TOPIC 1

Power Control Devices

Power electronics deals with the applications of solid-state electronics for the
control and conversion of electric power. Conversion techniques require the
switching on and off of power semiconductor devices. Low-level electronics
circuits, which normally consist of integrated circuits and discrete components,
generate the required gating signals for the power devices. Integrated circuits
and discrete components are being replaced by microprocessors.

Power electronics combine power, electronics, and control. Control deals with the
steady-state and dynamic characteristics of closed-loop systems. Power deals
with the static and rotating power equipment for the generation, transmission,
and distribution of electric power. Electronics deal with the solid-state devices
and circuits for signal processing to meet the desired control objectives. Power
electronics may be defined as the applications of solid-state electronics for the
control and conversion of electric power. The interrelationship of power
electronics with power, electronics, and control is shown in Fig. 1.1.

Fig. 1.1 – Relationship of power electronics to power, electronics and control.

Power electronics have already found an important place in modern technology

and are now used in a great variety of high-power products, including heat
controls, light controls, motor controls, power supplies, vehicle propulsion
systems, and high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) systems.

Types of Power Electronic Circuits

For the control of electric power or power conditioning, the conversion of electric
power from one form to another is necessary and the switching characteristics of
the power devices permit these conversions. The static power converters
perform these functions of power conversions. A converter may be considered as
a switching matrix, in which one or more switches are turned on and connected
to the supply source in order to obtain the desired output voltage or current.

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The power electronics circuits can be classified into six types:
1. Diode rectifiers
2. Dc–dc converters (dc choppers)
3. Dc–ac converters (inverters)
4. Ac–dc converters (controlled rectifiers)
5. Ac–ac converters (ac voltage controllers)
6. Static switches

The switching devices in the following converters are used to illustrate the basic
principles only. The switching action of a converter can be performed by more
than one device. The choice of a particular device depends on the voltage,
current, and speed requirements of the converter.

Table 1.1 summarizes the conversion types, their functions, and their symbols.
These converters are capable of converting energy from one form to another and
finding new applications, as illustrated through Figure 1.2 for harvesting dance-
floor energy to a useful form.

Table 1.1 – Conversion Types and Symbols

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 Fig. 1.2 – Equivalent dance-floor model of the energy harvesting.

Design of Power Electronics Equipment

The design of a power electronics equipment can be divided into four parts:
1. Design of power circuits
2. Protection of power devices
3. Determination of control strategy
4. Design of logic and gating circuits

The practical power devices and circuits differ from the ideal conditions and the
designs of the circuits are also affected. However, in the early stage of the
design, the simplified analysis of a circuit is very useful to understand the
operation of the circuit and to establish the characteristics and control strategy.

Before a prototype is built, the designer should investigate the effects of the
circuit parameters (and devices imperfections) and should modify the design if
necessary.
Only after the prototype is built and tested, the designer can be, confident about
the validity of the design and estimate more accurately some of the circuit
parameters (e.g., stray inductance).

Power Semiconductor Devices

Various types of power semiconductor devices have been developed since 1970
and has become commercially available. Figure 1.3 shows the classification of
the power semiconductors, which are made of either silicon or silicon carbide.
Silicon carbide devices are, however, under development. Majority of the devices
are made of silicon.

These devices can be divided broadly into three types:

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 1. Power Diodes,
2. Transistors, and
3. Thyristors.
These can further be divided broadly into five types: (1) power diodes, (2)
thyristors, (3) power bipolar junction transistors (BJTs), (4) power metal oxide
semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs), and (5) insulated-gate bipolar
transistors (IGBTs) and static induction transistors (SITs).

Fig 1.3 – Classification of the power semiconductors.

The earlier devices were made of silicon materials and the new devices are made
of silicon carbide. The diodes are made of only one pn-junction, whereas
transistors have two pn-junctions and thyristors have three pn-junctions. As the
technology grows and power electronics finds more applications, new power
devices with higher temperature capability and low losses are still being
developed.

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Characteristics of Semiconductor Devices
The ratings, specifications and characteristics of a device are of utmost
importance to the designer for designing equipment which will render lasting
trouble-free service. Choice of components for a particular service requirement
and design of their safety devices would be easier if detailed characteristics and
ratings are available.
Detailed specifications and ratings are available only in manufacturers’
datasheets and designers have to depend on them.

Power Diode
A diode acts as a switch to perform various functions, such as switches in
rectifiers, freewheeling in switching regulators, charge reversal of capacitor and
energy transfer between components, voltage isolation, energy feedback from
the load to the power source, and trapped energy recovery.

Power diodes can be assumed as ideal switches for most applications, but
practical diodes differ from the ideal characteristics and have certain limitations.
The power diodes are similar to pn-junction signal diodes. However, the power
diodes have larger power-, voltage-, and current-handling capabilities than those
of ordinary signal diodes. The frequency response (or switching speed) is low
compared with that of signal diodes.

Diode Characteristics
A power diode is a two-terminal pn-junction device and a pn-junction is normally
formed by alloying, diffusion, and epitaxial growth.

(a). pn junction (b). Diode symbol

Fig. 1.4 – pn junction and diode symbol.

When the anode potential is positive with respect to the cathode, the diode is
said to be forward biased and the diode conducts. A conducting diode has a
relatively small forward voltage drop across it; the magnitude of this drop
depends on the manufacturing process and junction temperature.
When the cathode potential is positive with respect to the anode, the diode is
said to be reverse biased. Under reverse-biased conditions, a small reverse
current (also known as leakage current) in the range of micro- or milliampere

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flows and this leakage current increases slowly in magnitude with the reverse
voltage until the avalanche or zener voltage is reached. Figure 1.5a shows the
steady-state v-i characteristics of a diode. For most practical purposes, a diode
can be regarded as an ideal switch, whose characteristics are shown in Figure
1.5b.

(a). Practical (b). Ideal

Fig. 1.5 – v-i characteristics of a diode.

The v-i characteristics shown in Figure 1.5a can be expressed by an equation

known as Schockley diode equation, and it is given under dc steady-state
operation by;
𝑰𝑫 = 𝑰𝑺 (𝒆𝑽𝑫/𝒏𝑽𝑻 − 𝟏) Eq. 1.1
where;
ID = current through the diode, A;
VD = diode voltage with anode positive with respect to cathode, V;
IS = leakage (or reverse saturation) current, typically in the range
10-6 to 10-15 A;
n = empirical constant known as emission coefficient, or ideality
factor, whose value varies from 1 to 2.

The emission coefficient n depends on the material and the physical construction
of the diode. For germanium diodes, n is considered to be 1. For silicon diodes,
the predicted value of n is 2, but for most practical silicon diodes, the value of n
falls in the range 1.1 to 1.8.

VT in eq 1.1 is a constant called thermal voltage and it is given by;

𝒌𝑻
𝑽𝑻 = Eq. 1.2
𝒒
where;
q = electron charge: 1.6022 x 10-19 coulomb (C);
T = absolute temperature in Kelvin (K = 273 + ºC);
k = Boltzmann’s constant: 1.3806 x 10-23 J/K.

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At a junction temperature of 25°C, Eq. 1.2 gives
𝑘𝑇 (1.3806 𝑥 10−23 ) 𝑥 (273+25)
𝑉𝑇 = = ≈ 25.7𝑚𝑉
𝑞 1.6022 𝑥 10−19

At a specified temperature, the leakage current IS is a constant for a given

diode. The diode characteristic of Figure 1.5a can be divided into three regions:
Forward-biased region, where VD > 0
Reverse-biased region, where VD < 0
Breakdown region, where VD < -VBR

Forward-biased region. In the forward-biased region, VD > 0. The diode

current ID is very small if the diode voltage VD is less than a specific value VTD
(typically 0.7V for Si, and 0.3V for Ge). The diode conducts fully if VD is higher
than this value VTD, which is referred to as the threshold voltage, cut-in voltage,
or turn-on voltage. Thus, the threshold voltage is a voltage at which the diode
conducts fully.

Reverse-biased region. In the reverse-biased region, VD < 0. If VD is negative

and |𝑉𝐷 | ≫ VT, which occurs for VD < -0.1V, the exponential term in Eq. (1.1)
becomes negligibly small compared with unity and the diode current ID becomes
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝑆 (𝑒 −|𝑉𝐷|/𝑛𝑉𝑇 − 1) ≈ −𝐼𝑆

Breakdown region. In the breakdown region, the reverse voltage is high,

usually with a magnitude greater than 1000V. The magnitude of the reverse
voltage may exceed a specified voltage known as the breakdown voltage VBR.
With a small change in reverse voltage beyond VBR, the reverse current increases
rapidly. The operation in the breakdown region will not be destructive, provided
that the power dissipation is within a “safe level” that is specified in the
manufacturer’s data sheet. However, it is often necessary to limit the reverse
current in the breakdown region to limit the power dissipation within a
permissible value.

Example: Finding the Saturation Current

The forward voltage drop of a power diode is VD = 1.2V at ID = 300A. Assuming
that n = 2 and VT = 25.7mV, find the reverse saturation current IS.

Solution
Applying Eq. 1.1, we can find the leakage (or saturation) current IS from;
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝑆 (𝑒 𝑉𝐷 /𝑛𝑉𝑇 − 1)
−3 )
300 = 𝐼𝑆 (𝑒 1.2/(2 𝑥 25.7 𝑥 10 − 1)
IS = 2.17746 x 10-8 A.

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1.1 Forward Characteristics of Silicon Diode
As silicon diodes are essentially cells containing simple p-n junctions, they
have low resistance to current flow in one direction (anode to cathode),
and high resistance to current flow in the opposite direction (cathode to
anode).
The forward characteristics of diodes follow the 𝑒 𝑒𝑣/𝑘𝑇 law at low voltage.
This is modified to become 𝑒 𝑒𝑣/2𝑘𝑇 at higher voltages and finally becomes
linear at very high voltages and currents.

1.2 Reverse Characteristics of Silicon Diode

In the reverse direction, the current is usually very small. The reverse
current increases slightly with increases of the reverse voltage, but tends
to remain constant over a substantial increase. At a specific reverse
voltage, the current increases very sharply. This is called the breakdown
voltage.
The reverse current increases substantially with temperature. If the
reverse voltage is increased beyond the breakdown voltage or the
temperature is raised sufficiently, the reverse current increases to a very
large extent and the diode may be destroyed by thermal 'runaway'.

1.3 Forward Voltage Drop

A silicon rectifier usually requires a forward voltage drop of 0.4 to 0.8V
before significant current flow occurs. This voltage depends on the
temperature and the impurity concentration in p-type and n-type
materials. An increase in voltage in the forward direction increases the
current very sharply and if not properly controlled, may exceed the
specified dissipation capacity and seriously damage the device.

1.4 Peak Reverse Voltage

One of the most important ratings is the maximum peak reverse voltage
(PIV). This is the highest amount of reverse voltage that can be applied to
a diode before avalanche breakdown occurs. PIV ratings range from about
100V to as high as 2500V for a single junction. For higher voltage
requirement, several diodes may be connected in series.

1.5 Power Rating

The power rating of a diode is determined by the electrical conditions
under which the heat dissipated in the device is equal to that removed by
the heat sink at a certain maximum steady temperature. The heat

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removed by the heat sink due to convection, conduction and radiation is
almost a linear function of temperature. The maximum junction
temperature permitted is about 200ºC. The power consumed by a diode
and the heat generated within it are proportional to the square of the
current. Therefore, along with the average and peak current ratings of
diodes, the rms current ratings are equally important. The ratios of rms to
average and peak to average currents are different for different rectifier
circuit configurations. Therefore,
selection of proper diodes is mostly based on temperature rise. i.e. the
ambient temperature, conduction angle, type of circuits, type of duty,
method of cooling, altitude, etc. Published data for diodes usually include
maximum ratings.

1.6 Maximum Average Forward Current

This is the maximum average value of the current allowed to flow in the
forward direction during a full ac 'cycle at a specified ambient or case
temperature. The average current rating of a diode decreases with
reduction in conduction angle because of the increased value of the
current form factor.
Typical average current outputs range from 0.5 to 800A.

1.7 Surge or Fault Current

In rectifier applications. there may arise conditions which cause
momentary currents that are considerably higher than the normal
operating current.
These increases may occur from time to time during normal circuit
operation as a result of normal load variation or they may be caused by
abnormal condition or faults in the circuits. Although a diode can usually
absorb a limited amount of additional heat with just a momentary rise in
junction temperature, a sufficiently high surge can drive the junction
temperature high enough to destroy the diode.
Surge ratings indicate the amount of current overload or surge that the
diode can withstand without detrimental effects.

Power Diode Types

Ideally, a diode should have no reverse recovery time. However, the
manufacturing cost of such a diode may increase. In many applications, the
effects of reverse recovery time is not significant, and inexpensive diodes can be
used.
Depending on the recovery characteristics and manufacturing techniques, the
power diodes can be classified into the following three categories:
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 1. Standard or general-purpose diodes
2. Fast-recovery diodes
3. Schottky diodes

General-purpose diodes are available up to 6000V, 4500A, and the rating of fast
recovery diodes can go up to 6000V, 1100A. The reverse recovery time varies
between 0.1µs and 5µs. The fast-recovery diodes are essential for high-
frequency switching of power converters. Schottky diodes have a low on-state
voltage and a very small recovery time, typically in nanoseconds. The leakage
current increases with the voltage rating and their ratings are limited to 100V,
300A. A diode conducts when its anode voltage is higher than that of the
cathode; and the forward voltage drop of a power diode is very low, typically
0.5V to 1.2V.
The characteristics and practical limitations of these types restrict their
applications.

(a). Various general-purpose diode configurations. (b). Fast-recovery diodes.

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