NFPA 1081 Standard Knowledge Objectives

Inc ipie nt Indust ria l Fire B riga de M e mbe r
NFPA 1081 contai ns no Inci pient Industri al j ob performance requi rements for thi s
chapter.
A dv a nc ed Ext e rior Indust ria l Fire B riga de Me mbe r
NFPA 1081 contai ns no Advanced Exteri or Industri al j ob performance requi re -
ments for thi s chapter.
Inte rior St ruc tural Indust ria l Fire B riga de M e mbe r 7 .2.2 (A) Requi si te
Knowl edge. Basi c constructi on of typi cal doors, wi ndows, and wall s wi thi n the
facility; operati on of doors, wi ndows, and thei r associ ated l ocki ng mechani sm s;
and the dangers associ ated with forci ng entry through doors, wi ndows, and
wall s.
After compl eti ng thi s chapter, you will be abl e to:
• Descri be the characteri sti cs of the foll owi ng buil di ng materi al s: masonry,
concrete, steel, glass, gypsum board, and wood.
• Li st the characteri sti cs of each of the foll owi ng types of buil di ng con
structi on: fi re-resi sti ve constru cti on, noncombu sti bl e constructi on,
ordi nary constructi on, heavy ti mber constructi on, and wood -frame
constructi on.
• Descri be how each of the fi ve types of buil di ng constructi on react to fi re.
• Descri be the function of each of the foll owi ng buil di ng components:
foundati ons, fl oors, ceili ngs, roofs, trusses, wall s, doors, wi ndows,
interi or fi ni shes, and fl oor coveri ngs.
Skills Objectives
There are no skill s obj ecti ves for thi s chapter.

Additional NFPA Standards

NFPA 68 Standard on Expl osi on Protecti on by Defl agrati on Venting
NFPA 80 Standard for Fi re Doors and Other Protecti ve s NFPA 203
Gui de on Roof Coveri ngs and Roof Deck Con structi ons NFP A 220
Standard on Types of Buil di ng Constructi on NFP A 221 Standard for Fi re
Wal l s and Fi re Barri er Wall s NFP A 600 Standard on Industri al Fi re
Bri gades
 Your fire brigade is dispatched for a building fire in the plant. The building is a single -story ware-
house with smoke coming out of the loading dock area. As the engine pulls to a stop, you quickly
identify the building construction and materials. As you dismount, you mentally run through the
hazards presented by this construction.
1. Why must b rigade memb ers understand b uilding construction?
2. What is the b est way for b rigade members to learn ab out the types of construction
in their response area?
3. What additional factors should b e considered?

Introduction buildings of a part icular size, use, or location. Regulat ions

Knowing the basic types of building construction is vital for
brigade members because building construction affects how
fires grow and spread. Brigade members must be able to iden-
tify different types of building construction quickly so that
they can anticipate the fires behavior and respond accordingly.
An understanding of build ing construction will help deter -
mine when it is safe to enter a burn ing bu ilding and when it is
necessary to evacuate a building. Your safety, the safety of your
team members, and the safety of the buildings occupants
depend on a knowledge of building construction.
But construction is only one component of a comp lex
relat ionship. Brigade members also must consider the occu -
pancy of the bu ilding and the build ing contents. Fire risk
factors vary depending on how a build ing is used. To estab -
lish a course of action at a fire, it is necessary to consider the
interactions between th ree factors : the bu ild ing construc -
tion, the occupancy of the bu ilding, and the contents of the
build ing. The fo llo wing sections relate to occupancy and
contents, wh ile the rest o f this chapter fo cuses on those
aspects of bu ild ing constru ct ion that are import ant to a
brigade member.
divide build ing occupancies into major categories —such as
residential, health care, business, and industrial—based on
common characteristics.
Occupancy classificat ions can be used to p red ict the
number of occupants that are likely to be at risk in a fire. An
office build ing probably has a large populat ion during the
day, but most of the wo rkers should be able to evacuate
without assistance.
Fire hazards in different types of occupancies also vary
greatly. A computer repair area has different characteristics
than a warehouse. A factory could be used to produce
cast-iron pipe fittings or airp lanes. The materials used could
be flammab le, to xic, or fire resistant. Brigade members must
consider each of these factors when responding to a particular
build ing.
Building codes require that certain types of building con -
struction be used for specific types of occupancies. In most
communit ies, however, buildings that were built for one rea-
son are now being used for some other purpose. Build ings
constructed before modern codes were adopted were o ften
grandfathered in during inspections. Th is presents hazards
for fire b rigade members.

Occupancy
The term occupancy refers to how a building is used. Based
on a build ing's occupancy classificat ion, a b rigade member
can p red ict who is likely to be insid e the bu ild ing, ho w
man y p eop le, and what th ey are likely to be do ing .
Occupancy also suggests the types of hazards and situations
that may be encountered in the build ing.
Occupancy classifications are used with bu ilding and
safety codes to establish regulatory requirements, including
t he typ es o f co nst ru ct ion that can be used to cons t ru ct
Contents
Contents also must be considered when responding to a
building. Building contents vary widely but are usually closely
related to the occupancy of a build ing. So me buildings have
noncombustible contents that would not feed a fire, wh ile
others could be so dangerous that brigade members could not
safely attack any fire. For examp le, warehouses could contain
many to xic and flammab le substances. Whenever possible,
fire brigade members should prepare an advance plan for
buildings that present special hazards.
 Buildi ng C onstr ucti on 143

Similar occupancies can pose different levels of risk. For

examp le, th ree warehouses, id ent ical fro m the exterior,
Brigade Member Tips
could have very d ifferent contents that increase or reduce The four characteristics of building m aterials under fire are: •
the ris ks to fire b rigad e members. On e mig ht cont ain C om bus tibility
ceramic floor tiles, the second might be filled with wooden • T hermal c onduct ivit y • Dec rease in strength with increased
furniture, and the third might be a storehouse for swimming
temperature • Rat e of t herm al ex pans ion
pool chemicals. The t iles will not burn, the fu rn iture will,
and the chemicals could create toxic products of combustion
and contaminated runoff.
• Thermal exp ansion when heated : So me materials, steel
Types of Construction Materials in particu lar, expand significantly when they are heated.
A steel beam exposed to a fire will stretch (elongate); if
An understanding of build ing construct ion beg ins with the it is restrained so that it cannot elongate, it will sag,
materials used. Bu ild ing co mponents are usually made of warp, or t wist.
different materials. The properties of these materials and the
details of their construction determine the basic fire charac- Masonry
teristics of the build ing itself. Masonry includes stone, concrete b locks, and brick. The
Function, appearance, cost, and co mp liance with build ing indiv idual co mponents are usually bonded together into a
and fire codes are all considerat ions when select ing bu ild ing solid mass with mortar, wh ich is produced by mixing sand,
materials and construct ion methods. A rch itects often place lime, water, and Po rtland cement. A concrete-masonry unit,
a prio rity on functionality and aesthetics when select ing or CMU, is a pre-assembled wall section of brick or concrete
materials; builders are often mo re concerned about cost and blocks that contains steel reinforcing rods. A co mplete CM U
ease of construction, and building owners are usu ally can be delivered to a construction side, ready to be erected.
interested in du rability and maintenance expenses, as well as M as o n ry mat e r ia ls a re in h e ren t ly f i re res is t iv e (
init ial cost and aesthetics. ▼ Figure 6-1 ). They do not burn or deteriorate at the tem-
Fire brigade members, however, use a different set of peratures no rmally encountered in build ing fires. Masonry
facto rs to ev aluate constru ct ion methods and materials. is also a poor conductor of heat, so it will limit the passage of
Their ch ief concern is the behav io r o f th e bu ild ing under heat fro m one side through to the other side. For these
fire conditions. A bu ilding material or construction method reasons, masonry is o ften used to construct fire walls to
that is att ract ive to arch itects, bu ilders, and bu ilding own ers protect vulnerable materials. A fire wall helps prevent the
can create serious problems or deadly hazards for fire spread of a fire fro m one side to the other s ide o f the wall.
brigade members. All masonry walls are not necessarily fire walls. A single
The most common building materials are wood, masonry, layer o f masonry may be used over a wood-framed bu ild ing
concrete, steel, alu minu m, g lass, gypsum board, and plas-
tics. W ith in these basic categories are hundreds of varia-
tions. The key factors that affect the behavior of each of these
materials under fire condit ions include:
• Combusti bility: Whether o r not a material will burn
determines its co mbustibility. Materials such as wood
will burn when they are ign ited, releasing heat, light,
and smo ke, unt il they are co mp letely consu med by
the fire. Concrete, b rick, and steel are nonco mbustible
materials that cannot be ign ited and are not consu med
by a fire.
• Thermal conducti vity: This describes how quickly a
material will conduct heat. Heat flows very quickly
through metals such as steel and aluminum. Brick, con
crete, and gypsum board are poor conductors of heat.
• Decrease in strength at elevated temperatures: Many
materials lose strength at elevated temperatures. Steel
loses strength and will bend o r buckle when exposed
to fire temperatures. Alu minu m melts in a fire. Bricks (Figure 6-1) Mas onry m aterials are inherently fire resistive.
and concrete can generally withstand high tempera
tures for extended periods of time.
144 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E :
to make it appear mo re substantial. If there are unprotected
openings in a masonry wall, a fire can often spread through
them. If the mortar has deteriorated o r the wall has been
exposed to fire for a prolonged time, a masonry wall can col-
lapse during a fire.
A masonry structure also can collapse under fire condi-
tions if the roof or floor assembly collapses. The masonry falls
because of the mechanical action of the collapse. Aged, weak-
ened mortar can also contribute to a collapse. Regardless of
the cause, a collapsing masonry wall is a deadly hazard to fire
brigade members.
Concrete
Concrete is also a naturally fire-resistive material. It does not
burn o r conduct heat well, so it is o ften used to insulate
other building materials fro m fire. Concrete does not have a
high deg ree o f t hermal expans ion —that is, it do es not
expand great ly when exposed to heat and fire. No r will it
lose strength when exposed to heat and fire.
Concrete is made fro m a mixture of Po rtland cement and
aggregates such as sand and gravel. Different formulations of
concrete can be p roduced for specific build ing purposes.
Concrete is inexpensive and easy to shape and form. It can be
used for foundations, columns, floors, walls, roofs, and
exterior pavement.
Under co mpression, concrete is strong and can support a
great deal of weight, but under tension, it is weak. When used
in building construction, concrete usually has embedded steel
rein forcing rods to strengthen it under tension. In turn, the
concrete insulates the steel reinforcing rods fro m heat.
Although it is inherently fire resistive, concrete can be
damaged by exposure to a fire. A fire can convert trapped
mo isture in the concrete to steam. As the steam expands, it
creates internal pressure that can cause sections of the con-
crete surface to break off, a process called spalling. Severe
spalling in reinforced concrete can expose the steel reinforc ing
rods to the heat of the fire. If the fire is hot enough, the steel
might weaken , resu lt ing in a structu ral co llapse. However,
this rarely occurs.
Steel
Steel is the strongest building material in co mmon use. It is
very strong in both tension and co mp ression and can be p ro -
duced in a wide range of shapes and sizes, from heavy beams
and colu mns to thin sheets. Steel is often used in the struc-
tural framewo rk o f a building to support floor and roof
assemblies. It is resistant to aging and does not rot; however,
most types of steel will rust unless they are protected fro m
exposure to air and mo isture.
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon; add it ional metals
may be added to produce steel with special p ropert ies, such
as stainless steel or galvanized steel.
Steel by itself is not fire resistive. Steel will melt at
extremely h igh temperatures, but these temperatures are not
P R I N C I P L E S A N D P R A C T I C E
( Figure 6-2 ) Steel can deform and fail at temperatures common in struc ture
fires.
normally encountered at structure fires (Figure 6-2 ). Steel can
deform and fail at temperatures co mmon in structure fires.
Other materials, such as masonry, concrete, or layers of
gypsum board, are often used to p rotect steel fro m the heat o f
a fire. Sprayed-on coatings of mineral or cement-like
mat erials are also used to insu lat e steel members. Th e
amount o f heat absorbed by steel depends on the mass o f
the object and the amount of p rotect ion surround ing it .
Smaller, lighter p ieces of steel heat more easily than larger
and heavier pieces.
Steel will expand as well as lose strength as it is heated.
An unprotected steel roof beam directly exposed to a fire can
elongate sufficiently to cause a supporting wall to collapse.
Heated steel beams will o ften sag and twist, while colu mns
tend to buckle as they lose strength. The bend ing and d is -
tort ion are caused by th e un even heat ing th at occu rs in
actual fire situations. Steel trusses are often used in business
and industrial occupancies, part icu larly to support roofs.
The structure of a truss enables a limited amount of material to
support a heavy load. However, failure of a trus s member
could result in failu re of the other t russ.
Failure o f a steel structure is dependent on three factors:
the mass of the steel co mponents, the loads placed upon
them, and the methods used to connect the steel p ieces.
There are no accurate indicato rs that enab le brigade mem-
bers to predict when a steel beam will fail. Any sign of bend -
ing, sagging, or stretching of steel structural members is a
warn ing of an immed iate risk o f failu re.
Other Metals
A variety of other metals including alu minu m, copper, and
zinc are used in build ing construction. Alu minu m is often
used for siding, window frames, door frames, and roof pan els.
Copper is used primarily for electrical wiring and piping; it is
sometimes used for decorat ive roofs, gutters, and do wn

spouts. Zinc is used primarily as a coat ing to protect metal
parts fro m rust and corrosion.
Aluminu m is occasionally used as a structural material in
build ing construction. It is mo re expensive and not as strong
as steel, so its use is generally limited to light-duty applica-
tions such as awnings and sunshades. It is also being used as
studs in non load-bearing walls. Alu minu m expands more
than steel when heated and loses strength quickly when
exposed to a fire. Alu minu m has a lo wer melt ing point than
steel, so it will often melt and drip in a fire.
Glass
Almost all buildings contain glass —in windows, doors, sky-
lights, and sometimes walls. Ordinary glass breaks very eas-
ily, but glass can be manufactured to resist breakage and to
withstand impacts or high temperatu res.
Glass is noncombustible, but it is not fire resistive except
for specifically formulated glass. Ordinary glass will usually
break when exposed to fire, but specially fo rmu lated g lass
can be used as a fire barrier in particu lar situations. Thermal
conductivity of glass is usually not a significant factor in the
spread of fire.
There are many different types of glass:
• Ord inary window glass will usually break with a loud
pop when heat exposure to one side causes it to
expand and creates internal stresses that fractu re the
glass. The broken g lass forms large shards, which
usually have sharp edges.
• Tempered gl ass is much stronger than ordinary glass
and harder to break. So me temp ered glass can be
bro ken with a sp ring -loaded center punch and will
shatter into s mall p ieces that do not have the sharp
edges of ordinary glass.
• Lami nated gl ass is manufactured with a th in sheet
of plastic bet ween t wo sheets of glass. It is much
stronger than ordinary g lass, difficu lt to break with
ordinary hand tools, and will usually defo rm instead
of breaking. When exposed to a fire, laminated g lass
windows are likely to crack and remain in p lace.
Lamin ated glass is so met imes used in bu ildings to
help soundproof areas.
• Gl ass bl ocks are thick p ieces of g lass similar to b ricks
or t iles. They are designed to be built into a wall with
mortar so that light can be t rans mitted th rough the
wall. Glass blocks have limited strength and cannot be
used as part of a load-bearing wall, but they can usu
ally withstand a fire. So me glass blocks are approved
for use with fire-rated masonry walls.
• Wired gl ass is made by mo lding tempered glass with
a reinforcing wire mesh ( Figure 6-3^). When wired
glass is subjected to heat, the wire ho lds the glass
together and p revents it fro m b reaking. It is often
used in fire doors and windo ws designed to p revent
fire spread.
B ui l di ng Constr uction 145
( Figure 6-3) W ired glass.
• Fire-rated glass Special glass formulations are available
that have achieved fire rat ings of up to 3 hours. Th is
glass has much better impact rat ing than wired g lass (in
normal use) and may be found in doors o r windows in
commercial and industrial facilit ies.
Gypsum Board
Gypsum is a naturally occurring mineral co mposed of cal-
ciu m sulfate and water mo lecules, used to make p laster of
Paris. Gypsu m is a good insulato r and nonco mbustib le; it
will not bu rn even in at mospheres o f pu re o xygen.
Gypsum board, which is also called drywall, sheetrock,
or p lasterboard , is co mmon ly used to cov er the int erior
walls and ceilings of residential living areas and commercial
spaces. Gypsum board is manufactured in large sheets con -
s ist ing o f a lay er o f co mp act ed gypsu m s and wiched
between two layers of specially produced paper. The sheets
are nailed or screwed in place on a framework of wood or
metal studs, and the edges are secured with a special tape.
The nail o r screw h eads and tape are then covered with a
thin layer of p laster.
Gypsum board has limited co mbustib ility, because the
paper covering will bu rn slo wly when exposed to a fire. It
does not conduct or release heat to an extent that wou ld
contribute to fire spread and is often used to create a firestop
or to p rotect building co mponents fro m fire. Gypsum b locks
are so met imes used as protect ive insulat ion around steel
members or to create fire-resistive enclosures or interior fire
walls.
When gypsum board is heated , so me of the water found in
the calciu m sulfate will evaporate, causing the board to
deteriorate. If it is exposed to a fire for a long time, the gyp -
sum board will fail. Water will also weaken and permanently
damage gypsum board.
 146 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E : P R I N C I P L E S
Even if the gypsum board retains its integrity after a fire,
the sections that were direct ly exposed to the fire should be
rep laced. The sections that were heated will probab ly be
unable to serve as effective fire barriers in the future.
Althou gh gypsu m bo ard is a good fin ish ing mat erial
and an effect ive fire barrier, it is not a strong structu ral
mat erial. It must be p rop erly mou nted on and suppo rt ed
by wood o r steel studs. Gypsu m board mounted on wood
framing will protect the wood fro m fire fo r a limited t ime.
Co mmercial and industrial facilit ies may use alu minu m
studs in lieu of wood framing. Also, various types of plas tic
and fiberglass may be used on gypsum walls to add strength
or cleanability.
Wood
Wood is probably the most commonly used building material
in our environ ment, although less so in industrial facilities. It
is inexpensive to produce, easy to use, and can be shaped into
many different forms, fro m heavy structural supports to thin
strips of exterior siding. Both soft woods such as pine and hard
woods such as oak are used for building construction.
A wide variety of wood products are used in building
construction:
• Solid lu mber is squared and cut into uniform lengths.
Examp les o f solid lu mber include the heavy t imbers
used in mills and barns and the lightweight boards
used for sid ing and decorat ive t rim.
• Laminated wood consists of indiv idual pieces of
wood g lued together. Laminat ion is used to p roduce
beams that are longer and stronger than solid lu mber
and to manu facture cu rved beams .
• Wood panels are p roduced by g lu ing to gether
thin sheets o f wood . Ply wood is the most co mmon
type o f wood pan el used in bu ild ing construct ion .
Small ch ips (ch ip board ) or part icles o f wood
(part icle board ) can also b e used to make wood
panels that are usually mu ch weaker than ply wood
or solid lu mber.
• Wood trusses are assemb lies of p ieces of wood or
wood and metal, o ften used to support floo rs and
roofs. The structure of a t russ enables a limit ed
amount of material to support a heavy load. However,
failu re o f a truss member may result in failure of the
entire truss.
• Wooden beams are efficient load-bearing members
assembled fro m indiv idual wood co mponents. The
shape of a wooden I-beam or bo x beam enables it to
support the same load that a solid wood beam could
support.
For fire brigade members, the most important characteristic
of wood is combustibility. Wood adds fuel to a structural fire
and can provide a path for the fire to spread. It ignites at fairly
low temperatures and is gradually consumed by the fire,
weaken ing and eventu ally co llapsing th e st ruct ure. Great
A N D P R A C T I C E
quantities o f heat and hot gases are created until all that
remains is a s mall quantity of residual ash.
Wood components weaken as they are consumed by fire.
A burn ing wood structu re gets weaker every minute, mak ing
it imperat ive that brigade members always remember to
operate on the side o f safety
How fast wood ignites, burns, and deco mposes depends
on several factors:
• Igniti on: A s mall ignition source contains less energy
and will take a longer t ime to ignite a fire. Using an
accelerant will great ly speed up the process.
• Moisture: Damp or mo ist wood takes longer to ignite
and burn. New lu mber usually contains mo re mo is
ture than lu mber that has been in a build ing for many
years. A h igher relat ive hu midity in the at mosphere
also makes wood more d ifficult to ignite.
• Density: Heavy, dense wood is harder to ignite than
lighter o r less dense wood.
• Preheating: The mo re the wood is preheated, the
faster it ignites.
• Size and form: The rate of co mbustion is d irectly
related to the surface area of the wood. The co mbus
tion process occurs as high temperatures release flam
mab le gases fro m the surface of the wood. A large
solid beam is difficu lt to ign ite and burns relat ively
slowly. A lightweight truss is more easily ignited and
rapid ly consumed.
Exposure to the h igh temperatu res generated by a fire
can also decrease the strength of wood th rough the process of
pyrol ysis. This chemical change occurs when wood or other
materials are heated to a temperature high enough to release
some of the volat ile co mpounds in the wood, with out
ignit ing these gases. The wood begins to decompose without
co mbustion.
Fire-Retardant-Treated Wood
Wood cannot be treated to make it co mp letely
noncom-bustible. But impregnating wood with mineral salts
makes it mo re d ifficult to ignite and slows the rate of burning.
Fire-retardant treat ment can significantly reduce the fire
hazards of wood construct ion, although the t reat ment
process can also reduce the strength o f the wood.
In so me cases , fire -ret ard ant -t reat ed wo od can p ose
a danger fo r fire b rig ad e memb ers . So me fire -ret ardant
Brigade Member Safety Tips
Avoid standing on roofs that hav e been const ructed wit h
fire-retardant-treated wood. Atm ospheric decomposition of the wood
could cause these roofs to collaps e, even without fire dam age. Also,
bew are of skylights and other portions of roofs that m ay not be suit ed
for walk ing on.

(Figure 6 -4) Plastic building materials come in many different forms.
chemicals used to treat plywood roofing panels will cause the
wood to deteriorate and weaken . The ply wood can fail,
necessitating the replacement of these panels. Fire brigade
members should know whether fire -retardant-treated ply -
wood is used in the facility and avoid standing on roofs made
with these panels during a fire. The extra weight could cause
the plywood to collapse.
Plastics
Plastics are synthetic materials used in many products today
(Figure 6-4 ). Plastics may be t ransparent or opaque, stiff or
flexible, tough or brittle. They are often co mbined with other
materials to produce bu ild ing p roducts.
Although plastics are rarely used for structural support,
they can be found throughout a build ing. Building exteriors
may include vinyl siding, plastic window frames, and plastic
panel skylights. Foam p lastic materials can be used as exterior
or interior insu lation . Plast ic p ipe and fitt ings, p lastic tub
and shower enclosures, and plastic light ing fixtures are
common ly used today. Even carpeting and floor coverings
often contain plastics.
The combustibility of plastics varies great ly. So me p las tics
ign ite eas ily and burn quickly , wh ile others will bu rn only
while an external source of heat is present. Some plas tics will
withstand h igh temperatu res and fire exposure without
ignit ing.
Many plastics produce quantities of heavy, dense, dark
smoke and release high concentrations of toxic gases as they
burn. The s mo ke resemb les s moke fro m a petroleu m fire
because most p last ics are mad e fro m p etro leu m p roducts.
Thermopl astic materi als melt and d rip when exposed
to h igh temperatures, even those as low as 500 °E Heat is
us ed t o sh ap e th ese mat erials int o d ifferen t fo rms , b ut
Buil ding C onstructi on 147
the d ripp ing, bu rn ing p lastic can rap id ly spread a fire.
Thermoset materi als, however, are fused by heat and will
not melt . They will lose strength as the plastic bu rns, but
will not melt.
Types of Construction
Fire brigade members need to understand and recognize five
different types of building construction. These classifications
are direct ly related to fire protection and fire behavior in the
build ing.
Buildings are classified based on the combustibility of the
structure and the fire resistance of its components. Buildings
using Type I or Type II construction are assembled with pri-
marily nonco mbustib le materials and limited amounts of
wood and other materials that will burn. Th is does not mean
that Type I and Type II build ings cannot be damaged by a
fire. If the contents of the building burn, the fire could seri-
ously damage or destroy the structure.
In buildings using Type III, Type IV, or Type V construc-
tion, both the structu ral co mponents and the bu ilding con -
tents will bu rn . W ood and wo od p rodu cts are used to
varying degrees in these build ings. If the wood ignites, the
fire will weaken and consu me the structure as well as the
contents. Structural elements of these build ing can be dam-
aged or destroyed in a very short time.
Fire resistance refers to the length of time that a building or
build ing co mponent can withstand a fire befo re ignit ing. Fire
resistance ratings are stated in hours, based on the time that a
test assembly withstands or contains a standard test fire. For
example, walls are rated based on whether they stop the
progress o f the test fire for periods fro m 20 minutes to 4
hours. A floo r assemb ly cou ld be rated based on whether it
supports a load for 1 hour or 2 hours. Because ratings are
based on a standard test fire, and an actual fire cou ld b e
more or less severe than the test fire, ratings are only guide-
lines; a 2-hour rated assemb ly will not necessarily withstand a
fire for 2 hours.
Bu ild ing codes specify the type o f construct ion to be
used, based upon the height, area, occupancy classificat ion,
and location of the building. Addit ional factors, such as the
presence of automatic sprinklers, will also affect the required
construction classification. NFPA 220, Standard on Types of
Building Construction, provides the detailed requirements for
each type of bu ilding construction.
Type I Constru ction: Fire R esistive
Type I constructi on is the most fire -resistive category of
build ing construction. It is used for buildings designed for
large nu mbers of people, buildings with a high life-safety
hazard, tall buildings, large-area buildings, and build ings
containing special hazards. Type I construction is commonly
found in schoo ls, hosp itals, and h igh-rise bu ild ings ( Figure
6-5).
148 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E : P R I N C I P L E S A N D P R A C T I C E

construction , the st ructural steel members are generally

encased in concrete, shielded by a fire -resistive ceiling,
covered with mu ltip le layers of gypsum board, or p rotected
by a sprayed-on insulating material (Figure 6-6 ). An
unprotected steel beam exposed to a fire could fail and cause
the entire building to collapse.
Type I building materials should not provide enough fuel
by themselves to create a serious fire. It is the contents of the
building that determine the severity of a Type I building fire. In
theory, a fire could consume all of the combustible contents of
a Type I bu ild ing and leave the structure basically intact.
Although Type I construction may prov ide the highest
degree of safety, it does not eliminate all of the risks to
occupants and brigade memb ers. Serious fires can occur in
( Figure 6-5 ) Type I construction is commonly found in schools, hospitals, and fire-resistive bu ildings, because the bu rn ing contents can
high-rise buildings. p rodu ce cop ious qu an t it ies o f h eat and s mo ke. Even
though the structure is designed to give brigade members
time to conduct an interior attack, it could be very difficu lt to
ext inguish the fire. A fire that is fully contained with in
fire-resistive construction can be very hot and d ifficult to
Build ings with Type I construction can withstand and
ventilate. For th is reason, auto mat ic sprin klers, as well as
contain a fire for a specified period of time. The fire resistance
fire-resistive construction, are used in modern h igh -rise
and combustibility of all construction materials are carefully
buildings.
evaluated. Each bu ild ing co mponent must be engineered to
So met imes, the burn ing contents provide sufficient fuel
contribute to fire resistance of the entire building.
and generate enough heat to overwhelm the fire -res istant
All of the structural members and co mponents used in
properties o f the construction. In these cases, the fire can
Type I construction must be made of noncombustible mate-
escape fro m its co mpart ment and damage o r destroy the
rials, such as steel, concrete, o r gypsum board. In addit ion,
structure. Similarly, inadequate or poorly maintained con -
the structure must be constructed or p rotected so that there is
struction can also undermine the fire-resistive p ropert ies of
at least two hours of fire resistance. Build ing codes specify the
the bu ild ing materials . Und er extreme fire cond it ions , a
fire resistance requirements for d ifferent co mponents. For
Type I bu ild ing can collapse, but these bu ild ings have a
examp le, colu mns and load-bearing walls in mu lt i-story
much lo wer poten t ial for st ructu ral failu re th an o ther
build ings cou ld hav e a fire res istance requ irement o f 3 or 4
build ings.
hours, while a floor might be required to have a fire resistance
rating of only 2 hours. So me codes allow Type I build ings to
use a limited amount o f co mbustib le material as interior
fin ish.
If a Type I building exceeds specific height and area lim-
itations, codes generally require the use of fire-resistive walls
and/or floors to subdivide it into co mpart ments. A compart -
ment could be a single floor in a high-rise building o r a part of
a floor in a large-area building. A fire in one compart ment
should n ot spread t o any ot her parts o f th e bu ild ing .
Stairways, elevators shafts, and ut ility shafts should be
enclosed in construction that prevents fire fro m spreading
fro m floor to floor or co mpart ment to co mp art ment.
Type I bu ild ings usually use reinforced concrete and
protected steel-frame construction . Concrete is nonco m-
bustible and prov ides thermal p rotect ion around the steel
rein forcing rods. Reinfo rced concrete can fail, ho wever, if it
is subjected to a fire for a long period of time or if the building
contents create an ext reme fire load. Structura l steel framing
must be p rotected fro m the heat of a fire. In Type I
(Figure 6-6) prayed-on fireproofing materials are often used to protect
structural steel.

Type II Construction: Nonco mbustible
Ty p e II co n s t ruct io n is als o referred t o as
n o n -combustible construction (Figure 6-7). A ll of the struc-
tural co mponents in a Type II bu ilding must be made o f
noncombustib le materials. The fire -resistive requ irements,
however, are less stringent fo r Type II const ruct ion . In
some cases, there are no fire resistance requ irements. In
other cases, known as p rotected nonco mbustible construc -
tion, a fire resistance rating of 1 or 2 hours may be requ ired
for certain elements.
Noncombustible construction is most co mmon in
single-story warehouse or factory bu ild ings, where vert ical
fire spread is not an issue. Unp rot ect ed nonco mbust ib le
construction is generally limited to a maximu m of two sto -
ries. So me mu lt i-story bu ildings are constructed using pro-
tected nonco mbustible construct ion.
Steel is the most common structural material in Type II
buildings. Insulat ing materials can be applied to the steel
when fire resistance is required. A typical example of Type II
construction is a large-area, single-story build ing with a steel
frame, metal or concrete block walls, and a metal roof deck.
Fire walls are sometimes used to subdivide these large-area
build ings and prevent catastrophic losses. Undiv ided floor
areas must be protected with auto mat ic sprin klers to limit
the fire risk.
Fire severity in a Type II building is determined by the
contents because the structural co mponents contribute litt le
or no fuel and interio r fin ish materials are limited . If the
build ing cont ents p rov ide a h igh fuel load , a fire cou ld
destroy the structure. Auto mat ic sprin klers should be used
to protect co mbustib le and valuable contents.
( Figure 6-7) Type II construction is also referred to as noncombustible
construction.
Buildi ng C onstr ucti on 149
Brigade Member Tips
Fire-res istive structures wit h sprinklers are a great asset in assist ing
brigade members in controlling the burning contents. How ever, when
the sprinklers activate, steam is produced when the water hits the fire.
As the s prinklers continue to operate, the steam is cooled and c an fill
an enc los ed area from floor to c eiling. Wit hout proper ventilation
brigade m em bers may find thems elv es with virtually no vis ibility.
Type III Construct ion: Ordin ary
Type III construction is also referred to as ordinary con-
struction because it is used in a wide variety of buildings,
ranging fro m co mmercial strip malls to s mall apart ment
buildings (Figure 6-8). Ordinary construction is usually
limited to buildings of no mo re than four stories, but it can
sometimes be found in buildings as tall as six or seven stories.
Type III construction build ings have masonry exterior
walls, which support the floors and the roof structure. The
interior structural and nonstructural members, including the
walls, floor, and roof, are all constructed of wood. In most
ordinary construction build ings, gypsum board or plaster is
used as an interior finish material, covering the wood frame-
work and provid ing min imal fire p rotection.
Fire resistance requirements for interior construction of
Type III buildings are limited. The gypsum or plaster cover-
ings over the interior wood co mponents provide some fire
res istance. Key interio r structu ral co mponents may be
requ ired to h ave fire res istance rat ings o f 1 o r 2 hou rs, o r
( Figure 6-8) Type III construction is also referred to as ordinary construction
because it is used in a wide variety of buildings.
 VOICES OF EXPERIENCE
"The building's construction helped lead to
the fire becoming a potential bomb for the
unobservant."

I
t was 4:30 A.M. on a Monday morning. I was the engineer
for the B shift and was pulling the last of three 12-hour
.night shifts at the El Segundo
refinery when we received a report of something burning around the facility. To
investigate the report, we got into our fire patrol pickups and started checking buildings
and substations. When I drove around the corner, I found the center building with smoke
puffing out of every location from which it could possibly vent. It looked as if the
building was being "steamed out." I reported the location to the other fire patrols, and
then drove back on a Code 3 to the station to pick up the engine. Our probationary fire
fighter had just walked into the station when I yelled at him to jump on the rig with his
gear.
Upon our arrival back at the building, we laid a 4-inch supply line and engaged the pump.
The battalion chief said that the utilities had just been controlled; the probationary fire
fighter had to go with captain and the fire fighter to force the door and make entry. From
the midship control deck, I saw the fire puff and then suck back in. I jumped down and told
the battalion chief what I just saw. He ordered the crew to stop and break a window to
ventilate the building.
When the crew used a pike pole to break the side window, it lit up and then blew all the
glass out of the building like a bo mb going off. This fire showed us exactly what
backdraft was. It cooked everything in the main roo m, but the interior doors to the back
rooms held back the fire. Although we managed to put the fire out with a single engine
company, we had the city engine come to assist with salvage, overhaul, and investigation.
The building was an old concrete facility that had been poured in place in the 1920s; it
featured a plank-and-beam roof. Luckily, our rapid and safe fire attack kept the damage
confined to the main work area. During this incident, the fire-rated doors had kept the fire
out of the back rooms, which allowed the fire to burn for a long period unobserved and
bottled up. The building's construction helped lead to the fire becoming a potential bomb
for the unobservant.

MarcJ. Lawrence
Northrop Gru mman Co mpany, Former Chevron USA Fire Department
El Segundo, California
 Buildi ng C onstruc tion 151

there may be no requirements at all. Some Type III buildings

use interior masonry load -bearing walls to meet requ ire-
ments for fire -resistant structural support.
A building of Type III construction has two separate fire
loads: the contents and the combustible building materials
used. Even a vacant building will contain a sufficient quantity
of wood and other co mbustib le co mponents to produce a
large fire. A fire involving both the contents and the structural
components can quickly destroy the build ing.
Fortunately, most fires originate with the build ing con -
tents and are ext inguished before the flames ignite the struc-
ture itself. Once a fire extends into the structure itself and
begins to consume the fuel with in the walls and above the
ceilings, it beco mes much more difficu lt to control.
Type III construction presents several problems for fire
brigade members. For examp le, an electrical fire can begin
inside the vo id spaces within the walls, floors, and roof
assemblies and extend to the contents. The void spaces also
allow a fire to extend vertically and horizontally, spreading
fro m roo m to roo m and fro m floor to floor. Fire b rigade
members will have to open the void spaces to fight the fire.
An uncont ro lled fire with in the vo id spaces is likely to
destroy the build ing.
The fire res istance o f interio r st ructu ral co mponents
often depends on the age of the build ing and on local build ing
codes. Older Type III build ings were built fro m solid lu mber,
which can contain or withstand a fire for a limited time.
Newer or renovated buildings may have lightweight
( Figure 6-9) Type IV construction is als o known as heavy timber
assemblies that can be damaged much more quickly and are
construction.
prone to early failure. Floors and roofs in these buildings can
collapse suddenly and without warn ing.
Exterior walls also could collapse if a fire causes significant spread that often occurs in ord inary construction build ings.
damage to the interior structure. Because the exterior walls, Many heavy timber build ings do have vertical openings for
the floors, and the roof are all connected in a stable building, elevators, stairs, or machinery, wh ich can provide a path for a
the collapse of the interior structure could make the free- fire to travel fro m one floor to another.
standing masonry walls unstable and likely to collapse. Heavy timber construction has been used to construct
buildings as tall as six to eight stories with open spaces suit-
Type IV Construction: H eavy Timber able for manufacturing and storage occupancies. Similar mod-
Type IV construction is also known as heavy timber con- ern buildings are usually built with either fire resistive (Type
struction ( Figure 6-9 ). A heavy timber building has exterior I) or noncombustible (Type II) construction. New buildings of
walls o f masonry constru ct ion, and interio r walls , Type IV construction are rare, except for special structures that
colu mns, b eams , floo r assemb lies , and roo f structu re o f feature the construction components as architectural elements
wood. The exterior walls are usually brick and extra thick to or renovations to existing type IV structures.
support the weight o f the bu ild ing and its contents. The heavy, solid wood colu mns, support beams, floor
The wood used in Type IV construction is much heav ier assemblies, and roof assemblies used in heavy timber con -
than that used in Type III construction. It is more difficult to struction will withstand a fire much longer than the smaller
ignite and will withstand a fire for a much longer time before wood members used in ord inary and light weight co m-
it co llapses. A typ ical h eavy t imb er bu ild ing cou ld h ave bustible construction. But once involved in a fire, the struc-
8" -squ are wo od posts suppo rt ing 14" -d eep wood b eams ture of a heavy timber building can burn fo r many hours. A
and 8" floor jo ists. The floors cou ld be constructed of solid fire that ignites the combustible port ions of heavy timber
wood p lan ks, 2" o r 3" thick, with top layer o f wood as the construction is likely to burn until it runs out of fuel and the
finished floor surface. build ing is reduced to a pile of rubble. As the fire consumes
Heavy t imber constru ct ion h as no concealed spaces o r the heavy timber support members, the masonry walls will
void s . Th is helps reduce th e ho rizont al an d vert ical fire become unstable and co llapse.
152 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E : P R I N C I P L E S A N D P R A C T I C E

Mill construction was co mmon during the 1800s, espe-

cially in northeastern states. Large mill buildings were built
as factories and warehouses. In many co mmun ities, dozens
of these large buildings were clustered together in industrial
areas, creating the potential for huge fires involving mu ltip le
mu lti-story buildings. The radiant heat fro m a major fire in
one of these buildings could spread the fire to nearby build -
ings, result ing in the loss of several surrounding structures.
Mill construction was state of the art for its time. Automatic
sprinkler systems were developed to protect buildings of mill
construction; as long as the sprinklers are properly maintained,
these buildings have a good safety record. Without sprinklers,
a heavy timber mill building is a major fire hazard.
Only a few of the original mill buildings are still used for
manufacturing. Many have been converted to small shops,
galleries, office build ings, and residential occupancies. The
conversions divide the open spaces into s maller co mpart -
ments and create void spaces with in the structure. Appro - (Figure 6-10) Type V, or wood frame, construction is the most comm on type
priate fire protection and life safety features, such as modern of construction used today.
sprin kler systems, must be bu ilt into the conversions to
ensure the safety of occupants.
barriers are often used to achieve this rating, but brigade mem-
Type V Construction: Wood Frame bers should not assume that these barriers will be present or
effective in all Type V construction.
In Type V constructi on, all o f the majo r co mponents are
Because all o f th e stru ctu ral co mponents are co m-
co ns t ru ct ed o f wo o d o r o t h er co mb u st ib le mat eria ls
bustible, wood frame buildings can rap idly beco me totally
(Figure 6-10). Type V construction is often called
involved in a fire. In addit ion, Type V build ing construction
wood-frame construction and is the most common type of
usually contains voids and channels that allo w a fire within
construction used today. Wood frame construction is used
the structure to spread quickly. A fire that orig inates in a
not only in one- and two-family d wellings and small
Type V build ing can easily extend to other nearby buildings.
commercial build ings, but in larger structures such as
Wood frame build ings often collapse and suffer major
apart ment and condomin iu m co mp lexes and office buildings
destruction from fires. Smo ke detectors are essential to warn
up to four stories in height. It is also found in temporary
building occupants early if a fire occurs. Although
structures and outbuildings.
compart-mentalization can help limit the spread of a fire,
Many wood frame buildings do not have any fire-resistive
automatic sprinklers are the most effect ive way of protecting
components. Some codes require a 1-hour fire resistance rating
lives and property in Type V bu ild ings.
for limited parts of wood frame construction buildings, partic-
Wood frame build ings are constructed in various ways.
ularly those of more than two stories. Plaster or gypsum board
Older wood frame construction was assembled fro m solid
lu mber, wh ich relied on its mass to prov ide strength. To
reduce costs and create the largest building with the least
Brigade Member Safely Tips material, lightweight construction makes extensive use of
wooden I-beams and wooden trusses. St ructural assemblies
Many buildings may hav e a brick veneer on the exterior w alls of wood are engineered to be just strong enough to carry the required
fram e const ruction. A thin lay er of brick or stone might be applied to load. As a result, there is no built-in safety margin, and these
enhance the appearanc e of the building or to reduce the risk of fire
build ings can collapse early, suddenly, and co mpletely during
spread. But this practice can give the im pression t hat a building is
Type III (ordinary) c onstruction w hen it is really Type V (w ood frame) a fire.
construction. During a struct ural fire, the brick veneer is likely to Two systems are used to assemble wood frame buildings:
collapse or peel away as the wall behind it burns or collapses. A single balloon -frame constru ct ion and p lat form const ruct ion .
thickness of bricks is not us ually strong enough to stand inde- Because these systems developed in d ifferent eras, fire
pendently. Brigade mem bers should be aware of buildings con structed brigade members can anticipate the type o f construct ion
in this m anner and maintain a safe distanc e from potential f alling bricks. based on the age of a building .

B all oon-Frame Cons tructi on

Balloon-frame constructi on was popular between the late
1800s and the mid-1900s. A balloon-frame building has the

( Figure 6-11) In a balloon-f ram e
building, the exterior walls create
channels that enable a fire to spread
from the basement to the attic.
exterior walls assembled with
wood studs that are continuous
from the basement to the roof
(Figure 6-11 ). In a two-story
building , the floor jo ists that
support the first and second
floors are nailed to these
continuous studs. As a result,
there is an open channel
between each pair of studs that
extends from the foundation to
the attic. Each of these
channels provides a path that enab les a fire to spread fro m the
basement to the attic without being visible on the first- or
second-floor levels. Brigade members must anticipate that a
fire originating on a lo wer level will quickly extend through
these voids and should open the void spaces to check for
hidden fires and to prevent rap id vert ical extension.
Pl atform-Frame Cons tructi on
Platform-frame construction is used for almost all modern
wood frame construction. In a building with p latform con -
struction, the exterior wall studs are not continuous. The first
floor is constructed as a platform, and the studs for the exte rior
walls are erected on top of it. The first set of studs extends only
to the underside of the second-floor p latform, which b locks
any vertical void spaces. The studs for the second-floor exterior
walls are erected on top of the second-floor platform. At each
level, the floor platform blocks the path of any fire rising within
the void spaces. Platform framing prevents fire spread fro m
one floor to another through continuous stud spaces. A fire
can eventually burn through the wood platform, but the
platform will slo w the fire spread.
B ui l di ng Constr uction 153
Building Components
The construction classificat ion system g ives fire brigade
members an idea of the materials used in building and an
indication of how the materials will react to fire. But each
building also has several different co mponents. A brigade
member who understands how these co mponents funct ion
will have a better understanding of the risks involved with a
burning build ing. So me build ing construction features are
safer for brigade members, as this section shows.
The majo r co mponents of a build ing d iscussed in th is
section are:
• Foundations
• Floors and ceilings
• Roofs
• Trusses
• Walls
• Doors and windo ws
• Interior fin ishes and floor coverings
Foundations
The primary pu rpose of a bu ild ing foundation is to trans fer
t he weig ht o f t he b u ild ing and its con tents to t he ground
(Figure 6-12). The weight of the building itself is called the
dead l oad. The weight o f the build ing's contents is called the
live l oad. The foundation ensures that the base of the
build ing is planted firmly in a fixed locat ion, wh ich helps
keep all other co mponents connected .
Modern foundations are usually constructed of concrete
or masonry, although wood may be used in some areas.
Foundations can be shallow o r deep, depending on the type
of bu ilding and soil co mposit ion. So me build ings are bu ilt
(Figure 6-12) T he foundation supports the entire weight of the building.
 154 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E :
on concrete footings or p iers; others are supported by steel
piles or wooden posts driven into the g round.
As long as the foundation is stable and intact, it is usually
not a major concern for brigade members. If the foundation
shifts or is in poor repair, however, it can become a very crit-
ical concern. A burn ing building with a weak foundation or
inadequate lateral b racing could be in imminent danger of
collapse.
Most foundation problems are caused by circu mstances
other than a fire, such as improper construction, shifting soil
conditions, or earthquakes. Fires can damage timber post and
other wood foundations, but most foundations remain intact
even after a severe fire has damaged the rest of the building.
Fire fo llo wing earthquakes can be particularly dangerous.
When examining a bu ild ing, take a close look at the
foundation. Look for cracks in the foundation that indicate
movement. If the build ing has been modified o r remodeled,
loo k fo r areas where the suppo rt cou ld b e co mpro mised .
Floors and Ceilings
Floor construction is very important to brigade members for
three major reasons. First, brigade members who are wo rking
inside a build ing must rely on the integrity of the floo r to
support their weight. A floor that fails could drop the
brigade members into a fire on a lo wer level. Second, in a
mu lti-story structure, brigad e memb ers may be working
below a floor (or roof), wh ich would fall on them if it col-
lapsed. Finally, the floor system influences whether a fire
spreads vertically fro m floor to floor within a build ing or is
contained on a single level. So me floor systems are designed
to resist fires, wh ile others have no fire -resistant capabilities.
Fire-Resistive Floors
In mu lti-story buildings, floors and ceilings are generally
considered a co mb ined structural system. The structure that
supports a floor also supports the ceiling of the story below. In
a fire-resistive building, this system is designed to prevent a
fire fro m spreading vert ically and to prevent a co llapse
when a fire occu rs in the space belo w the floor -ceiling
assembly. Fire-res istive floor-ceiling systems are rated in
hours of fire resistance based on a standard test fire.
Concrete floors are common in fire-resistive construction.
The concrete can be cast in place or assembled from panels or
beams of precast concrete, which are made at a factory and
transported to the construction site. The thickness of the con -
crete floor depends on the load that the floor needs to support.
Concrete floors can be self-supporting or supported by a
system of steel beams or trusses. The steel can be protected
by sprayed-on insulating materials or covered with concrete
or gypsum board. If the ceiling is part of the fire -resistive rat-
ing, it p rovides a thermal barrier to p rotect the steel mem bers
fro m a fire in the area belo w the ceiling.
The ceiling below a fire -resistant floor can be constructed
with p laster or gypsum board, or it can be a system o f t iles
suspended fro m the floo r st ructu re. In many cases, a vo id
P R I N C I P L E S A N D P R A C T I C E
(Figure 6-13) The space between the ceiling and the underside of the floor
above is often used for electric al and communications wiring and other building
systems.
space bet ween th e ceiling and the floor above contains
build ing systems and equip ment such as electrical or tele-
phone wiring , heat ing and air cond it ion ing ducts, and
plumb ing and fire sprin kler system pipes (Figure 6-13). If the
space above the ceiling is not subdivided by fire-resistant
partit ions or protected by auto mat ic sprin klers, a fire can
quickly extend horizontally across a large area.
Wood-Supported Floors
Wood floor structures are co mmon in nonfire -resistive con-
struction. Wooden floor systems range fro m heavy timber
construction, found in o ld mill build ings, to modern, light -
weight construction.
Heavy timber construction can prov ide a huge fuel load
for a fire, but it can also contain and withstand a fire fo r a
considerable length of time without collapsing. Heavy timber
construction uses posts and beams that are at least 8" on the
smallest side and often as large as 14" in depth. The floor
decking is often assembled fro m solid wood boards, 2" or 3"
thick, wh ich are covered by an add it ional 1" o f fin ished
wood flooring. The depth o f the wood in this system will
often contain a fire for an hour or mo re before the floor fails or
burns through .
Conventional wood flooring, wh ich was widely used for
many decades, is mu ch lighter than heavy timber, but used
solid lu mber as beams , floor jo ists, decking, and fin ished
flooring. It burned readily when exposed to a fire, but gen -
erally took about 20 minutes to burn through or reach struc-
tural failure. This time factor is only a general, unscientific
guideline that depends on many circu mstances.
Modern constru ct ion uses structural elements that are
much less substantial than convent ion al lu mber. Light -
weight wooden trusses or wooden I-beams are often used as
supporting structures. Thin sheets of p ly wood are used as
decking , and the top layer is oft en a th in lay er o f concrete

or wood covered by carpet. This floor construction provides
little resistance to fire. The lightweight structural elements
can fail or the fire can bu rn through the decking quickly.
Unfortunately, it is impossible to tell ho w a floor is con -
structed by looking at it fro m above. The impo rtant info r-
mation about a floo r can on ly be observed fro m below, if it is
visible at all. The building's age and local construction
methods can p rovide sign ificant clues to a floors stability,
but many o lder bu ild ings have been renovated using modern
lightweight systems and materials. Fire brigade members
should use preincident surveys and other planning activ ities
to gather essential structu ral info rmat ion about bu ildings.
Roofs
Safe interior firefighting operations depend on a stable roof.
If the roof collapses, the brigade members inside the building
may be injured or killed. Interior fires generate hot gases that
accumulate under the roof. Fire brigade members performing
ventilation act ivit ies on the roof to release the heated gases
also must depend on the structural integ rity of the roof.
( Figure 6-14) Ex amples of pitched roofs include: A. A gable roof. B. A hip roof. C. A mansard roof. D. A gam brel roof.
Buildi ng C onstr ucti on 155
The primary pu rpose of a roof is to protect the inside o f a
building fro m the weather. Often, roofs are not designed to be
as strong as floors, especially in warmer climates. If the space
under the roof is used for storage, or if ext ra heating,
ventilat ing, or air cond it ion ing equ ip ment is mount ed on
the roof, the load could exceed the designers expectations.
Adding the weight of several fire brigade members to an
overloaded roof cou ld be d isastrous.
Several methods and materials are used for roof construc-
tion. Roofs are constructed in three primary designs: pitched,
curved, and flat. The major components of a roof assembly are
the supporting structure, the roof deck, and the roof covering.
Pitched Roofs
A pi tched roof h as slop ing or inclined surfaces. Pitched
roofs are used on many houses and some co mmercial build -
ings. The p itch or angle of the roof can vary depending on
local architectural styles and climate. Variations of p itched
roofs include gable, hip, mansard, gambrel, and lean-to roofs
(Figure 6-14).
15 6 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E : P R I N C I P L E S AND P R A C T I C E

The slope of a pitched roof can p resent either a minor

inconvenience or a co mp lete lack of secure footing. Fire
brigade members working on a p itched roof are always in
danger of falling, particu larly when the roof is wet or icy,
when the roof covering is not secure, or when smo ke or
darkness obscures vision. Roof ladders are used to provide a
secure working p latfo rm for fire b rigade members wo rking
on a pitched roof.
Pitched roofs are usually supported by either rafters or
t russes . Rafters are so lid wood jo is ts moun ted in an
inclined position. Pitched roofs supported by rafters usually
have solid wood boards as the roof decking. Fire b rigade
memb ers can det ect the impend ing failure o f a roo f with
solid decking supported by rafters by a spongy feeling
underfoot.
Modern lightweight construction uses manufactured wood
trusses to construct most pitched roofs. The decking is usually
thin plywood or a sheeting material such as wood
particle-board . The trusses and decking material can burn
through quickly. Fire brigade members cannot work safely on
this roof if the supporting structures become involved in a fire.
Steel trusses also are used to support pitched roofs. The
fire resistance of steel trusses is directly related to how well
the steel is protected fro m the heat of the fire.
Several roof-covering materials are used on pitched roofs,
usually in the form of s hingles or tiles (Figure 6-15^).
Shingles are usually made fro m felt or mineral fibers impreg-
nated with asphalt , although metal and fiberglass shingles
are also used. Wood shingles, often made from cedar, are
popular in so me areas. In older construction, wood shingles
were often mounted on individual wood slats instead of con-
tinuous decking and would burn rapid ly in dry weather
conditions.
Shingles are generally durable, economical, and easily
repaired. A shingle roof that has aged and deteriorated should
be removed comp letely and replaced. So me older build ings
may have newer layers of shingles on top of older layers,
which can make it difficult to cut an opening for ventilation.
Roofing tiles are usually made fro m clay or concrete
products. Clay t iles, which have been used for roofing since
ancient times, can be flat or rounded. Rounded clay tiles are
sometimes called mission tiles. Clay t iles are both durable
and fire resistant.
Slate tiles are produced fro m thin sheets of rock. Slate is
an expensive, long-lasting roofing material, but very brittle
and slippery when wet.
Metal panels o f galvanized steel, copper, and alu minu m
also are used on p itched roofs. Expensive metals such as
copper are often used for their decorative appearance, while
lower-cost galvanized steel is used on barns and industrial
build ings. Corrugated, galvanized metal panels are strong
enough to be mounted on a roof without roof decking. Metal
roof coverings will not burn , but they can conduct heat to the
roof decking. ( Figure 6-15) Several roof-covering materials are used on pitched roofs.
 Bu ild ing Construction 157

Curved Roofs
Curved roofs are often used for supermarkets, warehouses,
industrial build ings, arenas, aud itoriu ms , bo wling alleys,
churches, airp lane hangars, and other large bu ildings that
require large, open interiors. Curved roofs are usually sup -
ported by steel o r wood bo wstring trusses or arches.
The decking on curved roof buildings can range from solid
wooden boards or plywood to corrugated steel sheets. The
decking material must be identified before ventilat ion open -
ings can be made. Often, the roof covering consists of layers
that include felt, mineral fibers, and asphalt, although some
curved roofs are covered with foam plastics or plastic panels.
Curved roofs are extremely dangerous to operate on due to
footing and collapse problems.

Flat Roofs
Fl at roofs are found on houses, apart ment buildings, shop-
ping centers, warehouses, facto ries, schools, and hospitals
(Figure 6-16). Most flat roofs have a slight slope so water can
drain off. If the roo f does not have the proper slope o r the
drains are not maintained, water can pool on the roof,
overload ing the structure and causing a co llapse.
The support systems for most flat roofs are constructed
of either wood or steel. A wood support structure uses solid
wood beams and joists; laminated wood beams may be used
for extra strength or to span long d istances. Lightweight
construction uses wood trusses or wooden I -beams as the
supporting members. Lightweight assemblies are much less
fire resistant and collapse more quickly than solid wood
systems.
Steel also is used to support flat roofs. Open-web steel
trusses, sometimes called bar jo ists, can span long distances
and remain stable during a fire if they are not subjected to
excessive heat . Auto mat ic sprin klers can protect the steel
fro m the heat, but without such protection, the steel over a
fire will soon weaken and sag. Heated steel support members
can even elongate enough to push out the exterior walls of the
build ing. Cracks in the outside walls at the roof level are a
warn ing ind icator.
Flat roof decks can be constructed of wood planking, ply-
wood, corrugated steel, gypsum, or concrete. The material
used depends on the buildings age and size, the climate, the
cost of materials, and the type of roof covering.
The roof covering is applied on top of the deck. Most flat
roofs are covered with mu ltip le-layer, built-up roofing sys-
tems that help prevent leakage. A typical built-up roof covering
will have five layers: a vapor barrier, thermal insulation, a
waterproof membrane, a drainage layer, and a wear course.
The outside of the flat roof reveals only the top layer, which is
often gravel, that serves as the wear course and protects the
underlying layers fro m wear and tear. Cutting through all of
the layers to open a ventilat ion hole can be a challenge.
Most flat roof coverings contain h igh ly co mbustib le
materials, including asphalt, roofing felt, tarpaper, rubber o r
( Figure 6-16) Most flat roofs have a slight slope so water can drain off.
plast ic memb ran es, and p last ic insulat ion layers. These
materials can be d ifficu lt to ignite, but once lit, they burn
read ily, releas ing g reat quant it ies of heat and black s mo ke.
Flat roofs can present unique problems during vertical
ventilation operations. A roof with a h istory of leaks cou ld
have several patches where additional layers of roofing mate-
rial make the covering ext ra-thick. So metimes a who le new
roof is constructed on top o f the o ld one. A fter open ing a
hole in the new roof, fire brigade members might d iscover
the old roof and have to cut into that as well. Fire brigade
members might d iscover fire bu rning in the space between
the two roofs also.
A similar prob lem may be encountered in dealing with
remodeled buildings or additions. There could be an old flat
roof under a new pitched section, resulting in t wo separate
void spaces. The old roof provides a large supply of fuel for
the fire. Such a situat ion is difficu lt to pred ict un less the
Incident Co mmander has the bu ild ing p lan in advance.
Trusses
Trusses are used extensively in support systems fo r both
floors and roofs. A truss is a structural co mponent co m-
posed of smaller co mponents in a triangular configuration or a
system o f t riang les. Trusses are co mmon in modern
construction for several reasons. The triangular geo metry
creates a strong, rig id structure that can support a load much
Brigade Member Safety Tips
When w orking on a flat roof, av oid skylights and ot her openings that
will not support your weight. If you are temporarily blinde d by sm oke,
use a t ool t o test the s urfac e in front of you and to your sides. Stay
away from the edges of the roof.
158 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E : P R I N C I P L E S A N D P R A C T I C E

greater than its o wn mass. For examp le, both a solid beam
and a simp le t russ with the same overall d imensions can Brigade Member Safety Tips
support the same load . The truss requires much less mate rial The United States Fire Administration (U SFA) has part nered wit h the
than the beam, is much lighter, and can span a long d istance American Forest & Paper Assoc iation (AF&PA) to dev elop educational
without supports. Trusses are often prefabricated and materials to enhance brigade m ember awareness regarding the fire
transported to the bu ild ing locat ion. performance of different types of lightw eight construction components.
Trusses are used in resident ial construction, apart ment The brigade mem ber educational material developed under this
build ings, s mall o ffice build ings, co mmercial bu ild ings, partners hip is available free of charge from http://usfa.fema.gov.
wareho uses, fast foo d rest au ran ts, airp lan e hangars ,
churches, and even firehouses. They may be clearly v isible,
or concealed within the construction. They are widely used
in new construction and often rep lace heav ier solid beams
and jo ists in renovated or mod ified o lder build ings.
The strength of a t russ depends on both its members and
the connections between them. A properly assembled and
installed truss is strong. If the members or connectors begin
to fail, however, the strength o f the t russ is co mpro mised.
Trusses can be used fo r many different purposes. In
build ing construction, trusses made of wood and steel or
comb inat ions of wood and steel are used primarily to sup port
roofs and floors.
A parallel chord truss has two parallel horizontal mem-
bers connected by a system of diagonal and so metimes ver-
tical members. The top and botto m members are called the
chords, and the connecting pieces are the web members.
Parallel chord trusses are often used to support flat roofs or (Figure 6-17) A load-bearing w all provides structural s upport.
floo rs. In light weight const ruct ion , an eng ineered wood
truss is often assembled with wood chords and either wood
or light steel web members. A steel bar joist is another exam-
ple o f a parallel chord truss.
A pi tched chord truss is typ ically used to support a
sloping roo f. Most modern resident ial construction uses a
series of prefabricated wood pitched chord trusses to support
the roof. The roof deck is supported by the top chords, and the
ceilings o f the occup ied roo ms are attached to the botto m
chords. In th is way , the trusses define the shape of the attic.
A bowstring truss has the same shape as an archery bow.
The top chord rep resents the curved bo w and the botto m
chord rep resents the straight bowstring. Bo wstring t russes
are usually quite large and widely spaced. They were popu lar
in warehouses, supermarkets, and similar structures with
large, open floor areas. The roof of a building with bowstring
trusses has a distinctive cu rved shape.
(Figure 6-18) A nonbearing wall s upports only its own w eight.
Walls
Walls are the most visib le parts of a bu ild ing because they
shape the exterior and define the interior. Walls may be con - that load down to the bu ilding's foundation. Damag ing or
structed o f masonry , wood , steel, alu minu m, g lass, and removing a load-bearing wall can result in a part ial or total
many other materials. collapse of the building. Load-bearing walls can be either
Walls are either load -bearing or nonbearing . exterior o r interior walls.
Load-bearing walls provide structural support ( Figure Non be ari ng wal l s su pp o rt o n ly th eir o wn weig h t (
6-17). A load-bearing wall supports a port ion of both the Figure 6-18). Most nonbearing walls can be breached or
building 's weight (dead load) and its contents (live load ), remov ed without co mpro mis ing the structu ral integ rity o f
transmitting the build ing. Many nonbearing walls are interio r part itions
 Buildi ng C onstr ucti on 159

that divide the building into roo ms and spaces. The exterior
Brigade Member Tips
— . --------- — weiaht
walls of a build ing can also be nonbearing, particularly when
a system o f colu mns supports the build ing.
In add ition to load-bearing and nonbearing walls, there
-Man..ufactured trailer structures us.e liaht ...... - ....
building
components throughout the structure to reduce weight. As a res ult, most
are several specialized walls. parts of manuf actured trailer structures are combustible. Manufact ured
• Party walls are constructed on the line between t wo trailer structures typically have few doors and small w indows, making
propert ies and are shared by a bu ilding on each side entry for fire suppression or rescue difficult. Once a fire starts, especially
of the line. They are almost always load-bearing walls. in an older m anuf actured trailer structures, it can destroy the entire
A party wall is often, but not always, constructed as a structure w ithin a few minutes. Often all that is left is the frame.
fire wall bet ween the t wo p ropert ies.
• Fire walls are designed to limit the spread of fire fro m
one side of the wall to the other s ide. A fire wall
walls are masonry. Many buildings that look like masonry are
might div ide a large building into sections or separate
actually constructed using wood frame techniques and mate-
two attached build ings. Fire walls usually extend fro m
rials. A single layer of brick or stone, called a veneer layer, is
the foundat ion up to and th rough the roof o f a bu ild
applied to the ext erio r walls to g ive the appearance of a
ing. They are constructed of fire -res istant materials
durable and arch itecturally desirable outer covering. If the
and may be fire -rated.
wood structure is damaged during a fire, the veneer is likely
• Fire partiti ons are interio r walls that extend fro m a
to collapse.
floo r to the unders ide of the floor above. Fire part i
Wood framing is used to construct the walls in most houses
tions often enclose fire -rated interio r co rridors or
and many s mall co mmercial build ings. The wood framing
divide a floor area into separate fire co mpart ments.
used for exterior walls can be covered with various materials,
• Fire enclosures are fire-rated assemb lies that enclose
including wooden sid ing, viny l s iding , alu minu m sid ing,
interior vert ical openings, such as stairwells, elevator
stucco, and masonry veneer. Moisture barriers, wind barriers,
shafts, and chases for building ut ilit ies. A fire enclo
and other types of insulation are usually applied to the outside
sure prevents fire and smo ke fro m spread ing fro m
of the vertical studs before the outer covering is applied.
floo r to floor v ia the vert ical opening. In mu lt i-story
Vert ical wooden studs support the walls and part it ions
build ings, fire enclosures also protect the occupants
inside the building. If fire resistance is critical, steel studs are
using the exit stairways.
used to frame walls. The wood framing is usually covered
• Curtain walls are nonbearing exterior walls attached to
with gypsum board and a variety of interior fin ish materials.
the outside of the building. Curtain walls often serve as
The space between the two wall surface coverings may be
the exterior skin on a steel-framed high-rise build ing.
empty, it may contain thermal and sound insulating materials,
or it may contain electrical wiring, telephone wires, and
So lid, lo ad -bearing mason ry walls , at least 6" to 8"
plu mb ing. These spaces often p rovide pathways th rough
thick, can be used for build ings up to six stories high.
which fire can spread.
Nonb earing mason ry walls can b e almost any h eight .
Masonry walls provide a durab le, fire -resistant outer cover- Doors and Windows
ing fo r a build ing and are often used as fire walls. A Doors and windows are important co mponents of any bu ild-
well-designed masonry fire wall is often co mpletely
ing . A lthough they generally h ave d ifferent fun ct ions —
independent of the structures on either side. Even if the doors prov ide entry and exit wh ile windows prov ide light
build ing on one side burns comp letely and co llapses, the fire and ventilat ion—in an emergency, doors and windows are
wall should p rev ent t he fire fro m sp read ing t o the
almost interchangeable. A window can serve as an entry or
b u ild ing o n th e other side. an exit while a door can p rovide light and vent ilat ion.
Older build ings often had masonry load-bearing walls There are hundreds of door and window designs, with
several feet th ick at the botto m that decreased in th ickness
many different applications. Of part icular concern to brigade
as height increased. Modern masonry walls are often rein - members are fire doors and fire windows.
forced with steel rods or concrete to p rovide a more efficient
and more du rable structural system. Door Assemblies
When properly constructed and maintained , masonry Most doors are constructed of either wood or metal.
walls are strong and can withstand a vigorous assault by fire. Hollow-core wooden doors are often used inside buildings. A
But if the interio r structure begins to collapse and exerts typical hollo w-core door has an internal framewo rk with its
unanticipated forces on the exterio r walls, solid masonry outer surfaces covered by thin sheets of wood. Because
walls can fail during a fire. hollo w-core doors can be easily opened with simple hand
Ev en though a bu ild ing has an outer layer of b rick o r tools, they
stone, brigade members should never assume that the exterior
 160 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E :
should not be used where security is a concern. A fire can
usually bu rn th rough a ho llo w-co re do or in just a few
minutes.
Solid-co re wooden doors are used where a more sub-
stantial door is requ ired. So lid-core doors are manufactured
fro m solid panels or blocks of wood, and are mo re difficu lt
to force open. A solid-co re door p rovides so me fire resist-
ance and can often keep a fire contained with in a roo m fo r
20 minutes or more, g iv ing fire b rigade members a chance
to arrive and mount an effect ive attack.
Metal doors are more durab le and fire res istant than
wooden doors. So me metal doors have a solid wood core
covered on both sides by a th in sheet o f metal. Others are
Brigade Member Safety Tips
Buildings under construction or demol ition and buildings that are
being renovated are extremely hazardous for brigade m embers.
(Tigure 6-19) T here are many different kinds of
windows that open in different ways.
P R I N C I P L E S A N D P R A C T I C E
constructed entirely of metal and rein forced fo r added secu -
rity. The interior of a metal door can be hollow, or filled with
wood , sound-dead en ing material, o r thermal insu lat ion .
Although most approved fire doors are metal, not all metal
doors should be considered fire doors.
Window Assemblies
Fire b rigade memb ers frequent ly use windo ws as ent ry
points to attack a fire and as emergency exits. Windows also
provide ventilation during fires, allowing smo ke and heat to
escape and cooler, fresh air to enter.
Windows co me in many shapes, sizes, and designs for
different bu ild ings and occupancies ( T Figure 6 -19). Fire
brigade members must beco me familiar with the specific
types of windows found in local occupancies, learn to rec-
ognize them, and understand how they operate. It is espe-
cially important to kno w if a part icu lar type o f window is
very difficu lt to open or cannot be opened. The chapter on
forcib le entry contains information on window construction.
 Buildi ng C onstruc tion 161

Fire Doors and Fire Windows

Fire doors and fire windows are constructed to prevent the
passage of flames, heat, and smoke through an opening during
a fire. They must be tested and meet the standards set in NFPA
80, Standard for Fir e Doors and Fire Windows. F ire doors and
fire windows come in d ifferent shapes and sizes, and provide
different levels of fire resistance. For examp le, fire doors can
swing on h inges, slide down or across an open ing, o r ro ll
down to cover an open ing.
The fire rat ing on a door o r windo w covers the actual
door or windo w, the frame, the hinges or closing mecha-
nis m, the latch ing hard ware, and any other equ ip ment that
is required to operate the door or window. All of these items
must be tested and approved as a combined system. A ll fire
doors must have a mechanis m that keeps the door closed or ( Figure 6-20) An approved fire door has a label indicating its classific a tion
automatically closes the door when a fire occurs. Doors that and rating.
are normally open can be closed by the release of a fusible
lin k, by a smoke o r heat detector, or by activation of the fire Table 6-1 NFPA 80 Designations for Fire
alarm system. Doors and Fire Windows
Fire doors and fire windows are rated for a particular dura- Class A Openings in f ire walls and in walls that divide a
tion of fire resistance to a standard test fire. This is similar to single building into fire areas
the fire resistance rating system used for building construction
assemblies. A 1-hour rat ing, however, does not guarantee that Class B Openings in enclosures of vertical communications
through buildings and in 2 -hour rated partitions
the door will resist any fire for 60 minutes; it only establishes
providing horiz ontal fire separations
that the door will resist the standard test fire fo r 60 minutes.
In any given fire situation, a door rated at 1 hour will probably Class C Openings in walls or partitions between rooms
and c orridors having a fire res istanc e rating of 1
last twice as long as a door rated 30 minutes.
hour or less
Fire doors and windows are labeled and assigned the let-
ters A, B, C, D, or E, based on their approved-use locations Class D Openings in exterior walls subject to severe fire
exposure from outside of the building
(Figure 6-20). For examp le, doors designated "A" are
approved for use as part of a fire wall. Doors designated "B" Class E Openings in exterior walls subject to moderate or
are ap p rov ed fo r us e in st air shafts and elevato r shafts . light fire exposure from outside of the building
(Table 6-1 ) shows the approved uses for each of the letter
designations.
Fire windo ws are used when a windo w is needed in a
required fire-resistant wall (Figure 6-21). Fire windows are
often made of wired glass, which is designed to withstand
exposures to h igh t emperatu res without b reaking.
Fire-resistant glass without wires is available for so me
applica tions; special steel window frames are required to
keep the glass firmly in place.
Wired glass is also used to provide vision panels in or next
to fire doors. Vision panels allow a person to view conditions
on the opposite side o f a doo r without opening the door, o r
to make sure no one is standing in front of the door before
opening it. In these configurations, the entire assembly —
includ ing the door, the window, and the frame—must all be
tested and approved together.
When a window is required on ly fo r light passage, glass
blocks can sometimes be used instead of wired glass. Glass
blocks will resist high temperatures and remain in place if
properly installed. The size of the opening is limited and (Figure 6-21) Fire windows are used to protect openings in walls that are
depends on the fire-resistive rating o f the wall. required to be fire resistant.
16Z I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E :
Brigade Member Safety Tips
Beware of materials attached to the walls or ceilings of a building to
deaden sound. Some of these materials are highly flammable and can
provide the fuel for a very intense, smoky fire. Check to deter mine if the
material is approved for us e.
Interior Finishes and Floor Coverings
The term interior finish co mmonly refers to the exposed
interior surfaces of a build ing. Interio r finish materials will
affect how a particular building or occupancy reacts when a
fire occurs. Interior fin ish considerations inc lude whether a
material ignites easily or resists ignition, how quickly a flame
will spread across the material surface, how much energy the
material will release when it burns, how much smo ke it will
produce, and what the smo ke will contain.
A room with a bare concrete floor, concrete block walls,
and a concrete ceiling has no interior finishes that will increase
the fire load. But if the same room had an acrylic carpet with
rubber padding on the floor, wooden baseboards, varnished
wood paneling on the walls, and foam plastic acoustic insula-
tion panels on the ceiling, the situation would be different.
These interior finishes would ignite quickly, flames would
spread quickly across the surfaces, and significant quantities
of heat and toxic smo ke would be released.
Different interior fin ish materials cont ribute in various
ways to a building fire. Each individual material has certain
characteristics, and fire brigade members must evaluate the
part icu lar co mb inat ion o f materials in a roo m o r space.
Typical wall coverings include painted plaster or gypsum
board , wallpaper or v iny l wall coverings, wood paneling ,
P R I N C I P L E S A N D P R A C T I C E
and many other surface fin ishes. Floo r coverings might
include d ifferent types o f carpet , viny l floo r tiles, o r fin ished
wood floo ring . A ll o f these p roducts will bu rn to so me
extent , and each one involv es a d ifferent set o f fire risk
factors. Fire b rigade members must understand the hazards
posed by different interior fin ish materials to operate safely
at the scene of a fire.
Buildings Under Construction or Demolition
Build ings that are under construction or renovation or in the
process o f demo lit ion p resent a v ariety o f p rob lems and
extra hazards for fire brigade members. In many cases, the
fire protection features found in fin ished buildings are miss-
ing. Auto matic sprinklers may not yet be installed; s moke
detectors may have been removed. There may be no cover-
ings on the walls, leav ing the entire wood framework fu lly
exposed. M issing doors and windo ws cou ld prov ide an
unlimited supply of fresh air to feed the fire and allo w the
flames to spread rapidly. Fire -resistive enclosures could be
missing, leaving critical structural co mponents unprotected.
Sprin kler and standpipe systems might be inoperative. All of
these factors can contribute to a fire that spreads rapid ly,
burns intensely, and causes structural failure quickly.
Many fires at construction and demolition sites are inadver-
tently caused by workers using torches to weld or take apart
pieces of the structure. Tanks of flammable gases and piles of
highly combustible construction materials may be left in loca-
tions where they could add even more fuel to a fire. Buildings
under construction or demo lit ion are o ften unoccupied for
many hours, resulting in delayed discovery and reporting of
fires. It may be difficult for fire apparatus to approach the struc-
ture or for fire brigade members to access working hydrants. All
of these problems must be anticipated when considering the
fire risks of a construction or demolition site.

The potential for fat alities or injuries due to structural collaps e or
failure is a risk t o all int erior and exterior structural fire brigade
members. Alt hough an industrial facility probably does not have a
church or residential structure on site, it may feature construc tion
types sim ilar to those listed in the following incidents:
2006: Two volunt eer fire fighters die when struck by an exterior
wall c ollaps e at a c omm ercial building during fire overhaul
(Alabama)
2005: A c areer fire capt ain dies when t rapped by a partial roof
collaps e in a vacant house fire (Texas) 2004: A volunteer c hief dies
and two fire fighters are injured by a collapsing church facade
(Tennessee) 2003: A partial roof c ollaps e in a commercial
structure fire claims the lives of two career fire fighters (Tennessee)
2003: A c areer fire fighter dies from inj uries received during a
chimney and structural collapse after a hous e fire (Pennsylv ania)
2002: St ruct ural collapse at an aut o parts store fire claims the
lives of one career lieutenant and two volunteer fire fighters
(Oregon)
2002: A volunteer lieut enant dies follow ing structural c ollaps e at a
residential house fire (Pennsylvania) 2002: Parapet wall collapse at
an auto body shop claims the life of a career capt ain and injures a
career lieut enant and an emer gency medic al technician (Indiana)
2002: A c areer fire fighter dies after a roof collaps e following roof
ventilation (Iowa)
Source: NIO SH, Traumatic O ccupational Injur ies, Fire Fighter Fatality Inves tigation and Prevention Pr ogram: Fir e
Fighter Fatality Investigation Reports.
Buildi ng C onstr ucti on 163
2002: Structural collaps e at a res idential fire claims the lives of
two volunteer fire chiefs and one career fire fighter (New Jersey)
2002: One career f ire fighter dies and a capt ain is hospitaliz ed
after a floor collapses in a residential fire (N orth C arolina)
2002: One career fire fighter dies and another is injured after a
partial structural collaps e (Texas)
2002: First-floor c ollaps e during a residential basem ent fire
claims the lives of two fire fight ers (career and volunt eer) and
injures a career fire fighter captain (New York)
2001: A c areer fire fighter dies after f alling through t he floor
fighting a struct ure fire at a local residenc e (Ohio)
2001: A v olunt eer fire fight er dies and anot her fire fight er is
injured during a wall collaps e at a fire at loc al bus iness
(Wisconsin)
2000: Roof collapse injures four career fire fighters at a church
fire (Arkansas)
1999: A f ire investigator dies after being struck by a chim ney
that collapsed during an origin-and-c aus e fire inv estigation
(New York)
1999: Floor collapse claims t he life of one fire fighter and
injures two ot her fire fighters (C alif ornia)
1998: R oof collapse in an arson churc h fire claims the life of a
volunteer f ire fighter (Georgia)
1998: A fire fighter dies while fighting a warehous e fire w hen a
parapet wall collapses (Vermont)
1996: Sudden roof collapse at a burning auto parts store claims
the liv es of two fire fight ers (Virginia)
Building m at erials under fire will c ombust, conduct heat,
ex pand, or los e strength.
M ost const ruction us es m as onry, c oncrete, st eel, glass,
gy ps um board, w ood, and plast ics.
Fire-resist iv e c onstruct ion, nonc om bustible c onstruct ion,
ordinary c onst ruction, heav y tim ber c onstruct ion, and
w ood f ram e c onst ruction are the fiv e m ajor ty pes of build-
ing c onst ruction.
Eac h type of building c onstruction has diff erent strengt hs
and haz ards during a fire.
Foundations, floors, ceilings, roofs, t russ es, w alls, doors,
windows, int erior f inis hes, and f loor c ov erings are t he
m ajor c om ponent s of buildings.
Balloon-frame construction An older type of wood
fram e c onstruction in w hich t he wall st uds ext end v ertically
from t he bas em ent of a st ruct ure t o the roof wit hout any fire
stops.
B o wstri n g tr uss T rus s es t hat are c urv ed on t he t op and
straight on t he bott om.
C o mb u sti b ilit y D et erm ines w het her or not a m at erial
will burn.
C urt ai n wall s N o nbearin g w alls us e d t o s eparat e t he
ins ide and outside of the building, but not part of the s upport
struct ure f or t he building.
C urv ed r o ofs R oof s t hat hav e a c urv ed s hape.
Dea d lo ad T h e w eight of a building; t he dead load c on sists
of the w eight of all m at erials of construction inc orporated int o a
building, inc luding but not lim it ed t o w alls, floors, roofs,
ceilings, st airw ays, built-in partitions, finis hes, cladding, and
ot her sim ilarly inc orporated arc hit ect ural and structural it ems,
as w ell as fixed s ervic e equipm ent, including the weight of
cranes.
Fire en clo su res F ire-rat ed as s em blies us ed t o enc los e
vertic al openings s uc h as st airw ells, elev at or shafts, and
chases f or building utilities.
Fi re part iti on s I nt erior w alls ext e nding f rom t he f loor t o
the underside of the floor abov e.
Fire wall A w all wit h a f ire -resistiv e rating and st ruct ural
stability that s eparat es buildings or s ubdivides a building to
prev ent the s pread of fire.
Fir e wi nd o w A window or glas s block as s em bly w it h a
fire-resistiv e rating.
Flat r oofs H oriz ont al roof s of t en f ound on c om m ercial or
indust rial occ upancies.
Fire-r ated gl ass Spec ial glass f orm ulat ed t o ac hiev e a
fire rating.
Glass bl ocks T hick piec es of glas s s imilar t o brick s or
tiles.
Gyps u m A nat urally occ urring m at erial c om pos ed of c alc ium
sulf ate and w at er molecules.
Gy ps u m b oa r d T he generic nam e f or a f am ily of s heet
products c ons isting of a nonc om bust ible c ore prim arily of
gy ps um w it h paper surf acing.
Inter io r fi nis h Any c oating or v eneer applied as a finis h t o
a bulk head, struct ural ins ulation, or ov erhead, including t he
visible finis h, all int erm ediat e m at erials, and all applic a tion
mat erials and adhesives.
La min ated glass Glas s m anuf act ured w it h a t hin v inyl core
cov ered by glass on eac h side of the c ore.
La mi nat ed wo o d Piec es of w ood t hat are glued
together.
Live l oa d T he w eight of t he building c ont ents.
L oa d- bea ri n g wall W alls des igned f or s t ruct ural
support.
Mas o nry Built -up unit of c ons truct ion or c om binat ion of
m aterials s uc h as brick, c lay tiles, or stone s et in m ort ar.
Manufactured trailer structure s A
factory-ass em bled structure or st ructures trans portable in
one or m ore s ections t hat is built on a perm anent c has sis and
designed to be us ed as a dw elling wit hout a perm anent
foundation when c onnect ed to t he required utilit ies, including
the plum bing, heating, air-c onditioning, and elect ric s yst ems
cont ained therein.
N o n be ari n g wall W all des ign ed t o s upp ort only t he
w eight of t he w all its elf.
Occu pa ncy T he purpos e f or w hic h a building or ot her
struct ure, or part thereof, is us ed or int ended t o be us ed.
Pa ral le l c h o r d t r uss A t rus s in w hic h t he t op an d
bottom c hords are parallel.
Party wal ls W alls c onst ruc t ed on t he li ne bet w een tw o
properties.
Pitc he d c h o rd tr us s T y pe of t rus s t y pic ally us ed t o
support a sloping roof.
Pitch ed r o of A roof w it h sloping or inclined s urf ac es .
Platform-frame construction Construction tech nique
for building the fram e of the struct ure one floor at a tim e. Eac h
floor has a t op and bott om plat e that acts as a fire stop.
Pyrolys is T he dest ructiv e distillation of organic c om pounds
in an oxy gen-f ree env ironm ent that c onverts the organic m atter
int o gas es, liquids, and c har.
Rafters J oists t hat are m ount ed in an inc lined pos ition t o
support a roof.
Spal lin g C hipping or pitt ing of c onc ret e or m as onry
surfaces.
Te mpere d gl ass Glass t hat is m uc h s tronger and harder t o
break than ordinary glass.
T he r mal c o n d ucti vity D es c ribes how quic k ly a m at e rial
will c onduct heat.
T he r mo p l ast ic mat er ial Plas t ic m at erial c apabl e of
being repeat edly softened by heating and hardened by c ool ing
and, that in the s oftened state, can be repeatedly shaped by
m olding or f orming.
T her mo set mate rial Plas tic m at erial t hat, af t er having
been c ured by heat or other m eans, is s ubst antially inf usible
and c annot be s oftened and form ed.
Tr uss A c ollect ion of lightw eight st ruct ural c om ponents
joined in a triangular c onfiguration t hat can be us ed to s up port
eit her floors or roofs.
T y pe I c o n str u cti o n Buildi ngs w it h s t ruc t ural m em bers
made of nonc ombustible mat erials that hav e a specified fire
resistanc e.
T y pe II c o n st r uct i o n Buil din gs w it h s t ruc t ur al m embers
made of nonc ombustible m at erials w ithout fire resistance.
T y pe I I I c o ns tr u ct i o n B uildi ngs w it h t he ex t e rior walls
m ade of nonc ombustible or lim ited -c om bustible mat erials, but
int erior floors and w alls m ade of c om bustible mat erials.
T y pe I V c o n st r u cti o n Buil din gs c ons t r uc t ed w it h
noncom bustible or limit ed-c om bustible ext erior w alls, and
int erior walls and floors m ade of large dimension c om bustible
m aterials.
Ty p e V c o nst r ucti o n B uildin gs w it h ex t erior w alls,
int erior walls, floors, and roof st ruct ures m ad e of w ood.
Wi re d gl ass Glas s m ade by m olding glass around a s pecial
wire m es h.
W o o d pa nels T hin s heet s of w ood glued t oget her.
W o o d tr uss es As s em blies of s m all piec es of w ood or
wood and m etal.
W o o de n bea ms L oad-be aring m em bers as s em bled f rom
individual w ood c om ponents.
 It is 1:00 P.M. on a Monday afternoon when your fire brigade is dispatched to a one-story
warehouse with a steel bar joist roof with masonry block walls. Upon arrival you find fire
in a rack storage area. Your brigade leader tells you to initiate an interior attack with a
preconnected hose line.

1. W hat ty pe of c onstruct ion is this struct ure? 2. W hat ty pe of roof t russ

A. Type I system is t his struct ure lik ely to hav e?
B. Type II A. Parallel c ord truss

C. Type III B. Pitc hed c ord truss

D. Type IV C. Bowstring truss
E. Type V D. None of the abov e
3. You s hould be c autious w hen dam aging or rem oving
load-bearing w alls becaus e doing s o:
A. div ides t he building into rooms or s pac es and m ay
enc ourage fire spread.
B. can result in a partial or tot al c ollapse of the
building.
C. might dis rupt v ent ilation.
D. may c aus e the veneer to collaps e.
4. If drains on a f lat roof are not m aint ained:
A. Roof ladders must be used to provide a sec ure
walking platf orm.
B. The structure is subject to c ollaps e from ov erload.
C. There is a c ollapse pot ent ial if H alligans are
utiliz ed.
D. There is a potential for horiz ontal fire s pread.