Journal oj Applied Psychology

1974, Vol. 59, No. 5, 603-609

ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT, JOB SATISFACTION,

AND TURNOVER AMONG PSYCHIATRIC TECHNICIANS J
LYMAN W. PORTER,2 RICHARD M. STEERS,3 AND RICHARD T. MOWDAY
University of California, Irvine
PAUL V. BOULIAN
Yale University

This investigation studied changes across time in measures of organizational

commitment and job satisfaction, as each related to subsequent turnover
among a sample of recently employed psychiatric technician trainees. A
longitudinal study across a lOi-month period was conducted, with attitude
measures collected at four points in time. The results of a discriminant analy-
sis indicate that significant relationships existed between certain attitudes held
by employees and turnover. Relationships between attitudes and turnover
were found in the last two time periods only, suggesting that such relation-
ships are strongest at points in time closest to when an individual leaves the
organization. Organizational commitment was found to discriminate better
between stayers and leavers than did the various components of job satis-
faction.

The problem of employee turnover has con-
tinued to plague organizations in recent years
despite an increase in investigations into fac-
tors affecting such behavior. With few excep-
tions, attitudinal studies of turnover have
focused on the construct of job satisfaction as
a predictor of tenure. A moderate and con-
sistent relationship has generally been found
across various samples between greater job
satisfaction and the propensity to remain with
the organization (Brayfield & Crockett, 1955;
Herzberg, Mausner, Peterson, & Capwell,
1957; Porter & Steers, 1973; Vroom, 1964).
Recent investigations of turnover have typi-
cally attempted to replicate the findings of
previous studies and have generally failed to
look beyond the job satisfaction construct for
other potential correlates of turnover. In ad-
dition, such research has been consistently
static in nature, collecting attitudinal mea-
sures at one point in time and comparing such
1 from leavers among a sample of psychiatric
This research was carried out under a contract
from the Office of Naval Research (Contract
N00014-69-A-0200-9001 NR 151-315).
The authors wish to express their appreciation to
Joseph Champoux, William Crampon, and Eugene
Stone for their valuable assistance during various
phases of this investigation.
2
Requests for reprints should be sent to Lyman
W. Porter, Graduate School of Administration, Uni-
versity of California, Irvine, California 92664.
3
Now at the School of Economics and Manage-
ment, Oakland University, Rochester, Michigan.
603
data with either present or future turnover
rates. As pointed out by Lefkowitz and Katz
(1969), attitudinal measures of factors as-
sociated with turnover do not remain con-
stant over time. Because of this, it appears
more appropriate to measure patterns of atti-
tude changes over time as they relate to the
propensity to leave than to rely on a single
measurement at one point in time. Our knowl-
edge of the turnover process could therefore
be expanded, at least in part, by the follow-
ing: (a) investigations into other potential
constructs relating to turnover in addition to
job satisfaction and (b) measures of attitudi-
nal changes over time as they affect de-
parture. The present study is designed to
accomplish both of these objectives.
This study focuses on the attitude construct
of organizational commitment, in addition to
job satisfaction, and compares their respective
predictive powers in differentiating stayers
technician trainees. The assessment takes the
form of a longitudinal study over a 10|-
month period.
Based on previous findings, we would ex-
pect overall job satisfaction measures to be
inversely related to turnover (Hulin, 1966,
1968; Waters & Roach, 1971; Wild, 1970).
When individual components of job satisfac-
tion—satisfaction with pay, promotion, su-
604 PORTER, STEERS, MOWDAY, AND BOULIAN
pervision, co-workers, and the work itself-—
have been studied, fairly consistent relation-
ships also have been found with the propen-
sity to remain (Farris, 1971; Friedlander &
Walton, 1964; Hulin, 1968; Knowles, 1964;
Ley, 1966). Such findings are not universal,
however, as some studies found certain of
these factors unrelated to withdrawal (Kil-
bridge, 1961; Taylor & Weiss, 1969b; Telly,
French, & Scott, 1971; Waters & Roach,
1971).
Organizational commitment may represent
a related but more global evaluative linkage
between the employee and the organization
that includes job satisfaction among its spe-
cific components. Relatively few studies have
examined the relationship between commit-
ment and turnover behavior (Porter, Cram-
pon, & Smith, 1972). Organizational com-
mitment is defined in the present context in
terms of the strength of an individual's iden-
tification with and involvement in a particular
organization. Such commitment can gen-
erally be characterized by at least three fac-
tors: (a) a strong belief in and acceptance
of the organization's goals and values; (b)
a willingness to exert considerable effort on
behalf of the organization; (c) a definite de-
sire to maintain organizational membership.
Some evidence exists that a stated intention
to remain with the organization, a component
of commitment, is strongly and inversely
related to turnover (Atchison & Lefferts,
1972; Kraut, 1970). It is predicted, there-
fore, that individuals highly committed to an
organization's goals and willing to devote a
great deal of energy toward those ends would
be inclined to remain with the organization
in an effort to assist in the realization of
such highly valued objectives.
Under certain circumstances, measures of
organizational commitment may be more ef-
fective predictors of turnover than job satis-
faction. For example, while the individual
may be dissatisfied with either his or her pay
or supervisor, a high degree of commitment
to the organization and its goals may serve to
override such dissatisfaction in the decision to
continue participation in the organization. In
other cases—for example, where money is
very important to an employee and where he
or she is highly dissatisfied with the salary—
satisfaction with various aspects of the job
may take precedence over commitment in the
decision to participate.
The use of psychiatric technician trainees
as subjects for such a study has several ad-
vantages. First, these trainees typically have
high rates of turnover. Second, training re-
quirements and procedures as well as the pay
and promotional opportunities during the first
year of employment are all standardized. (A
more detailed examination of the job environ-
ment and role requirements of psychiatric
technicians may be found in Rushing, 1964,
and Strauss et al., 1964.) Finally, as in-
creasing emphasis is placed on the health sci-
ences, it is especially important to learn more
about the job environment and employee at-
titudes of such workers.
METHOD
Subjects and Research Setting
The subjects in this study comprise two classes
or groups of psychiatric technician trainees employed
by a major west coast hospital for the mentally
retarded. The training course for these employees
was one year in duration, including 1,000 hours of
supervised clinical experience and 400 hours of on-
site classroom lectures. The clinical tasks required of
the trainees were quite varied, ranging from feeding
and dressing patients to doing physical therapy and
using such techniques as behavior shaping and op-
erant conditioning. During the training period, the
technicians received a modest salary.
The demographic characteristics of the two train-
ing groups were very similar. There were no dif-
ferences between the groups with respect to age,
male-female ratio, or educational background. In
addition, selection procedures for both groups were
identical, as were the training sequences, ward
assignments, and instructors. The training groups
were begun two months apart. Because of the simi-
larity of the two groups, it was felt combining them
into one study group was justified for purposes of
analysis.
As with most state hospitals, this organization had
a long history of relatively high turnover among its
psychiatric workers, with rates ranging between
30% and $0% during the first year of full-time
employment (i.e., after completion of training) and
averaging 25% thereafter. A total of 84 individuals
began training in Groups 1 and 2. However, by the
beginning of this study (approximately nine months
later), only 60 individuals remained. These 60
individuals constituted the initial study group. Dur-
ing the remainder of the study period, however, 27
more individuals terminated, or 45% of the sample.
 ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT, JOB SATISFACTION, AND TURNOVER 605

TABLE 1
MEAN ATTITUDE SCORES AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS POS STAYERS AND LEAVERS ACROSS TIME PERIODS

Time Period 1 Time Period 2 Time Period 3 Time Period 4

( — 10 weeks) ( — 2 weeks) (+2 weeks) ( -{-6 weeks)

Attitude Stayer Leaver Stayer Leaver Stayer Leaver Stayer Leaver

(» = 16) (» = 13) (» = 25) (n = 21) (» = 27) (« = 21) (« = 28) (» = 17)

M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD
Organizational
commitment 4.0 1.0 3.5 1.0 4.3 1.1 3.5 .91 4.3 .96 3.3 .88 4.0 1.1 3.0 .98
Job satisfaction
(JDI)
Overall 161.9 29.5 130.0 56.1 152.0 43.2 127.7 45.0 155.4 53.5 136.4 44.8 146.9 44.7 124.5 50.2
Supervision 31.2 11.8 24.0 17.0 32.9 14.3 26.4 12.5 32.3 15.4 27.8 13.2 36.6 10.9 29.1 15.8
Co-workers 42.3 10.6 37.4 12.1 35.7 13.0 32.1 15.7 39.3 12.6 37.6 12.8 40.0 13.2 35.2 17.6
Work 35.6 5.8 30.2 9.0 32.9 8.8 27.3 12.5 27.7 10.5 24.5 12.2 26.3 12.3 22.8 12.1
Pay 20.5 12.4 11.5 10.8 20.2 10.5 19.2 12.7 21.9 14.5 21.3 14.4 20.5 13.9 19.9 14.0
Promotion 32.3 14.9 26.9 18.2 30.4 18.0 24.0 15.5 34.1 17.7 22.2 16.5 23.5 16.0 17.5 14.4

Note. JDI = Job Descriptive Index.

Instruments this point in their training program. The remaining

Two research instruments were used in the atti-
tudinal assessment. Each is discussed briefly.
Organizational Commitment Questionnaire. This
lS-item questionnaire was designed to measure the
degree to which subjects feel committed to the
employing organization. Included in this instrument
are items pertaining to the subject's perceptions
concerning his loyalty toward the organization, his
willingness to exert a great deal of effort to achieve
organizational goals, and his acceptance of the
organization's values. All items represent statements
to which the subject responds on 7-point Likert-
type scales, ranging from "strongly disagree" to
"strongly agree." The wording of six items is re-
versed in an attempt to reduce response set bias. A
measure of overall commitment for each respondent
is derived by taking the mean score across all items.
The internal consistency of the instrument as mea-
sured by coefficient alpha (Cronbach, 1951) ranged
from .82 to .93 across the four time periods.
Job Descriptive Index (JDI). The JDI was em-
ployed to measure satisfaction with five aspects of
the subjects' jobs: supervision, co-workers, work,
pay, and promotion. In addition, the unweighted
sum of the five scales was used as a measure of
overall satisfaction. Validity and reliability data, as
well as scoring techniques, for the JDI are described
in Smith, Kendall, and Hulin (1969).
Data Collection Procedures
Instruments were administered to the subjects
during four sequential time periods by the research-
ers. Confidentiality of responses was assured by both
the university researchers and hospital management.
Moreover, subjects were given the opportunity to
decline participation but none did so.
The first administration (designated Time Period
1) was given 10 weeks prior to the completion of
the training program. Only Group 1 participated in
this administration since Group 2 had already passed
three administrations (Time Periods 2, 3, and 4)
were given to both groups two weeks prior to train-
ing completion, two weeks after beginning full-time
work (i.e., after training), and six weeks after be-
ginning full-time work. Subjects who did not com-
plete the training program were dropped from the
investigation. The sample size fluctuated somewhat
during the latter three administrations due primarily
to incomplete questionnaire responses during all time
periods and to a very small amount of turnover
between the third and fourth administration periods.
Thus, while a pure longitudinal design was at-
tempted, it was not possible to achieve an entirely
homogeneous sample across time. Turnover data,
based on hospital records, were collected up to eight
months following the completion of the training
program.
RESULTS
The sample was divided into stayers and
leavers based on subsequent turnover data,
and mean scores for each group were calcu-
lated on the organizational commitment and
job satisfaction measures. Group means,
standard deviations and sample sizes for each
time period are presented in Table 1.
The homogeneity of stayers and leavers
concerning demographic characteristics is re-
flected in the absence of significant differ-
ences between the two groups with respect to
education, male-female ratio and income.
However, the mean age for stayers (% = 31.9
years) was significantly higher (p < .01) than
the mean age for leavers (^ = 23.9). Rela-
tionships between age and turnover have been
found elsewhere and were not surprising find-
ings in the present study (Farris 1971; Fleish-
606 PORTER, STEERS, MOWDAY, AND BOULIAN

man & Berniger, 1960; Ley, 1966; Minor, The discriminant analyses examined the
19S8; Stone & Athelstan, 1969). This finding relationship between turnover and the follow-
suggests though, the possibility that any rela- ing set of variables: commitment to the or-
tionships found between attitudes and turn- ganization; satisfaction with supervision;
over may be attributable to differences in age. satisfaction with co-workers; satisfaction with
Consequently, age was controlled in the sub- the work itself; satisfaction with pay; satis-
sequent analysis by partialing its influence faction with opportunities for promotion. The
from the commitment and job satisfaction measure of overall job satisfaction was not
scores using a method suggested by Nunnally considered in the discriminant analysis be-
(1967). cause it is derived from a summation of the
A discriminant analysis (Overall & Klett, five subscales and thus its use (in conjunction
1972) was performed for each time period to with the subscales) would violate the mathe-
find the linear combination of the commit- matical requirements of the technique.
ment and job satisfaction scores (with the Results of the discriminant analysis for
influence of age partialed out) that best dis- each time period are reported in Table 2. As
criminates between groups formed on the the results indicate, no significant discrimina-
basis of turnover. The significance of the tion was found between stayers and leavers
discriminant functions was tested using a test in either Time Period 1 or Time Period 2.
statistic which is approximately distributed However, significant relationships were found
as a chi-square variable when computed by between turnover and the several attitude
the procedure in Overall and Klett (1972). measures in Time Period 3 (p < .OS) and in
In the two group cases of discriminant analy- Time Period 4 (p < .05).
sis, only one discriminant function is found, The fact that significant relationships were
and the results are functionally equivalent to found in the latter two time periods but not
those that would be found from a multiple in Time Periods 1 and 2 suggests that the
regression using a dummy criterion variable relationship between turnover and the several
(Tatsuoka, 1971). The total discriminatory attitudes is strongest at points in time closest
power of the discriminant function was cal- to when the individual terminates. In other
culated using Tatsuoka's (1970) multivariate words, as an individual approaches the point
extension of the estimated omega-squared. The of leaving the organization it appears that his
omega-squared statistic can be interpreted as or her attitudes are a more accurate predictor
the percentage of variance in the discriminant of such subsequent behavior.
space that is relevant to group differentiation The results of the discriminant analysis for
(Tatsuoka, 1970). Time Period 3 indicate that 21% of the vari-
ance in commitment and job satisfaction is
TABLE 2 relevant to the subsequent decision to stay or
STANDARD DISCRIMINANT WEIGHTS, TEST leave the organization. Interpretation of the
STATISTIC, AND DISCRIMINATORY POWER
ACROSS TIME PERIODS standardized discriminant weights (Table 2)
allows conclusions to be drawn concerning the
Time Time Time Time relative contribution of each variable in dis-
Variable Period Period Period Period
1 2 3 4 criminating between groups. Commitment to
Standard discriminant the organization was clearly the most impor-
weights
Organizational tant variable in differentiating between stay-
commitment -.12 1.04 1.04 1.43
Job satisfaction (JDI) ers and leavers. Satisfaction with opportuni-
Supervision -.25 .05 -.24 -.12
Co-workers .48 -.38 -.19 -.25 ties for promotion and satisfaction with the
Work .57 .10 -.50 -.39
Pay .85 -.18 -.01 -.28 work itself were next most important. The
Promotion -.40 .19 .52 .01
Test statistic 5.1 4.7 13.5* 13.0*
Degrees of freedom 6 6 6 6 moderate size of the discriminant weights
Total discriminatory for these variables relative to the weight for
power (%) 12.5 7.4 20.7 21.0
commitment indicates a smaller contribution
Note. JDI = Job Descriptive Index.
* f < .05. to the discrimination between groups.
 ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT, JOB SATISFACTION, AND TURNOVER
Examination of the group means for stay-
ers and leavers on the original measures in
Time Period 3 indicates that stayers consist-
ently had more positive attitudes than did
leavers. The only exception to this was found
with respect to satisfaction with pay, where
the mean for stayers and leavers was ap-
proximately equal.
Results of the discriminant analysis in
Time Period 4 indicate that 21% of the vari-
ance in the discriminant space was relevant
to turnover. Examination of the discriminant
weights (Table 2) indicates that commitment
to the organization was again the most im-
portant variable in the discrimination between
groups. The size of the discriminant weights
for the other variables relative to the size of
the weight for commitment indicates that the
other variables contributed little, if anything,
to the relationship found. Group means on
the original measure in the last time period
indicate that stayers expressed higher levels
of commitment and job satisfaction than did
leavers. The only exception was satisfaction
with pay, where stayers and leavers reported
comparable levels of satisfaction.
DISCUSSION
The primary purpose of this investigation
was to study patterns in organizational com-
mitment and job satisfaction across time as
they relate to turnover among a sample of
employees—psychiatric technicians, in this
case—typically having high rates of turnover.
The results clearly indicate that the attitudes
held by an individual are predictive of subse-
quent turnover behavior, with individuals who
ultimately leave the organization having less
favorable attitudes than individuals who stay.
Patterns of attitudes across time suggest that
this inverse relationship between favorable
attitudes and turnover generally is stronger
as individuals approach the point at which
they leave the organization. Based on these
results, several points warrant emphasis and
discussion.
When group means on the original mea-
sures are viewed within a cross-sectional
framework, it is apparent that the level of
attitudes for leavers is consistently lower than
the level of attitudes for stayers during all
607
four time periods. This finding is particularly
evident with respect to commitment to the
organization. Although it is clear that leavers
are characterized by lower levels of commit-
ment and satisfaction, the data are not suf-
ficient to demonstrate why such differences
occur.
One possible explanation may be found in
the extent to which the expectations of stay-
ers and leavers had been met on the job
(Porter & Steers, 1973). Each individual can
be viewed as bringing a unique set of expec-
tations to the employment situation. The rela-
tively common reward system (i.e., levels of
pay, training procedures, task requirement,
and instructors and supervisors were the same
for all subjects) can be regarded as approxi-
mating more closely the level of expectations
of those individuals who remained with the
organization than those who left. Within such
a framework, certain attitudes and turnover
would be viewed as outcomes of a process in
which individuals compare their level of ex-
pectations with the perceived realities of the
job environment. While the present investiga-
tion was not specifically designed to examine
this issue, the importance of considering met
expectations in the withdrawal process has
been suggested elsewhere in the literature
(Dunnette, Arvey, & Banas, 1973; Katzell,
1968; Macedonia, 1969; Weitz, 1956; Young-
berg, 1963).
When the results are viewed longitudinally,
the relationship between attitudes and turn-
over appears to grow generally stronger over
time. Evidence that a general decline in the
level of attitudes takes place prior to leaving
the organization has been found elsewhere
(Porter et al., 1972). Such a trend was es-
pecially evident in this study with respect to
organizational commitment, where the differ-
ence between the stayer and leaver mean
scores generally increased over time. How-
ever, such a relationship was not as evident on
the various measures of satisfaction. In fact,
the difference between the stayer and leaver
means on the subscales of the JDI tended to
decrease over time, although such a pattern
was not entirely consistent. In addition, the
mean satisfaction scores for stayers and leav-
608 PORTER, STEERS, MOWDAY, AND BOULIAN
ers fluctuate considerably across time with no
apparent pattern.
The differential relationships between turn-
over and the two attitude constructs suggests
that commitment and satisfaction are related
yet distinguishable attitudes. Across the four
time periods, the average intercorrelation
between commitment and the five subscales
of the JDI were .SO, .42, .40, and .55, re-
spectively (the highest correlations were gen-
erally found between commitment and satis-
faction with the work itself). Thus, on the
average, the two constructs shared less than
35% of the common variance. When partial
correlations were calculated between commit-
ment and turnover holding level of overall
satisfaction (JDI total) constant, significant
relationships were found in three of the four
time periods (in Time Period 1, neither com-
mitment nor overall satisfaction was related
to turnover). These findings suggest that al-
though we would expect commitment and sat-
isfaction to be related, each construct appears
to contribute unique information about the
individual's relationship to the organization.
Although this investigation was not designed
to examine in any extensive manner the rela-
tionship between the two constructs, it is pos-
sible to speculate as to the nature of the dif-
ferences between commitment and satisfac-
tion. On the one hand, the development of
organizational commitment appears to require
an individual to think in fairly global terms
about his or her relationship to the organiza-
tion during the initial employment period.
We would expect that a relatively greater
amount of time would be required for an
employee to determine his level of commit-
ment to the organization than would be the
case with his level of job satisfaction. This
process is likely to result in a stable and
enduring level of commitment. On the other
hand, the degree of one's job satisfaction
appears to be largely associated with specific
and tangible aspects of the work environment
and may represent a more rapidly formed
affective response than does commitment.
One's level of job satisfaction may thus be
more transitory in nature, which could ac-
count for the shifts in the mean degrees of
satisfaction over time found in the present
study.
The overall findings of this study suggest
that in this type of organizational context,
general attitudes toward the organization may
be more important in the decision to remain
than the more specific attitudes toward one's
particular job. It must be remembered, how-
ever, that such findings emerged among a
sample of psychiatric technicians working in
a state mental hospital. Given the nature and
purpose of such an organization, it is con-
ceivable that organizational commitment may
take on a special importance in the participa-
tion decision. It is possible that some em-
ployees place a high value on the goals of the
organization and such an orientation may
outweigh—to a degree, at least—their like or
dislike of the particular tasks required to
attain such goals. Whether similar results
would be found among employees of most
profit-centered business organizations remains
to be demonstrated.
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