Grid Connected PV system a designer must know the geographical
setting of the location and must visit the site :

 Determine the solar access for the site.

 Determine whether any shading will occur and estimate its effect on the system.
 Determine the orientation and tilt angle of the roof/site.
 Determine the available area for the solar array.
 Determine whether the roof is suitable for mounting the array in case of roof mounted
system.
 Determine how the modules will be mounted on the roof/site.
 Determine where the inverter will be located.
 Determine the cabling route and therefore estimate the lengths of the cable runs.

Following the site visit the designer shall estimate the available solar
irradiation for the array based on the available solar irradiation for the
site, tilt, orientation and effect of any shadows.
 Preliminary study
Analysis of Climatic condition of the location
Various parameter defining the climatic condition of a particular location can be obtained from
respective meteorological department. Furthermore, location wise climatic data can also be
collected from NASA meteorological department available online at http:/eosweb.larc.nasa.gov/sse/

Parameters considered for analyzing the climatic scenario of a particular location:

 Monthly average daily normal radiation (DNI)
 Monthly average insolation incident on a horizontal surface
 Monthly average clear sky insolation, clearness index
 Monthly average daylight hours
 Daily sunshine hours
 Monthly average wind speed
 Monthly average relative humidity
 Monthly average air temperature
 Monthly average rainfall
36
 Design of the system
Selection of the components BIS: Bureau of Indian Standards
IEC: International Electrotechnical Commission
IP: Ingress Protection Code
o System design should follow appropriate standard. IS: Indian Standard
EN: European Standards
o Country wise these standards may vary. BS: British Standards
o Components with applicable BIS /Equivalent IEC Standard or
MNRE Specifications :

→ Solar PV module: IEC 61215/ IS 14286: Design qualification and type of approval for
crystalline silicon terrestrial PV modules.

→ Inverter: IEC 62109-1, IEC 62109-2: Safety of power converters for use in photovoltaic
power systems –
→ Part 1: General requirements, and Safety of power converters for use in
photovoltaic power systems.

→ Part 2: Particular requirements for inverters. Safety compliance (Protection

degree IP 65 for outdoor mounting, IP 54 for indoor mounting).

→ Cables: BS EN 50618: Electric cables for photovoltaic systems (BT(DE/NOT)258),

mainly for DC cables. 37
 Design of the system
Selection of the components
→ Connectors: Certified for applications with modules according to IEC 61730

→ Array box Protection: IP 65: enclosures with transparent covers with Surge Protection
Device (SPD) class-I/II, DC Fuse with holder and string disconnector.

→ Module mounting structure: IS 2062 / IS 4759: Material for the structure mounting

→ Lightning Arrestor: IEC 62561 Series

→ Weather monitoring system: IS/IEC 61724 (1998): Photovoltaic System Performance

Monitoring - Guidelines for Measurement, Data exchange and Analysis

→ Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA): IEC 61850: Protocol defined for
substation automation

→ Fuses: IS/ IEC 60947 (Part 1, 2 & 3), EN 50521: General safety requirements for
connectors, switches, circuit breakers (AC/ DC); IEC 60269-6: Low-voltage fuses
38
Designing grid-connected PV system
Designing a PV system based on the energy balance paradigm.
(The generated energy = the consumed energy during one year).
The energy yield at the DC side is given by:
𝑦
𝐸𝐷𝐶 = 𝐴𝑡𝑂𝑡 ‫ 𝑡 𝜂 𝑡 𝑀𝐺 ׬‬ⅆ𝑡………..(1)
𝐴𝑡𝑂𝑡 is the total module area.
It is related to the area of one module AM as:
Atot = NT · AM………………………………..(2)
where NT is the number of modules.
The required energy balance:
𝑦 𝑦
𝐸𝐷𝐶 = 𝐸𝐿 · SF ……………………………..(3)
SF is a sizing factor that usually is assumed to be 1.1.
39
Designing grid-connected PV system
The required number of modules is given by:
𝑦
𝐸𝐿 · SF
NT = ………(4)
𝐴 ‫ 𝑡 𝜂 𝑡 𝑀𝐺 ׬‬ⅆ𝑡
𝑡𝑂𝑡
where 𝑥 denotes the ceiling function, i.e. the lowest integer that is greater
or equal than 𝑥.
The number of modules in connected in series NS and in parallel NP are
denoted by:
NT = NS .NS ………(5)
Example-
If NT = 11 panels, it can be taken as NT = 12 because they can be installed as
S×P= 12 × 1, 6 × 2, 4 × 3, 3 × 4, 2 × 6 or 1 × 12 strings.

40
Designing grid-connected PV system
The power on the DC side at STC now is given as:
𝑆𝑇𝐶 𝑆𝑇𝐶
𝑝𝐷𝐶 = NT . 𝑝𝑀𝑃𝑃 …………….(6)
𝑖𝑛𝑣 𝑆𝑇𝐶
𝑝𝐷𝐶,𝑚𝑎𝑥 > 𝑝𝐷𝐶 …………….…(7)
Further, the nominal DC power of the inverter should be approximately
equal to the PV power at STC
𝑆𝑇𝐶
PDC0 ͌ 𝑝𝐷𝐶 …………….….…(8)
In practice, the nominal DC power of the inverter is selected slightly below
the PV power at STC, (up to 10%), depending on the climate zone, because
of the different irradiance distributions. Also, for PDC0 < 5 kWp, single-
phase inverters are used while for PDC0> 5 three-phase inverters are
advised.
41
 Design of the system
Electrical parameters at standard test conditions (STC)
Module Voltage at Open-circuit Short-circuit
Power output Current at Power
efficiency (η PMAX VMPP voltage VOC current ISC
Specification of a 300 (W) PMAX IMPP (A) tolerance (W)
%) (V) (V) (A)
Wp solar module
(manufacture TATA 300 15.10 36.6 8.20 44.8 8.71 0 ~ +5
power solar) Temperature coefficient characteristics
Module Temperature Temperature Temperature
NOCT (ºC) efficiency coefficient of coefficient of coefficient of --- ---
(%/ºC) PMAX (%/ºC) VOC (%/ºC) ISC (%/ºC)
47 ± 2 0.06 ± 0.01 0.4048 0.2931 0.0442 --- ---

Input Data (DC)

Max. DC Power Max. DC Voltage Max. DC Current MPP(T)Voltage Range

Specification of an 280 kW 900 V 600 A 425-975 V

inverter manufactured by Output Data (AC)
Bonfiglioli Output AC Voltage
Max. AC Power Max. AC Current Max. Efficiency
Range
250 kW 270-330 V 540 A 98.3% 42
 Design of the system

Matching inverter and array

o It is important to find out the most appropriate combination of

module and inverters by considering the local operating conditions.
o The voltage, current and power rating, of module and inverter are
the three criteria which ensure the proper matching of the system in
terms of performance and safety.
o The important steps related to matching of inverter and PV modules
are
o Number of modules in a string
o Maximum number of strings (to match with inverter input)
o Matching the power rating

43
Design of the system Matching inverter and array

Number of modules in a string

→ The first is to determine the lower and upper limit of a string, i.e. minimum and
maximum numbers of modules that can be connected in series.
→ maximum and minimum operating temperature
→ maximum and minimum effective voltage of the module

→ Maximum and minimum operating temperature

By knowing the ambient temperature of a particular location, NOCT (Nominal
Operating Cell Temperature) of the PV module and the incident solar radiation at that
location the module operating temperature can be calculated as

Top  Tamb 
 NOCT  20   G where, G is Solar intensity
800

The maximum operating temperature and minimum operating temperature can be

calculated using this equation by considering recorded highest and lowest ambient
temperature of a particular location.

44
Design of the system Matching inverter and array

Number of modules in a string

→ Minimum and maximum effective voltage of the module

The minimum and maximum effective voltage of PV array can be calculated using
following equations:

  max

VMin Eff  VMP  STC   p  Top   TSTC 

Note: It is very important to
keep in mind that the output
voltage of the array should

 
not fall outside the inverter’s
VMax  Eff  VOC STC   Voc  Top   TSTC  MPPT voltage range
 min 

45
Design of the system Matching inverter and array

Number of modules in a string

 Minimum number of modules in a string can be calculated using the equation

Note: There is a voltage drop which occurs

VInv  DC min
 M String  min

VMin  Eff
when the generated electricity flows from
array to inverter. Therefore, during the
calculation of lower limit, a 2% voltage
drop needs to be considered for Vmin-eff and
a safety margin of 10% should be
considered for (Vinv-DC)min

 Maximum number of modules in a string can be calculated using the equation

VInv  DC max Note: For calculation of Vmax-eff, open-

M 
String max 
VMax  Eff
circuit voltage is considered since there is
no voltage drop. But for calculation of
(Vinv-DC)max 5% safety margin is applied

46
Design of the system Matching inverter and array

Maximum number of strings (to match with inverter input)

 Current rating of the module has to be matched with the inverter’s input current rating in
order to determine the maximum possible strings to be connected in parallel with the
inverter.
 Due to the variation in operating temperature, the value of short-circuit current of the
module also differs from its STC value, which can be determined as;

 
I SC  Eff  I SC  STC   I sc  Top   TSTC 
max  
 Maximum number of strings to be connected in parallel with the inverter can be
determined using the following equation

 I  Short-circuit temeprature coefficient (%/ o C)

I
 S max
sc

 Inv DC  P
= Maximum power temperature (%/ o C)
I SC  Eff
 Voc 
Open circuit voltage temeprature coefficient (%/ o C)

47
Design of the system Matching inverter and array

Matching the power rating

 Match the best combination of strings and arrays to get the maximum DC
power output.

 The maximum DC power output of the PV array should always to the input
DC power of the inverter.

For Example

No. of modules per No. of strings per Total power output

string array (kW)
59 283.20 Close no. max. input
(Mstring)min =16 58 278.40 DC power of the
57 273.60 Inverter
55 280.50
(Mstring)max = 17 54 275.40
53 270.30

48
 Design of the system
Selection of cable

The following formulas can be used to determine the cross sectional area of the cables

2  LDCcable  I DC  
For DC cable ADCcable 
Loss  VMP string

2  LACcable  I AC    cos 
For AC cable AACcable 
Loss  V AC

49
 Design of the system
Shading analysis
 The minimum distance between two solar modules (inter-row distance), which is
to be maintained in order to prevent mutual shading.

D=3xh

sin   sin   sin   cos   cos   cos 

  Sun elevation angle
cos   sin 
LSH  Shadow length, m cos   = Latitude
cos 
 = Declination
h  cos  =Sun azimuth angle
LSH 
tan[sin 1 (0.648cos   0.399sin  )]
  Hour angle
D  LSH  cos   =solar module tilt angle

h  L  sin  50
Ex.1 A solar power plant is to be installed at IIT Guwahati campus to meet the electricity demand of 2
MW at a solar insolation of 800 W/m2. Manufacturers output tolerance, derating due to dirt and
derating due to temperature of a PV module are 5%, 5% and 0.5%/oC respectively. DC cable loss,
inverter efficiency and AC cable loss are 3%, 98.3% and 1% respectively. The inverter has a maximum
voltage input of 900 V and maximum DC current input of 600 A. The detailed specification of the
module and inverter are given in the tables-1 and 2 respectively. The minimum temperature, maximum
temperature and solar peak hour of the site are reported to be 5 0C, 380C and 5 hrs. respectively. Find
out the total number of modules required for the plant. Also estimate the DC output from the array.

Table 1 Specifications of module

Electrical parameters at standard test conditions (STC)
Open-
Power Module Voltage at Current Short-circuit Power
circuit
output efficiency PMAX , at PMAX current ISC tolerance
voltage VOC Table 2 Technical specifications of inverter
(W) (η %) VMPP (V) IMPP (A) (A) (W)
(V)
300 15.10 36.6 8.20 44.8 8.71 0 ~ +5 Input Data (DC)

Temperature coefficient characteristics Max. DC Max. DC MPP(T)Voltage

Max. DC Current
Power Voltage Range
Tempera
ture Temperatur Temperatur 280 kW 900 V 600 A 425-975 V
Module
NOCT coefficie e coefficient e coefficient
efficiency --- --- Output Data (AC)
(ºC) nt of of VOC of ISC
(%/ºC)
PMAX (%/ºC) (%/ºC)
(%/ºC) Max. AC Output AC
Max. AC Current Max. Efficiency
Power Voltage Range
-0.06 ±
47 ± 2 0.4048 0.2931 0.0442 --- ---
0.01
250 kW 270-330 V 540 A 98.3%
51
Different possible arrangement of module
array No. of modules per string No. of string per array Power output , STC (kW) De-rated Power Output (kW)
Minimum
String 12 69 248.4 190.553436
12 72 259.2 198.838368
12 74 266.4 204.361656
12 76 273.6 209.884944
12 77 277.2 212.646588
12 78 280.8 215.408232
12 80 288 220.93152
12 90 324 248.54796
12 100 360 276.1644
12 101 363.6 278.926044
12 102 367.2 281.687688
Maximum
String 22 69 455.4 349.347966
22 65 429 329.09591
22 60 396 303.78084
22 55 363 278.46577
22 50 330 253.1507
22 45 297 227.83563
22 43 283.8 217.709602
22 42 277.2 212.646588

16 58 278.4
16 76 279.68

54
For 2 MW power plant, the number of modules required will be: 7392/9698 nos.
Summary
 Design of a grid connected PV system.
 Operating temperature of the module plays an important role in matching of
PV array with the inverter.
• The voltage, current and power ratings, of module and inverter are the three
criteria which ensures a proper matching of the system in terms of
performance and safety.
• Design steps:
• Derating of module
• min and max operating temperature of the module
• min and max effective voltage of module
• lower and upper limit of string (min and max no of module to be connected in series)
• matching of current rating of the module with the inverter input current rating to
determine possible string to be connected in parallel.
• Possible arrangement of module array.
 Sizing of inverter based on the size of the array.
 Demonstrated how to design a grid connected PV system 55
Performance analysis of a grid connected PV system

• Performance assessment of PV systems is the best way to determine

the potential for PV power production in an area.
• Usually performance of photovoltaic modules refers to Standard Test
Condition (STC) which is not always representative for the real
module operation.
• PV module technology, incident radiation, temperatures, inclination,
inverter and control systems, sun-tracker system, and wiring are
factors which influence the performance of a PV system.

56
 Performance analysis

 Annual energy yield

 Reference yield
 Array yield PV panel

 System losses
 Cell temperature losses Utility Grid

 Performance ratio
 Capacity utilization factor DC Cable
 Average pant efficiency
The analysis provides the useful information to
policy makers and interested individual and
organization about actual performance of grid AC cable
connected PV system in a region or country. 57
AC Energy Output of PV array

The AC energy output of a solar array is the electrical AC energy

delivered to the grid at the point of connection of the grid connect
inverter to the grid.
The output of the solar array is affected by:
Average solar radiation data for selected tilt angle and
orientation
Manufacturing tolerance of modules
Temperature effects on the modules
Effects of dirt on the modules
System losses (eg. power loss in cable)
Inverter efficiency
Module Efficiency
Performance analysis
The instantaneous power output on the AC side is given by:
PAC(t) =AMGM(t) ƞM(t) ƞinverter(t) ƞMPPT(t) ƞother…..(a)
The system efficiency is given as:
PAC(t)
ƞsystem(t)= … 100% ………..………(b)
AtotGM(t)
Instantaneous AC-side yield (also known as performance ratio)
P (t)
Yac(t)= AC … 100% ………..……………….(c)
PSTC(t)
Then, the yearly energy yield at the AC side can be calculated with
𝑦 𝑞
𝐸𝐴𝐶 =‫ 𝑟𝑎𝑒𝑦׬‬PAC(t) dt (Wh/year)………..…(d)
Another important parameter is the annual efficiency of the system
𝑦
𝑦 𝐸
ƞ𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = 𝑦 𝐴𝐶 . 100% ………..……..…(e)
𝐸 𝑖,𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
𝑦
where, 𝐸𝑖,𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 is the solar energy incident on the PV system throughout the year.
59
Performance analysis
Solar energy incident on the PV system throughout the year,
𝑦
𝐸𝑖,𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = Atot ‫ 𝑟𝑎𝑒𝑦׬‬GM(t) dt ………..…(f)
The yearly electricity yield,
𝑦
𝐸𝐴𝐶
YE= ………..……………..(g)
NT · PSTC
which is given by Wh/(year kWp).

If the yearly energy yield exceeds the annual load, the system is well
designed. Otherwise, another iteration has to be done in order to scale
up the system.
60
 Capacity Utilization Factor
CUF is defined as the
ratio of actual annual CUF 
Y
E AC
100
energy generated by the PPVrated  24  365
PV system to the amount
of energy the PV system
would generate if it is Y
E AC = annual ac energy output, kWh
operated at full rated PPV-rated = rated PV power, kWh
power for 24 h per day
for a year.
61
Capacity Utilization Factor
• The capacity utilization factor for a grid connected PV system is also
represented by
CUF=(Peak sun hours/day)/24h/day.
If a system delivers full rated power continuously, its CUF would be
unity i.e. 100%. CUF is dependent on the location of the PV System.
• The higher the capacity factor, the better the PV system.
• The capacity utilisation factor of all roof top solar PV system in India is
16%–17%.

62
Energy loss
• The different losses in a PV system include array capture loss, system
loss, soiling and degradation losses.
A. Array Capture losses (LA): Represents the losses due to array operation that
highlight the inability of the array to fully utilize the available irradiance.
• Thermal Capture loss. LA  YR  YA 
HT
 kWh/kWp   DC  kWh/kWp 
E
• Miscellaneous capture loss HR PPV,rated

B. System losses(Ls)
System loss is due to conversion of DC power output from PV to AC by the
inverter
LS  YA  YF 
E DC
PPV,rated
 kWh/kWp   AC  kWh/kWp 
E
PPV,rated

63
System analysis
Energy Yield

For a specified peak power rating (kWp) for a solar array a designer can
determine the systems energy output over the whole year. The system energy
output over a whole year is known as the systems “Energy Yield”
The average yearly energy yield can be determined as follows:

Esys  Parray _ STC  ftemp  f m  f dirt  H tilt  p inv inv inv  sb

where
Esys = average yearly energy output of the PV array, in watthours
Parray-stc = rated output power of the array under standard test
conditions, in watts
System analysis
Array losses

Energy Yield,

Esys  Parray _ STC  ftemp  f m  f dirt  H tilt  p inv inv inv  sb

The losses are:
→ ftemp = temperature de-rating factor
→ fman = de-rating factor for manufacturing tolerance
→ fdirt = de-rating factor for dirt
→ Htilt = yearly irradiation value (kWh/m2 ) for the selected site
→ inv = efficiency of the inverter
→  pv inv = efficiency of the subsystem (cables) between the PV array and the inverter
→inv  sb = efficiency of the subsystem (cables) between the inverter and the switchboard
System analysis
Derating of modules output

Manufacturer
Dirt and dust Temperature
Tolerance
System analysis
Derating of modules output.

Manufacturer
Dirt and dust Temperature
Tolerance

→ The output of a PV module is specified in

watts and with a manufacturing tolerance
based on a cell temperature of 25 ºC.
→ As an example, assuming the tolerance is ±5%.
The adjusted output of a 160W PV module is
therefore around 152W (0.95 x 160W), or 5%
loss from the rated 160W.
System analysis
Derating of modules output.

Manufacturer
Dirt and dust Temperature
Tolerance

→ Dirt and dust can accumulate on the solar

module surface, blocking some of the sunlight
and reducing PV output.
→ Sand and dust can cause erosion of the PV
surface which affects the system’s running
performance.
→ Worked example continues: Assuming power
loss due to dirt is 5% then the already derated
152 W module would now be derated further to
144.4W (0.95 x 152W).
 System analysis
Derating of modules output.

Manufacturer
Dirt and dust Temperature
Tolerance

→ Output power of a PV system reduces as the

module temperature increases.
→ The losses due to temperature is based on the
temperature coefficient.
→ Assume 160Wp rated polycrystalline module
28 oC 47 oC module is used with a derating of -0.5%/ºC.
→ The output power losses due to the operating
Top  Tamb   NOCT  20  temperature of 30 ºC would be:
→ 30 ºC x 0.5 %/ ºC = 15% loss
→ Worked example continues: Assuming power
Top  TSTC  55  25  30o C loss due to temperature of 15% then the already
derated 144.4 W module would now be derated
further to 122.7W (0.85 x 144.4W).
System analysis
Derating module summary

Manufacturer
Dirt and dust Temperature
Tolerance

A solar module has an derated output power = Module

power @ STC x Derating due to manufacturers tolerances
x derating due to dirt x derating due to temperature.

For the worked example:

Derated output power = 160 x 0.95 x 0.95 x 0.85 = 122.7W
System analysis
DC Energy Output from Array

o The actual DC energy from the solar array = the derated output
power of the module x number of modules x irradiation for the tilt
and azimuth angle of the array.

o For the worked example assume that the average daily PSH is 5 and
that there are 16 modules in the array. Therefore the DC energy
output of the array = 122.7 x 16 x 5 = 9816Wh

Note: Solar irradiation is typically

provided as kWh/m2 . However it can
be stated as daily Peak Sun Hrs (PSH).
This is the equivalent number of hours
of solar irradiance of 1kW/m2.
71
 System analysis

DC system losses

o The DC energy output of the solar array will be further reduced by

the power loss in the DC cable connecting the solar array to the grid
connect inverter.

o For the worked example assume that the cable losses for the DC
cables is 3%. This is a DC subsystem efficiency of 97%. Therefore the
DC energy from the array that will be delivered to the input of the
inverter will be = 9816 x 0.97 = 9521 Wh

72
 System analysis

Inverter efficiency
o The DC energy delivered to the input of the inverter will
be further reduced by the power/energy loss in the
inverter.

o For the worked example assume that the inverter

efficiency is 96%. Therefore the AC energy delivered from
the output of the inverter will be = 9521 x 0.96 = 9140 Wh

73
 System analysis

AC system losses

o The AC energy output of the inverter will be further reduced by

the power loss in the AC cable connecting the inverter to the
grid, say switchboard where it is connected.
o For the worked example assume that the cable losses for the
AC cables are 1% (AC subsystem efficiency of 99%). Therefore
the AC energy from the inverter (and originally from the array)
that will be delivered to the grid will be = 9140 x 0.99 = 9048
Wh

74
 System analysis

Specific Energy yield

The specific energy yield is expressed in kWh per kWp and it calculated as
follows:
𝐸𝑠𝑦𝑠
SY=
𝑃 𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑦 𝑆𝑇𝐶
_

o The worked example: An array of 16 modules each with a STC rating of

160Wp. Therefore Parray_STC = 2560 Wp.
o The average daily AC energy that was delivered by the array to the grid
was 9048Wh or 9.05kWh.
o Therefore over a typical year of 365 days then Energy Yield of the solar
array is = 365 days x 9.05 kWh/day = 3303 kWh/year
o Therefore the specific energy yield is 3303/2.560= 1290 kWh per kWp 75
System analysis
Ideal Energy

The PV arrays ideal energy yield E ideal can determined as follows:

𝐸𝑖ⅆ𝑒𝑎𝑙= 𝑃 𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑦_𝑆𝑇𝐶 X H 𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑡

H 𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑡 = yearly average daily irradiation, in kWh/m2 for the specified tilt angle
𝑃 𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑦_𝑆𝑇𝐶 = rated output power of the array under standard test conditions, in
watts

For the worked example: The average daily PSH was 5. Therefore the yearly
irradiation (or PSH) would be 5 x 365= 1825 kWh/m2 (that is 1825 PSH).
Parray_STC = 2560 Wp (@1 kWh/m2)

Therefore the ideal energy from the array per year would be:
2.56kW x 1825h = 4672kWh

76
System analysis
Performance ratio

The performance ratio (PR) is used to access the installation quality. The PR
provides a normalized basis so comparison of different types and sizes of PV
systems can be undertaken. The performance ratio is a reflection of the system
losses and is calculated as follows:
𝑬𝒔𝒚𝒔
PR =
𝑬𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒂𝒍
where
Esys = Actual yearly energy yield from the system
= 3303 kWh/year (continuing example)
E ideal = the ideal energy output of the array
= 4672 kWh/year (continuing example)
𝐸𝑠𝑦𝑠
Therefore, Performance ratio, PR = = 3303/4672 = 0.71
𝐸𝑖ⅆ𝑒𝑎𝑙

 Hence the system losses is 29% (that is 1-0.71=0.29)

77
 Average System Efficiency and CUF
Average System Efficiency
Y
E AC
 System (t )  100%
Atot GM  t 

Average System Efficiency = 3303/365*5*1*16*72*0.125*0.125 = 10.05%

• Capacity Utilization Factor
Y
E AC
CUF  100
PPVrated  24  365

• CUF = (3303 kWh/0.160x16x24x365)*100% kWh= 14.72%

78
Summary
 Systematically studied the performance analysis of a Grid
connected PV system having PR =0.71 (system losses 29%) .
 An example analyzed to determine the energy yield,
specific yield, performance ratio, capacity utilization factor
and average system efficiency of a grid connected PV
system.
 Understand how the real performance of the plant is
deviating from the theoretical performance.

 Rate power output of the module = 160 Wp

 Derated power output of the module = 160 x 0.95 x 0.95 x 0.85 = 122.7W

79
Thank you

80