NFPA1081 Standard Additional NFPA Standards

Inc ipie nt Indust ria l Fire B riga de Me mbe r 5.2.1 * Exti ngui sh i nci pi ent fi res, NFPA 600 Standard on Industri al Fi re Bri gades N FPA
gi ven an i nci pi ent fi re and a sel ecti on of portabl e fi re extingui shers, so that the 921 Gui de to Fi re and Expl osi on Investi gati ons
correct exti ngui sher i s chosen, the fire i s compl etel y exti ngui shed, proper
extingui sher-handling techniques are followed, and the area of ori gi n and fi re cause
evi dence are preserved. 5 .3.1 * Attack an i ncipient stage fi re, gi ven a handli ne Knowledge Objectives
flowi ng up to 473 L/mi n (125 gpm), appropri ate equi pment, and a fi re si tuati on, so
After compl eti ng thi s chapter, you will be abl e to:
that the fi re i s approached safel y, exposures are protected, the spread of fire i s
• Descri be the rol e and rel ationshi p of the bri gade member to cri mi nal
stopped, agent appli cati on i s effecti ve, the fi re i s exti ngui shed, and the area of investi gators and insurance i nvesti ga tors.
ori gi n and fi re cause evi dence are preserved. • Di fferenti ate acci dental fi res from i ncendi ary fi res.
(B) Requi si te Skill s. The abili ty to recogni ze i nherent hazards related to the • Descri be the poi nt of ori gi n.
materi al 's confi gurati on; operate handli nes; prevent water hammers when shut ting • Define the chai n of custody.
down nozzl es; open, close, and adj ust nozzl e fl ow; advance charged and • Descri be demonstrati ve, di rect, and ci rcumstanti al evi dence.
uncharged hose; extend handli nes; operate handli nes; eval uate and modify water • Descri be techni ques for preservi ng fi re cause evi dence.
appli cati on for maxi mum penetration; asse ss patterns for ori gi n determi nati on; • Descri be the observati ons bri gade members shoul d make duri ng
and eval uate for complete exti ngui shment. fireground operati ons.
• Descri be the steps needed to secure a property.
• Expl ai n the i mportance of protecti ng a fi re scene.
A dv a nc ed Ext e rior Indust ria l Fire B riga de Me mbe r 6.2 .6 O verhaul a fi re
scene, gi ven personal protecti ve equi pment, a handli ne, hand tool s, a fl ashli ght,
and an assi gnment, so that structural i ntegri ty i s not compromi sed, all hi dden fi res
are di scovered, fi re cause evi dence i s preserved, and the fi re i s extingui shed.
Skills Objectives
There are no skill s obj ecti ves for thi s chapter.
(A) Requi site Knowl edge. Types of fi re handlines and water appli cati on devi ces
most effecti ve for overhaul , water appli cati on methods for exti ngui shment that
limi t water damage, types of tool s and methods used to expose hi dden fi re,
dangers associ ated with overhaul , obvi ous si gns of area of ori gi n or si gns of
arson, and reasons for protecti on of fi re scene.
(B) Requi si te Skill s. The abili ty to depl oy and operate a handli ne, expose voi d
spaces wi thout compromi si ng structural i ntegrity, appl y water for maxi mum
effecti veness, expose and exti ngui sh hi dden fires, recogni ze and preserve
obvi ous si gns of area of ori gi n and fi re cause, and eval uate for compl ete
extingui shment.

Int erior St ruc t ura l Indust ria l Fire B riga de M e mbe r 7.2 .4* Overhaul a fi re
scene, gi ven personal protecti ve equi pment, attack li ne, hand tool s, a fl ashli ght,
and an assi gnment, so that structural i ntegrity i s not compromi sed, all hi dden fi res
are di scovered, fi re cause evi dence i s preserved, and the fi re i s extingui shed.
(A) Requi si te Knowl edge. Types of fi re handli nes and appli cati on devi ces most
effecti ve for overhaul, appli cati on methods for exti ngui shi ng agents that li mit
damage, types of tool s and methods used to expose hi dden fi re, dangers associ
ated wi th overhaul , obvious si gns of area of ori gi n and si gns of arson, and
reasons for protecti on of fi re scene.
(B) Requi site Skill s. The abili ty to depl oy and operate handli nes, expose voi d
spaces wi thout compromi si ng structural i ntegrity, appl y exti ngui shi ng agents for
maxi mum effecti veness, expose and extingui sh hidden fi res, recogni ze and
preserve obvi ous si gns of area of origi n and fi re cause, and eval uate for com
pl ete exti ngui shme nt.
 Your industrial plant has just undergone a major reconstruction effort to modernize some of the
older equipment and part of the building that was built in the late 1960s. The area has a lot of
electrical and hydraulic equipment that had been replaced with new up-to-date equipment. You
are working an afternoon shift and about 7:00 pm you hear the fire alarm going off and the PA
stating there is a fire in the prefab area.

You respond and find that the fire is around one of the new pieces of equipment and appears to
be very intense. You grab a fire extinguisher and attempt to control the fire. At that point the fire
protection system is activated and the sprinkler system begins to control the fire.

The brigade leader asks you to make an initial assessment of the possible cause of the fire. It
appears that the main electrical service line has a section missing and there is heavy damage in
the area where it connects to the machine. The hydraulic lines in this area are also damaged and
could have added fuel to the fire.
1. What will the plant safety officer ask you about your observations?
2. Did you see anything that points to the cause of the fire?
3. What evidence at the scene would need to be protected?

Introduction Who Conducts Fire Investigations?

Brigade members usually arrive at a fire scene before a trained
fire investigator arrives. This means that brigade members are
able to observe important signs and patterns that the investi-
gators can use in determin ing how and where the fire started.
By identifying and preserving possible evidence, as well as
recalling and report ing objective findings, brigade members
provide essential assistance to fire investigators. In so me
cases, the observations and actions of brigade members could
be significant in apprehending and convict ing arsonists.
Fire brigades determine the causes of fires so they can take
steps to prevent future fires . For examp le, a fire b rigade
might develop an education p rogram to reduce accidental
fires. A series of fires could point to a product defect, such as a
design error in a ch imney flue or the improper installation of
chimney flues. Identifying fires that were intentionally set
could lead to the arrest of the person responsible.
Brigade members must understand the basic princip les of
fire investigation and participate in this impo rtant depart -
mental responsibility. Fire cause determination is often diffi-
cult , because impo rtant ev idence can be consu med by the
fire o r destroyed during fire suppression operations or during
salvage and overhaul. Investigators must rely on brigade
members to observe, capture, and retain in format ion, as well
as to preserve evidence until it can be examined . Ev idence
that is lost can never be rep laced.
In most jurisdictions, a city or state official (fire marshal) has a
legal responsibility to determine the causes of fires. So me fire
brigades may ask an investigator whether a person fro m the
brigade can be assigned to assist in or observe the inves -
tigation process. Where the cause of the fire is determined
not to be arson, many industrial facilit ies will conduct a root
cause analysis to determine the cause.
Typically, fire brigade leaders init iate fire cause investi-
gations and then tu rn the materials and info rmat ion iden -
tified th roug h th is invest igat io n over to insu rance
representatives or plant safety officers. If criminal act ivity is
suspected, the appropriate official responsible fo r investi-
gations will be contacted. If the cause of the fire is obvious
and accidental, the fire brigade leader wou ld usually be
responsible for gathering the in format ion and filing the
necessary repo rts. If the cause cannot be determin ed or
appears to be suspicious, the fire b rigade leader should
summon an investigato r.
Investigation Authority
An arson invest igation must determine not on ly the cause
and origin of the fire, but also who was responsible for start-
in g it an d wh at s eq u en ce o f ev ents led u p t o it .
Determinat ion o f cause and o rigin is a s mall but important
step in the overall investigation. To p rove that a crime took

Brigade Member Tips
Fire invest igations involv e m uch m ore than sim ply determining what
caused the fire, where it started, and whether it was accidental or
incendiary (intentionally set ). Many fire inv estigations also examine
many ot her aspects of a fire incident.
If the fire res ults in injuries or fatalities, the invest igation often will
examine ev ery factor that could have contributed to or prevented thos e
losses. In a fire that c aus es millions of dollars in dam age, a w hole
range of factors could c ont ribute t o the large loss. Investigators could
examine the construction and contents of the building to determine
whet her fire and building c odes were f ol lowed, if the built-in fire
protection systems functioned properly, or w hat lessons could be
applied t o am ending codes or ins pection procedures. A fire
investigation can teach many lessons, even if the specific cause and
origin are never det ermined.
The NFPA inv estigates major incidents around the world to identify
factors that contributed to an unus ual num ber of deaths or wide spread
property dam age. The NFPA us es this information to am end its codes
and standards to help av oid fut ure cat astrophes.
place, investigators must establish a link fro m the fire to the
cause and origin and eliminate any other possible cause.
Whether the fire invest igators have po lice po wers and can
conduct a criminal investigation depends on state and local
laws. In some jurisdictions, fire investigators may have police
powers du ring fire inv estigat ions . In other areas, police
officers are trained as fire investigators. Sometimes fire
investigators determine the cause and origin , and turn the
investigation over to a law en forcement agency if the fire is
determined to be intentionally set. In other ju risdict ions, fire
brigade and po lice depart ment personnel wo rk together
throughout the investigation.
Investigation Assistance
Most fire org an izat ions , fire brig ades, and gov ern ment
agencies have limit ed t ime, personnel, and resou rces for
fire investigations. A state fire marshal or similar authority
may have an investigations unit that concentrates on major
incidents and supports local investigators on s maller fires.
Because these inv estigato rs cannot always reach the fire
scene quickly, the local fire brigade must be prepared to
conduct a tho rough preliminary investig ation and to pro tect
the scene and p reserve ev idence.
Federal resources are also available for major investiga-
tions. The U.S. Bureau o f A lcohol, Tobacco and Firearms
(ATF) has individual agents who can assist local jurisdictions
with fire investigations. The ATF also has response teams
across the count ry that respond to larg e-scale incidents.
Each of these teams has about 15 agents and equipment that
ranges from simple tools for digging out a fire scene to
laser-surveying devices fo r fu lly docu menting the scene.
Fire C a use D eter mi nati on 755
Insurance companies often investigate fires to determine
the validity of a claim or to identify factors that might help pre-
vent future fires. The cost of an investigation is more than offset
by the savings the company would realize by identifying a
fraudulent claim. So me insurance companies have their own
investigators, while others retain independent investigators.
These outside investigators often have valuable experience and
can provide technical support to determine the cause of a fire.
Causes of Fires
Every fire has a cause, which the fire investigator tries to
uncover. A cause and origin investigation determines where,
why, and how the fire orig inated. So me fires have simp le
causes th at are easily ident ified and understood; oth ers
result fro m a co mplex set of circu mstances that must be
examined carefully to determine what actually happened. In
some cases, the cause of a fire will never be determined with
absolute certainty.
Basically, every fire has a starting point where ignition
occurs and fuel begins to burn. This location is the point of
origin of the fire. At the point of origin, an ignition source
co mes into contact with a fuel supp ly , such as a lighted
match touching a piece of paper. The cause of the fire is the
part icu lar set o f circu mst ances that b rought the ign ition
source into contact with the fuel.
Fires resu lt when a competent ig niti on s ource and a
fuel co me together long enough to ignite. A co mpetent ign i-
tion source must have enough heat energy to ignite the fuel
and must be in contact with the fuel until the fuel reaches its
ignit ion temperature, wh ich cou ld be a fract ion of a second
to hours, days, or weeks.
A fire can be caused by an act or by an omission. Igniting a
piece of paper with a match is an act. Working in the area and
not observing the p roper protective measures to ensure the
heat is not trans mitted to co mbustib le parts and allo w ing
them to heat and ignite co mbustibles is considered an
omission. Leav ing a weed bu rner o r propane to rch unat -
tended would be considered an omission. The cause of a fire
can also be classified as either incend iary or accidental.
Arson, wh ich is the malicious bu rn ing o f on e's o wn o r
another's property with a criminal intent, is an incendi ary
fire. Acci dental fires do not involve a criminal or malicious
intent, even if they are caused by hu man error or careless -
ness. Falling asleep with a lit cigarette wou ld be considered
an accidental cause. Emptying an ashtray into a wastepaper
basket would be considered an accidental cause.
Investigators should always consider a fire to have an
undetermined cause until the specific cause is established.
The evidence fro m both incendiary and accidental fires can
be very similar. Untrained indiv iduals should not attempt to
categorize fires as either incendiary or accidental. Brigade
members are responsible for helping to identify and preserve
possible ev idence for the fire investigator to examine.
75G I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E : P R I N C I P L E S AN D P R A C T I C E

Fire Cause Statistics every trace of evidence. Investigators will classify these fires
as having an undetermined cause, rather than use a "best
Most structure fires occur in residential occupancies; ho me
guess." For examp le, low temperatu re ignit ion can occur
fires represent 73% of all structure fires. The 10 leading causes
when wood is subjected to low heat , such as that generated
of structure fires in industrial propert ies, averaged over the
by steam pipes or incandescent light bulbs, for a long period of
years 1999 to 2002, are shown in (Table 26-1).
time. Gradually, the wood can deteriorate and eventually
Accidental Fire Causes ignite. If the fire destroys the building, the point of orig in
would be d ifficu lt to ident ify . In an industrial sett ing, a
Accident al fires have hund reds o f poss ib le causes and
mach ine part that is not lubricated or that is wearing out
invo lve mu lt ip le facto rs and circu mstan ces. The most
might cause heavy damage and ignite other co mbustible
impo rtant reason for invest ig at ing and d etermin ing the
material. The ev idence might be consumed, making a cause
causes of accidental fires is to prevent future fires. To reduce
determination d ifficult.
the number o f fires, efforts must concentrate on the most fre-
quent causes and those involving the greatest risks of death, Incendiary Fire Causes
inju ry, and property damage.
People may set fires for several reasons and in many different
Most fires, fire deaths, and injuries occur in residential
ways. The same type of cause and origin investigation is
occup ancies. The most co mmo n ly repo rt ed accidental
needed to identify where and ho w the fire started. W ith
causes of fire in these occupancies involve smoking, cooking,
incendiary fires, it is particu larly important to ru le out pos -
heating equip ment, and electrical equip ment. These statistics
sible accidental causes to prove beyond doubt that the fire
provide a foundation for fire p revention and public education
was deliberately set.
efforts. Additional analysis can provide more specific
A fire caused by arson requires a second phase of inves -
information. For instance, fires caused by electrical
tigation to identify the person responsible. A ll of the ev i-
equipment can be d ivided into four g roups: those caused by
dence relating to the cause of the fire must be handled in a
wo rn -out o r d efect iv e equ ip ment , by imp roper use of
way that ensures it would be ad missible as ev idence in a
approved equipment, by defective installat ions, and by other
criminal trial. A trained, qualified fire investigator should
accidents. A p roper, thorough investigation of an elect rical
always be called to determine the cause of any fire that may
fire would identify and classify the specific cause within one
have been deliberately set.
of these groups. Industrial settings have many varied possible
Arson and the facto rs that cou ld ind icate an incendiary
causes. Each may need to be considered .
fire cause are discussed in more detail later in this chapter. A
For examp le, wo rn-out or defective electrical equ ip ment
fire might be set at an industrial facility for several reasons. A
would include deterio rating 50-year-old wiring circuits or a
mot ive is often needed to p rove what happened. This will be
computer circuit board with an internal defect. Other
discussed later. A fire may be set in order to get off shift early
worn-out equ ip ment that might still be in use includes
or to make a po int to the supervisors that things are unsafe.
electrical motors, switches, appliances, and extension cords.
Properly used and maintained equ ip ment that has been
tested and listed by a recognized laboratory rarely causes a Determining the Cause and Origin of a Fire
fire, but should be rep laced when it wears out.
A systemat ic analysis is needed to determine the cause and
Placing a portable heater too close to flammable materials
orig in of a fire. The investigator must determine where the
or using a toaster oven to heat a container of flammab le g lue
fire started and ho w it was ignited . The investigator must
are examp les of the improper use of elect rical equ ipment.
look at the s ituation ob ject ively to be sure that the evidence
Defect ive installations are those not acceptable under
is conv incing and fu lly exp lains the situ at ion . If there is
electrical codes or printed instructions, such as using a
more than one possible exp lanat ion fo r the observat ions,
light-duty extension co rd to connect a heavy-duty app liance
each possibility must be considered. The cause cannot be
to a wall outlet.
determined with abso lute certainty unt il all alternat ive
Some electrical fires result from an accidental misuse or
exp lanat ions have been ru led out .
oversight, such as unintentionally leaving a cooking appliance
turned on. The improper maintenance of the machinery might Identifying the Point of Origin
be the cause of the fire. Natural events can also cause accidental
One of the first steps in a fire investigation is identifying the
electrical fires, such as when a tree falls on a wire. A fire caused
point of origin. At this location, the investigator can look for
by an electrical overload or a short circuit can start wherever
clues indicat ing the specific cause of the fire.
there is electricity, such as in the electrical panel, fuses, fuse
The investigation process usually begins with an exami-
boxes, circuit breakers, wiring, and appliances.
nation o f the bu ild ing's ext erio r. The investig ator should
So met imes it may be d ifficu lt o r impossible to identify
lo o k fo r ind icat ions t hat th e fire o rig inated ou ts id e t he
the specific source o f ign it ion because the fire destroyed
 fire C a us e De ter mi na ti on 757

Table 26-1 Leading Causes of Structure Fires in Industrial and

Manufacturing Properties 2000-2004 Annual Averages
Cause Fires Civilian Civilian Direct
Deaths Injuries Property Da mage
(in M ill io ns)

Shop tools and industrial 1,790 (15%) 2 (12%) 145 (40%) $83.4 (11%)
equipment excluding torc hes,
burners or s oldering irons
Heating equipm ent fires 1,430 (12%) 3 (15%) 40 (11%) $48.5 (6%)
Identified heating equipment 580 (5%) 2 (12%) 22 (6%) $44.6 (6%)
Confined heating equipment 850 (7%) 1 (3%) 18 (5%) $3. 9 (1%)
Electric al distribution and 640 (5%) 3 (15%) 14 (4%) $42.8 (6%)
lighting equipm ent
Cooking equipm ent fires 400 (3%) 0 (0%) 2 (0%) $16.2 (2%)
Identified c ooking equipm ent 50 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) $10.5 (1%)
Confined cooking fire 340 (3%) 0 (0%) 2 (0%) $5.8 (1%)
Expos ure to other fire 380 (3%) 0 (0%) 5 (1%) $11.6 (2%)
Intentional 380 (3%) 0 (0%) 3 (1%) $16.9 (2%)
Torc h, burner or s oldering iron 320 (3%) 1 (8%) 12 (3%) $10.4 (1%)
Confined comm ercial 220 (2%) 0 (0%) 3 (1%) $0.7 (0%)
compactor fire
Spontaneous combustion or 210 (2%) 1 (9%) 2 (1%) $14.0 (2%)
chemic al reaction
Confined fire inv olving 200 (2%) 0 (0%) 5 (1%) $3.1 (0%)
incinerator overload or
malfunction
Sm oking m aterials (i. e., light ed 180 (2%) 0 (0%) 1 (0%) $3.9 (1%)
tobacc o products)
Contained tras h or rubbis h fire 1,060 (9%) 0 (0%) 4 (1%) $0.5 (0%)

Note: T hese are the leading caus es, obtained from t he following list: intentional (from the NFIR S field "c ause"); play ing wit h fire (from fact or contributing t o
ignition); confined heating (including confined chimney and confined fuel burner or boiler fires), confined cooking, confined comm ercial c om pact or, confined
fire involving incinerat or overload or malfunction, and contained tras h or rubbish from incident type; identified heating, identified c ook ing, clot hes dry er or
was her, torc h (including burner and s oldering iron), electrical distribution and lighting equipm ent, medic al equipm ent, and e lectronic, offic e or entertainm ent
equipment (from eq uipm ent inv olv ed in ignition); smoking m aterials, candles, lightning, and s pontaneous combustion or c hemical reaction (from h eat sourc e).
The statistics on sm oking m aterials and candles include a proportional share of fires in w hic h the heat source w as hea t from an unc lassified open flam e or
smoking m aterial. Exposure fires include fires w ith an ex pos ure num ber greater than zero, as w ell as fires identified by heat sourc e or factor contributing to
ignition w hen no equipm ent was inv olved in ignition and the fires w ere not int entionally set. Bec aus e c ont ained tras h or rubbish fires are a sc enario without
caus al inf orm ation on heat sourc e, equipm ent inv olv ed, or factor contributing to ignition, they are show n at the bottom of the table if they account for at least
2% of the fires. Cas ual inf ormation is not routinely collect ed for these incidents. T he s am e fire can be list ed under m ultiple causes, bas ed on m ultiple dat a
elements. Details on handling of unknow ns, partial unk nowns, and other unders pecified c odes m ay be found in the Appendix.
Thes e are national estimat es of fires reported to U.S. municipal fire depart ments and so exclude fires reported only to Feder al or state agencies or indus trial fire
brigades. Thes e national estimat es are projections bas ed on the detailed inf orm ation collected in Version 5.0 of NFIRS. Casua lty and loss projec tions c an be
heavily influenc ed by the inclusion or exclusion of one unus ually s erious fire. Fires are rounded to the nearest ten, civilian deat hs and injuries are rounded to
the nearest one, and direct property dam age is rounded to the nearest hundred thousand dollars. Property damage has not been adjusted for inflation.

Source: NFIRS and NFPA survey.

758 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E :
(Figure 26 -1) D epth of char.
build ing befo re loo king inside, and shou ld s ize -up the
build ing to identify important informat ion. The overall size,
construction, layout, and occupancy of the bu ild ing should
be noted, as well as the extent of damage that is visible from
the exterio r. The investigator should look fo r any openings
th at mig ht h ave created d rafts th at in flu enced th e fire
spread and shou ld examine the cond it ion o f outside ut ili-
ties, such as the elect rical po wer connection and gas meter.
The search for indications to the point of orig in contin ues
inside the building, beginn ing with the area of lightest
damage to the area of heaviest damage. Th is is probably the
area that was burning for the longest time; areas with less
damage were p robably not as involved in the fire, or were
involved for shorter periods.
Where process or manufacturing equip ment is involved,
the investigation may focus on process control systems. A
failure in level control alarms, bypass piping, relief valves,
and other control devices may be either a contributing cause
or a d irect cause of a fire or exp losion.
The depth of char can be used to help determine how
long a fire burned in a particular location (A Figure 26-1). The
depth of char is related to how long the surface of a material
was exposed to the fire, fro m the time of ignition to the time of
extinguishment. An area that burned for only a few minutes
would have mostly surface damage and a shallo w depth o f
char. Materials that burned for longer periods will show evi-
dence of charring deeper into their cores. Charring is usually
deepest at the point of origin; however, flammable liquids and
combustible materials in other locations can also leave heavy
charring. The area with the deepest char is not necessarily the
point of origin.
Burn patterns and smoke residue can be help ful in iden -
tifying the area of origin, but again are not conclusive. Burn
patterns and d amag e will o ften sp read out ward fro m th e
P R I N C I P L E S A N D P R A C T I C E
(Figure 26-2) Oft en the point of a V-patt ern is near or at the point of
origin.
room or area where the damage is most severe. Because heat
rises, the flow of heated gases from a fire will almost always
be up and out fro m the po int o f orig in. Th is upward, out ward
flo w can usually be recognized , even when all o f the
build ing's cont ents were invo lved in th e fire. Often th e
point of o rigin is found d irect ly belo w the most damaged
area on the ceiling, where the heat of the fire was most
concentrated.
A charred V-pattern on a wall ind icates that fire spread
up and out fro m so meth ing at the base o f the V The b est
place to start looking for a specific fire cause in a room with a
V-pattern on the wall, a p ile of charred debris at the base of
the y and minimal damage to the other contents is in the p ile
of debris ( Figure 26-2).
An experienced fire investigator kno ws that many fac -
tors can influence burn patterns, includ ing vent ilation , fire
suppression efforts , and the burn ing materials themselves.
A V-patt ern on a wall co u ld ind icate that th ere was an
easily ign ited and intensely burning fuel source at that loca-
tion. It might also indicate that something fell fro m a higher
level and burned on the floor.
An inverted V-pattern on a wall cou ld ind icate that a
flammab le liqu id was used along the base of the wall to set
the fire intentionally. A fire burning across a wide area at the
floor level can funnel into a thermal colu mn as it rises, cre-
ating the inverted V-pattern.
Once the investigator identifies the exact or appro ximate
locat ion of the po int of orig in, the search fo r indications of a
specific cause can begin. The investigator must determine
wh at h appened at that locat ion to cause th e fire. Th is
invo lv es ident ify ing both th e sou rce o f ign it ion and the
fuels that were involved. The investigator must u ltimately
d et ermin e ho w th e sou rce o f ign it ion and fuel came
together, either accidentally or intentionally.

(Figure 26-3) F ire inv estigators systematically dig through the debris of a fire
to search for evidence.
Digging Out
After the investigator identifies the area of origin, brigade
memb ers cou ld b e as ked to assist in d igg ing out the fire
scene. "Digging out" is a term used to describe the process of
carefully looking for evidence within the debris. So metimes
the entire fire scene must be closely examined to determine
the cause of the fire and gather ev idence.
The fire investigator will take extensive photographs of
the fire scene as it first appears. Then, he or she will begin to
remove and inspect the debris, layer by layer, from the top of
the pile down to the bottom. The type of evidence uncovered
and its location in the layers of debris can provide important
indicat ions of how the fire orig inated and progressed.
Remov ing and inspecting the layers of debris enables the
inv estig ato r to determine th e sequence in wh ich items
burned, whether an item burned fro m the top down or fro m
the botto m up , and ho w long it bu rned . Did the fire start at a
lo w po int and bu rn up o r d id bu rn ing items fall do wn fro m
above and ignite combustible materials below? Did the fire
spread along the ceiling or along the floor? Is there a residue
of rags containing a flammable liquid under the fur niture?
Why are papers that should have been in a metal filing
cabinet stacked on the floor and partially burned?
Systemat ically digg ing th rough the d ebris oft en can
uncover the exact point of origin and cause of both accidental
and deliberate fires ( Figure 26-3 ). If circumstances or eye-
witness accounts indicate a deliberate fire, the investigator
may request that brigade members help examine the entire
area. Co mmon search methods include the "grid" search (also
known as the "double strip" search ) and the "strip" search .
The investigator will exp lain generally what to look fo r, how
to search, and what to do with any potential ev idence.
Where process equipment is involved, "digging out" may
invo lve the systemat ic removal o f p ip ing, valves , suppo rt
Fire Ca use D eter mi nati on 759
structures, and associated control systems to determine the
cause or point of origin.
When you find possible ev idence, stop so the investigator
can examine it in place. It is the investigator's job to doc-
u ment, photograph, and remove any potential ev id ence,
whether o r not it supports the suspected cause.
To determine the cause and origin of a fire, the investigator
must evaluate all potential causes for the fire. The process of
eliminating possible alternative causes and documenting the
reasons for rejecting them is as impo rtant as properly
document ing the ult imate cause of the fire.
For examp le, if the fire started in a cafeteria, potential
causes could include:
• The stove
• All of the electrical appliances
• Light fixtures
• Smoking materials
• Cleaning supplies
Evidence
Ev idence refers to all of the in formation gathered and used
by an in vest igato r in d etermin ing the cause o f a fire.
Ev idence can be used in a legal process to establish a fact or
prove a point. To be ad missible in court, ev idence must be
gathered and p rocessed under strict procedu res.
Physi cal evi dence cons is ts o f it ems th at can b e
observed, photographed , measured , collected , examined in
a laboratory, and presented in court to prove or demonstrate a
point (Figure 26-4 ). Fire investigators can gather physical
evi dence, such as a burn pattern on a wall o r an empty
gasoline can, at the fire scene to exp lain how the fire started
or to docu ment ho w it bu rn ed.
Trace or transfer evi dence is a minute quantity of phys-
ical evidence that is conveyed from one place to another. For
example, a suspect's clothing may contain the residue of the
same flammab le liquid found at the scene of a fire.
( Figure 26-4 ) Physic al evidence at a fire scene.
7G0 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E :
Demonstrati ve evi dence is anything that can be used to
validate a theory or to show how someth ing could have
occurred. To demonstrate how a fire could spread, for exam-
ple, an investigator may use a computer model of the burned
build ing.
Ev idence used in court can be considered either direct or
circu mstantial. Direct evi dence includes facts that can be
observed or reported first hand. Testimony fro m an eyewit -
ness who saw a person actually ignite a fire or a videotape
fro m a security camera showing the person starting the fire
are examples of d irect ev idence. Direct evidence is rare in
arson cases, but eyewitnesses often can describe the circu m-
stances of an accidental fire.
Circumstantial evi dence is information that can be used
to prove a theory , based on facts that were observed first
hand. Fo r example, an investigation might show that gaso line
fro m a container found at the scene was used to start a fire.
Two d ifferent witnesses testify that the suspect purchased a
container o f gasoline before the fire and walked away fro m
the fire scene without the container a few minutes before the
fire brigade arrived. Such circu mstantial ev idence clearly
places the suspect at the fire s ite with an ignit ion source at
the time the fire started . Fire investigato rs must often work
with circu mstantial ev idence to connect an arson suspect to a
fire.
Preservation of Evidence
Brigade members have a responsibility to preserve evidence
that could indicate the cause o r po int o f orig in o f a fire.
Brigade members who discover something that could be evi-
dence while digg ing out a fire scene or performing other
activit ies should leave it in p lace, make sure that no one
int erferes with it o r t he su rrou nd ing area, and no t ify a
brigade leader or fire investigator immediately.
Evidence is most often found during the salvage and over-
haul phases of a fire. Salvage and overhaul should always be
performed carefu lly and can often be delayed until an inves -
tigator has examined the scene. Do not move debris any more
than is absolutely necessary and never discard debris until the
investigator gives approval. The fire investigator must decide
whether th e ev idence is relevant , not the brigad e member.
Brigade members at the scene are not in the position to
decide whether the evidence they find will be ad missible in
Brigade Member Tips
Gas oline-pow ered tools and equipment, including saws and gener -
ators, are often used during firefighting operations. Gasoline from the
equipment could contaminate the area and lead to an erroneous
assum ption that accelerants (m aterials us ed to initiat e or increas e the
spread of fire) were us ed in the fire. Refuel such equipment outside the
investigation area to prev ent spilled fuel contamination.
P R I N C I P L E S A N D P R A C T I C E
Brigade Member Tips
To avoid cont aminating evidence, fire investigat ors alw ays wash their
tools between taking samples. This ensures that material from one piece
of evidence will not be unint ent ionally transferred to another piece.
Investigators also change their gloves eac h time the> take a sample of
evidence and place evidence only in abs olut ely clean containers.
Before entering the fire scene, investigators often was h their boots to
keep from transporting any contamination into the fire scene.
court and therefore worthy of preservation; that is the fire
investigator's decision. Your responsibility is to make sure
that potential ev idence is not destroyed or lost. Too much
evidence is better than too little, so no piece of potential evi-
dence should be considered insign ificant.
If evidence could be damaged or destroyed during fire sup-
pression activities, cover it with a salvage cover or some other
type of protection, such as a garbage can. Use barrier tapeto
keep others fro m accidentally walking through evidence
Before moving an object to protect it from damage, be sure that
witnesses are present, that a location sketch is drawn, and that a
photograph is taken.
Ev idence should not be contami nated, or altered from
its original state, in any way. Fire investigators use special
containers to sto re ev id ence and p revent contamin at ion
fro m any other products.
Chain of Custody
To be ad missib le in a court o f law, physical ev idence must
be hand led acco rd in g to cert ain p rescribed stan dards
Because the cause of the fire may not be known when evi-
dence is first collected, all evidence should be handled
according to the same p rocedure. In an incend iary o r arson
fire, evidence relating to the cause of the fire will probabl y
have to be presented in court. The same is true fo r accidental
fires, because lawsuits might be filed to claim or recover
damages.
Chain of custody (also known as chain of ev idence or
chain of possession) is a legal term that describes the process
of maintain ing continuous possession and control of the
evidence fro m the t ime it is discovered until it is presented in
court. Every step in the capture, movement, storage, and
examinat ion of the evidence must be properly docu mented.
For example, if a gasoline can is found in the debris of a sus -
pected arson fire, docu mentat ion must record the person
who found it, where and when it was found and under what
circu mstances. Photographs should be taken to show where it
was found and what condit ion it was in . In cou rt, the
investigator must be ab le to show that the gas can presented is
the specific can that was found.

(Figure 26-5) Evidence should rem ain where you find it until you can turn it
over to your brigade leader or the fire investigator.
The person who takes initial possession of the evidence
must keep it under his or her personal control until it is turned
over to another official. Each successive transfer of possession
must be recorded. If evidence is stored, documentation must
indicate where and when it was placed in storage, whether the
storage location was secure, and when it was removed. Often,
evidence is maintained in a secured evidence locker to ensure
that only authorized personnel have access to it.
Everyone who had possession of the evidence must be
able to attest that it has not been contaminated, damaged, or
changed. If evidence is examined in a laboratory, the labora-
tory t ests must be do cu mented . The d ocu ment at ion fo r
chain of custody must establish that the evidence was never
out of the control of the responsible agency and that no one
could have tampered with it .
Brigade members are frequently the first lin k in the chain
of custody. The b rigade members responsibility in protect ing
the integrity of the chain is relatively simp le: report
everything to a fire brigade leader and disturb nothing need -
lessly. The indiv idual who finds the evidence should remain
with it until it is turned over to a brigade leader or to the fire
investigator (Figure 26-5). Remember that you could be
called as a witness to state that you are the brigade member
who discovered this particular piece of evidence at the specific
location pictured .
The fire investigator's standard operating procedures for
collecting and processing evidence generally include the fol-
lowing steps:
• Take photographs of each piece of ev idence as it is
found and collected. If possible, photograph the item
as it was found, befo re it is moved o r d isturbed.
• On the fire scene, sketch, mark, and label the location
of the ev idence. Sketch the scene as near to scale as
possible.
Fi r e Cause Deter mi nation 761
• Place evidence in appropriate containers to ensure
safety and prevent contamination. Unused paint cans
with lids that automatically seal when closed are the
best containers for transporting evidence. Glass mason
jars sealed with a sturdy sealing tape are appropriate
for transporting smaller quantities of materials. Plastic
containers and plastic bags should not be used for
evidence containing petroleu m products since it may
deteriorate the p lastic. Paper bags can be used for dry
clothing or metal articles, matches, or papers. Soak up
small quantities of liquids with either a cellulose
sponge or cotton batting. Protect part ially burned
paper and ash by placing them between layers of g lass
(assuming that small sheets or panes of glass are avail
able at the scene).
• Tag all ev idence at the fire scene. Evidence being
transported to the laborato ry should include a label
with the date, time, location, discoverer's name, and
witnesses' names.
• Record the t ime the evidence was found, where it was
found, and the name of the person who found it. Keep
a reco rd of each person who handled the evidence.
• Keep a constant watch on the ev idence until it can be
stored in a secure locat ion. Ev idence that must be
moved tempo rarily should be put in a secure place
accessible only to authorized personnel.
• Preserve the chain o f custody in handling all the evi
dence. A bro ken chain of custody may result in a
court ru ling that the ev idence is inad missible.
On ly on e person shou ld b e responsib le for co llect ing
and taking custody of all ev idence at a fire scene, no matter
who d iscovers it. If so meone other than the assigned ev i-
dence collector must seize the ev idence, that person must
photograph, mark, and contain the ev idence properly and
turn it over to the ev idence collector as soon as possible.
The ev idence co llecto r must also do cu ment all ev id ence
that is co llected, including the date, time, and locat ion of
discov ery , the n ame o f th e finder, kno wn or suspected
nature o f the ev idence, and the ev idence nu mber fro m the
evidence tag or label. A log of all photographs taken should
also be reco rded at the scene.
Witnes ses
Although brigade members do not interview witnesses, you
can identify potential witnesses to the investigator. People
who were on the scene when brigade members arrived could
have invaluable information about the fire. If a brigade mem-
ber learns something that might be related to the cause of the
fire, this informat ion should be passed on to a brigade leader
or to the fire investigator.
Interviews with witnesses should be conducted by the
fire investigator or by a police officer. If the fire investigator is
not on the scene or does not have the opportunity to inter view
the witness , obtain the person 's name, ad dress, and
 VOICES OF EXPERIENCE
"The workplace fire may cause the company to
lose several hours or days of money-making
work, but the cause needs to be found to make
the wor kplace safe and deter a possible
arsonist."

I
t was night shift at a manufacturing plant when the announcer.:-, was made over the
PA for the fire brigade members to respond : fire in Area B. It was strange because
over the last four shifts the had been small fires or evidence of fires around the plant
that no one could figure : This was the first one this week and it was in an area that had
lots of fuel.
The week before there had been a small fire in the dumpster where the plants trash
normally dumped. The brigade leader thought it was just an accident, maybe
some:::—-hot placed in the trash before it had time to cool. According to a fire brigade
member. this didn't make sense because the trash was from an area where nothing was
hot.
The fire brigade members advised that when they made their way through the plant tc
Area B they saw workers leaving that area, and a haze was starting to filter into Area A At
the doorway they saw that there was active fire in the area of the boxing machin e and
some of the workers in Area B were starting to fight the fire. The fire brigade merr.-bers
took a handline toward the area on fire and started to attack the fire. A member observed
an area that was burning to the left that was not part of the larger fire. The member did
not think it was connected and was out of the way. This stuck in his mind, and it was
reported to the brigade leader when everything was under control.
With several members of the brigade on hand, the fire was brought under control. Th e
local fire department arrived and worked with the brigade to overhaul the scene. A
merr.-ber of the fire brigade advised the leader of the separate fire and stated that it
seemed strange, considering all of the fires that had taken place lately at the plant. The
leader requested that the members make a list of fires they knew had taken place in the
past few months.
The plant safety/risk manager arrived at the plant and started an investigation. The
brigade leader relayed the information about the other fires. A team member said that he
knew of at least three other fires in the plant over the last few months. Each one seemed
to have happened in an area where there was no real reason for it to have started.
The safety/risk manager and the FD investigator asked what had been seen. A member
told them about what they had seen as they approached that evening's fire. They said they
had seen a fire in the area of the doorway to the outside. It was small, but it was strange
because the mam fire was not spreading toward that area. The investigator asked the fire
brigade member to show him this fire area. Viewing the area made it clear to the
investigator that the fire had been started separately because it was well protected from
anything else starting the fire. This proved to be a critical piece of evidence in the inves -
tigation, showing that a person was setting several fires at the same time to confuse the
investigators and the fire brigade members.
During the overhaul of the main fire in Area B, inves tigation of the scene found that there was
a lot of what appeared to be trash stuffed into the pallets on the floor. This trash should not
have been there. The supervisor who worked the area was questioned about anyone who
would have been upset enough to stuff papers into that area.
The supervisor stated that he had problems with an employee who had been transferred to his
area the week before. This person did not produce like the other employees did and was always
having to be checked to make sure he was working. When he was confronted about his work,
he would say the supervisor was picking on him. When the fire was reported, one of the
brigade members who responded from outside said they saw this employee on the loading
dock, sitting there uninterested in what was going on.
A check of the other fires that had happened over the past few weeks showed they were all in
areas where this same person had worked, and from wh ich he had been moved or repri-
manded for poor work production. Each fire had been set using just the ordinary
combustibles that could have been found in the area or plant and an open flame. Every area
had nothing wrong with any of the equipment or other accidental sources of heat.
When confronted, he admitted that he had started the fires because he thought if the fire did
enough damage he would be able to leave. He also confessed to several fires away from the
plant.
The observations made during the response, attack, and overhaul are always important to the
investigation. The separate fire was critical because there was no reason for it. The papers
stuffed into the pallets were another suspicious clue. The fire a week before was just as out of
place because there was nothing from the area that could have started it. Protecting the scene
and providing the investigators with accurate observations are valuable to a thorough and
complete investigation. The fire brigade members are a valuable asset to the investigators
because brigade members are the eyes of the investigators until they are on the scene working
to find the cause of the fire. Without their observations, the fires would have continued and
could have eventually caused the loss of the plant and jobs.

Mike Dalton
Knox County Fire Investigation Unit
Knoxville, Tennessee
764 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E : P R I N C I P L E S A N D P R A C T I C E

Brigade Member Tips Brigade Member Tips

Do not speculate on the caus e of the fire with or in front of bystanders. Jesting rem arks and jokes should never be made at the scene,
Spec ulation that is reported or printed tends to be treated as fact. because your comments could be overheard by the m edia.
----------------
„__.-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

telephone number and g ive it to the investigator. A witness cond it ions , an d rout e obst ruct ions . As t he incidentp ro -'
who leaves the scene without prov id ing this in fo rmat ion g ress es , p ay at tent ion to th ings th at do n ot mat ch yo u r
could be difficult o r impossible to locate later. expectations because they could help fire investigators deter-
Brigade members have a primary responsibility to save mine the orig in and cause of the fire.
lives and property. Until the fire is under contro l, b rigade
members must concentrate on fighting the fire, not investi- Time of Day
gating the cause. However, b rigade members should pay Time of day and type of occupancy can indicate the number
attention to the situat ion and make mental notes about any and type of people at an incident. Offices, warehouses, and
observations. Brigade members must tell the investigator maintenance shops are filled with people during the day and
about any odd o r unusual happenings. Info rmat ion, suspi- mostly empty at night. These same areas will most likely be
cions, or theories about the fire should be shared only with empty or have a s maller nu mber o f emp loyees during night
the fire investigator and only in private. shifts.
Do not make statements of accusation, personal opinion, As victims evacuate the area, b rigade members may be
or probab le cause to anyone other than the investigato r. able to note any that stand out, because their behavior and
Co mments that are overh eard by a bystander, a news demeano r are qu ite d ifferent.
reporter, o r others can impede the efforts of the fire investi-
gator to obtain co mplete and accurate info rmat ion. A wit- Weather Conditions
n ess t ry ing to be help fu l mig h t rep o rt an overheard No te whether the day is hot , co ld, clo udy , o r clear, and
comment as a personal observation . In th is way , inaccurate wh et her con d it ions in t he bu rn ing st ru ct u re mat ch th e
in fo rmat ion can gen erate a ru mo r that b eco mes a theo ry weath er. On a co ld day, windo ws sho u ld be closed; on a
and turns into a reported "fact" as it passes fro m person to hot day, the fu rnace should be o ff.
person. Lightning, heavy snow, ice, flooding, fog, or other haz-
Never make jesting remarks or jokes at the scene. Careless, ardous condit ions can help cover an arsonist's act iv it ies
unauthorized, or premature remarks could embarrass the com- because they delay the fire brigade's arrival and make a
pany or the fire brigade. Statements to news reporters about brigade members job mo re difficult. Because wind direction
the fire's cause should be made only by an official spokesperson and velocity help determine the natural path of fire spread,
after the fire investigator and ranking brigade leader have being aware o f these cond it ions will h elp you recognize
agreed to their accuracy and validity. Until then, "The fire is when a fire behaves in an unnatural way.
under investigation" is a sufficient reply to any questions con-
cerning the cause of the fire. Route Obstructions
Unusual traffic patterns or barriers blocking the route to the
Observations During scene may be early indications of a suspicious fire. Be sure to
note these and any other obstructions, such as barricades.
Fireground Operations downed cables, o r t rash containers (du mpsters) that cause
Although a b rigad e member's p rimary concern is saving delays.
lives and property, you will make observations and gather
info rmat ion as you perform your duties. What you observe Arrival and Size-Up
could be significant in the subsequent investigation of the Size-up operations can provide valuable information for fire
incident. The fo llowing sections will help you identify spe- investigators. Pay attention to the fire conditions, building
cific signs, patterns, and evidence during various fireground characteristics, and vehicles and people at or leaving the scene.
operations, fro m d ispatch and response to fire attack and
overhaul. Description of the Fire
Co mpare the d ispatcher's descript ion with the actual fire
Dispatch and Response conditions. If the fire has intensified dramatically in a short
During dispatch and response, form a mental image of the time, an accelerant cou ld hav e been used. Note whether
scene you expect to encounter. Note the time of day, weather flames are v isible or on ly smo ke. Also observe the quantity,

Brigade Member Safety Tips
Safety is always the first and most important priority on the fireground.
color, and source of the smoke. Does the fire appear to be
burning in one p lace, o r in mu lt ip le locat ions?
Vehicles and People on the Scene
The appearance and behavior of people and vehicles at the
scene of a fire can provide valuable clues. Do you recognize
any bystanders from other fire scenes? Note the attitude and
dress of personnel and/or occupants of the bu ilding, as well
as other ind ividuals at the scene of a fire.
Anyone who seems out of p lace at a fire or someone who
has been observed at several fires in various locations should
be reported to the investigator. So me arsonists are emotion -
ally disturbed indiv iduals who receive personal satisfact ion
in watch ing a "working" fire. So met imes inves tigators will
photograph the crowd at a fire scene, particu larly if there is a
series of similar fires, and look for the same faces at differ ent
incidents.
Most people at a fire scene are serious and intent on
watching the drama unfold (Figure 26-6). Someone who is
talking loud ly, laughing , o r making light of the s ituation
should be considered suspicious. Fire investigators may also
want to know about someone who eagerly volunteered mu l-
tip le theo ries or too much info rmat ion .
Unusual Items or Conditions
Always note any unusual items or conditions about the prop -
erty, such as whether windows and doors are open or closed.
(Figure 26-6) M ost persons at a fire scene are intent on watching brigade
members at work.
Fi r e Cause De ter mina tion 765
Brigade Member Tips
Photographs —whether taken by film or digital cameras—c an document
conditions before the arrival of fire inv estigators. How ever, specific
proc edures m ust be follow ed for the photographs to be admissible in
court as evidenc e. Follow your brigade's standard operating procedure
regarding picture taking.
Arsonists commonly draw the shades or cover windows and
doors to delay the discovery of a fire. Gasoline cans, forcible
entry tools, and a damaged hydrant or sprinkler connection
might all suggest an intentionally set fire.
Entry
As you prepare to enter the fire area, look for evidence of any
prio r entry , such as shoeprints lead ing into or out o f the
structure or tracks fro m vehicle tires. Note whether the win -
dows and doo rs are intact , whether they are locked or
unlocked, and whether there are any unusual barriers limit-
ing access to the structu re. Also note any signs o f fo rced
entry by others. If you see evidence of forced entry, ask your-
self if the forced entry likely occurred before the fire, or if it
could have been caused by brigade members gaining access
to the structure.
Forced ent ry could leave imp ressions of tools on the
windows and doo rs. Cut o r torn edges o f wood, metal, or
glass also may indicate forced entry. Investigators might be
able to det ermine wheth er the g lass had been b ro ken by
heat or by mechanical means. Look for signs of a burglary;
the fire may have been set to destroy evidence of another
crime.
Search and Rescue
As you enter the building to perform search and rescue or
interior fire suppression activities, consider the location and
extent of the fire. Separate or seeming ly unconnected fires
may indicate multip le points of origin and are often found at
arson scenes. The location and condition o f the building's
contents may also provide clues. Unusual building contents
or cond it ions—such as barriers in doo rs and windows, the
absence of inventory fro m a warehouse.
The team responsible for shutting o ff elect ric po wer to
the build ing should note whether the circu it breakers were
on or o ff when th ey arrived. The locat ion o f any peop le
found in the bu ild ing shou ld also b e noted .
Ventilation
The ventilation crew should note whether the windows and
doors were open or closed, locked o r un locked. They should
also note the color and quantity of the smoke, as well as the
presence of any unusual odors.
766 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E :
Color of Smoke
Th e co lo r o f s mo ke o ft en in d icat es what is bu rn ing .
Unusual s mo ke migh t ind icate th at ad d it ional fu el was
added to the mi x.
Unus ual O dors
Self-contained breathing apparatus protects b rigade mem-
bers fro m hazardous fu mes and to xic odo rs. Ho wever,
somet imes an odo r is so strong that it can be detected en
route or linger after the fire has been extinguished. Fires
involv ing rubber drive belt and overheated light ballasts
produce distinct ive, identifiab le odors familiar to exp eri -
enced b rigade members. Oth er co mmon odors familiar to
brigade members includ e liqu id hyd rocarbons, solven ts,
and natural gas.
Odors often linger in the soil under a build ing without a
basement, particu larly if an accelerant has been used and if
the ground is wet. Concrete, brick, and plaster will all retain
vapors after a fire has been ext inguished.
Effects of Ventil ati on on B urn Patterns
Fire brigade ventilat ion operat ions can d ramat ically influ -
ence the behavior of a fire and alter burn patterns. For exam-
ple, if the ventilat ion crew opens a window or makes an
opening in the roof, the heat, s mo ke, and fire are likely to
move to ward th is open ing, creat ing new burn patt erns on
the walls, floors, and ceilings. Relay such information to the
fire invest igato r so that he o r she can co rrect ly int erp ret
these patterns.
Suppression
Fire behavio r, the presence o f incend iary dev ices (materials
used to start a fire or cause an exp losion), obstacles encoun -
tered during fire suppression operations, and charring and
burn patterns are among the factors that might help to deter -
mine the o rig in and cause of the b laze.
B ehavi or of Fi re
During the fire attack, observe the behavio r of the fire and
how it reacts when an ext ingu ishing agent is applied. Look
for unusual flame colors, sounds, or reactions. For examp le,
most flammab le liqu ids will float , cont inue to burn , and
spread the fire when water is applied. Rekind les in the same
area o r a flare -up when water is applied could indicate the
presence of an accelerant.
Incendi ary De vi ces , Trai lers , and Accelerants
While fighting the fire, be aware of streamers or trailers
(combustible materials placed to spread the fire). Look for
combustib le materials like wood, paper, or rags in unusual
locations. Note containers of flammab le or co mbustible liq-
uids no rmally not found in the type o f occupancy . Very
intense heat or rapid fire spread might indicate the use of an
accelerant to increase the fire spread.
P R I N C I P L E S A N D P R A C T I C E
Brigade Member Safety Tips
If you encount er an inc endiary device that has not ignited, notify your
supervisor and others in the area immediately! Do not make any
attem pt to mov e it or dis able it.
Brigade Member Safety Tips
Sometimes, incendiary fires contain traps for fire fighter or brigade
members, such as steps that have been removed or holes in the floor,
deliberately covered. Be alert for this potential hazard.
Incendiary devices can include unusual items in unlikely
places, such as a packet of matches tied to a bundle of com-
bustible fibers or attached to a mechanical device. Often,
incendiary devices fail to ignite or burn out without igniting
other materials. Try to extinguish the fire without unduly
disturbing any suspicious contents.
Con di ti on of Fi re Al arm or S uppres s i on S ys tems
If the building is equipped with a fire alarm or fire suppression
system, brigade members should examine it to see whether the
system operated properly or was disabled. If the fire suppres -
sion system failed to work, the problem could be poor mainte-
nance or deliberate tampering. Notify the fire inspector of any
findings.
Obs tacl es
An arsonist may p lace obstacles to h inder the effo rts o f
brigade members. Note whether fu rniture or equ ip ment was
moved to b lock entry . A rsonists also may p rop open fire
doors, pull do wn p laster to expose the wood structure, o r
punch holes in walls and ceilings to increase the rate of fire
spread.
Contents
Brigade memb ers invo lv ed in int erio r fire supp ress ion ,
like the memb ers of the search and rescue team, shou ld
make not e of anyth ing unusual about th e contents o f the
building . The absence of personal items in an office may
ind icate that th ey were removed and the fire was inten -
t ionally set. Emp t y bo xes in a wareho use may belong
there, or they may ind icate that the valuable contents were
removed. If on ly one item or a part icu lar stock o f products
burns, and there is no reasonable exp lanat ion for the fire,
arson cou ld be suspected. The fire investigato r will con sider
these factors with other ev idence before reach ing any
conclusion.

Charring and Burn Patterns
Charring in unusual p laces —like op en floo r space away
fro m any likely accidental ignit ion source—could ind icate
that the fire was deliberately set. Char on the underside of
doors or on the unders ide of a lo w horizontal surface, such
as a tabletop, could indicate that there was a pool of flam-
mab le liquid.
Overhaul
During overhau l, the s mo ke and steam should begin to dis -
sipate, enabling both brigade members and fire investigators
to get a better loo k at the surroundings. Brigade members
should continu e to loo k for indicat ions of the signs, pat -
terns, and evidence previously discussed while conducting
overhaul in a way that allo ws evidence to be identified and
preserved. The overhaul process, if not done carefully, can
quickly destroy valuable ev idence.
If possible, the investigator should take a good look at an
area before overhau l b egins. Th e invest igator can often
quickly ident ify potential ev idence and can help d irect or
guide the overhaul operation so that it is properly preserved.
Ev idence located during overhaul should be left where it is
found, untouched and undisturbed , unt il the investigator
examines it. Ev idence that must be removed fro m the scene
should be properly ident ified, docu mented, photographed,
packaged, and p laced in a secure locat ion.
Fire suppression personnel and investigato rs must work
as a team to ensure that the fire is co mp letely extingu ished
and properly overhau led , wh ile cont inually search ing fo r
and preserv ing signs, patterns, and ev idence. Taking pho -
tographs du ring th is ph ase o f the fire operat ion is a good
idea.
Be carefu l no t t o des t roy ev id en ce d u ring o verhau l (r
Figure 26 -7). Avoid throwing materials into a p ile. Use
lo w-v e lo cit y h o s e st reams t o av o id b reak in g u p an d
(Figure 26-7) Be aware of the need to preserve evidence during ov erhaul.
Fi r e Caus e Deter mi nati on 767
scattering debris need lessly. Thermal imag ing dev ices can
be used to find hot spots without tearing apart the interior
structure.
Watch for evidence that was shielded fro m the fire and is
lying beneath burned debris. For examp le, a wall clock may
have fallen du ring the fire and been covered with debris. If
the clock stopped approximately when the fire bro ke out, it
could be an important p iece o f ev idence.
A fire investigator will always try to determine whether
the build ing contents were changed o r removed prio r to a
fire. If all of a business' computers are missing, the fire might
have been set to conceal a theft.
A vehicle fire can start from an accidental electrical short
or fro m a co mbination of gasoline and matches placed in the
passenger compart ment. Signs of spilled fuel on the ground
around a vehicle may be evidence of an intentional fire. Do
not move the vehicle without documenting this spilled fuel;
the evidence will be lost.
Injuries and Fat alit ies
Any fire that results in an in jury or fatality must be thor-
oughly investigated and the fire scene documented. A search
and rescue operation should never be compro mised, but it is
impo rtant to docu ment the location and posit ion o f any v ic-
tims, especially in relat ion to the fire and the exits.
Cloth ing removed fro m any v ict im should be preserved
as evidence. It may contain traces of flammable liquids, and
burn patterns can ind icate the fire flo w. If the clothing is
removed in the ambu lance or at the hospital, these person nel
should be instructed to collect it and keep it as intact as
possible.
Docu ment what may be ly ing under the v ict im's body
after it is removed. Th is often is a protected area and may
reveal impo rtant evidence.
Securing and Transferring the Property
A fire brigade member doesn't need to collect or move any
item that might be evidence. They might control the scene
but do not need to go beyond that point. Maintain ing site
integrity is crit ical to the fire investigation. The building and
premis es must be p roperly secu red and gu ard ed unt il the
fire investigator has finished gathering evidence and docu -
menting the fire scene. Otherwise, any effo rts to determine
the cause of a malicious or incendiary fire, no matter how
efficient or co mp lete, will be wasted.
If a fire investigator is not immediately availab le, the
premises should be guarded and maintained under the con -
tro l o f the fire b rigade o r secu rity unt il the investigat ion
takes place and all evidence is collected. In the interim, take
the following steps:
• Suspend salvage and overhaul, and secure the scene.
Keep nonessential personnel out of the area. Deny entry
to all unauthorized and unnecessary persons.
768
Arsonists fall into several categories, with various explana-
tions for their behavior. The fire service has identified two
groups who are responsible for a large nu mber of fires:
pyromaniacs and juvenile fire -setters. Many other arsonists
start fires for a wide range of mot ives.
Pyromaniacs
A pyromaniac is a pathological fire-setter. Most are adult
males, often loners. They are usually int roverted , polite
but timid, and have difficulty relat ing to other people. The
fires set by pyromaniacs have the following characteristics:
• Fires are set in easily accessible locat ions, such as
immed iately inside entrances, on basement stairs, in
trash bins, or on porches.
• Fires are set in structures such as occupied resi
dences of all types, barns, and vacant bu ild ings.
• Accelerants are rarely used. The pyro maniac is
impulsive, so materials readily at hand are used.
• Each pyro man iac usually has a pattern, setting fires
at the same t ime of day o r n ight, using the same
method, and m similar locat ions.
Juvenile Fire-Setters
Juvenile fire setters usually set fires in residential or co m-
mercial structures, but they need to be considered in the
industrial setting as well. They may set fires along fences or
the rear of buildings in remote areas. They may set them
simp ly fro m curiosity , but the culp rits may be juven iles
who have a grudge against a security guard and set the fire
out of revenge. Listed below are the indicators that the fire
brigade member or leader should be aware of if they suspect
a juven ile has started a fire in an area o f a p lant. Juvenile
fire-setters are usually div ided into three groups according
to age: 8 years old and under, 9 to 12 years old
(preadolescent), and 13 to 17 years old (adolescent).
Pre-ado lescent and ado les cent fire -setters o ften exh ib it
the same personality traits as adult pyro maniacs:
introverted, d ifficu lty with interpersonal relat ionships, and
extreme po liteness when questioned.
Children under 8 years o ld are seldo m criminally moti-
vated when they set fires; they usually are just curious and
experimenting. Ch ildren o f this age do not really under-
stand the danger of fire. They usually set fires in or near
their ho mes or in nearby fields or vacant lots. They start
fires with matches or by sticking co mbustible material into
equipment such as electric heaters that provide an ignition
source. The remains of matches, matchbo xes, or
match-books are often found at the po int o f o rigin .
Preadolescent fire-starters do not venture far from
home, but this group does set most of the fires that involve
schools and churches. Preadolescents have motivat ions
other than idle curiosity. The motivat ions of boys range
fro m spite to revenge and disruptive behavior. Girls usually
set less aggressive fires and are motivated by a need for
attention or in response to a particular stress, such as a test
they don't want to take.
The preadolescent usually does not use elaborate trailers
or incendiary devices. They will use common, available
accelerants such as gasoline, kerosene, or lighter flu id. The
preadolescent often uses whatever materials are at hand
and on sit e, includ ing t rash container contents, l oose
papers, and rags. The fire will show a lack of p lanning,
preparat ion, and sophist icat ion, part icu larly if it was a
group effort.
The fires set by adolescents are similar to those set by
adults. Ado lescents have b etter access to t ransportat ion
and can travel farther, so they have access to a wider variety
of buildings. They also have many of the same motivations
of adult fire -setters, such as revenge or attempts to hide
larceny, and they often use accelerants. Two-thirds of fires
set in vacant build ings are set by adolescents, but no class
of prop erty is exempt fro m harm. Often a g reat amount o f
vandalis m at the scene will be a clue that the fire was set
by an adolescent.
Arsonist Motives
An arsonist is someone who deliberately sets a fire with
criminal intent. Arsonists set all types of fires and have a
range of motives. Male arsonists are usually motivated by
profit, revenge, or vanity, and often use accelerants. In the
past, female fire-setters were seldom motivated by profit and
seldom used accelerants, but this seems to be changing
There are six co mmon mot ives listed in NFPA 921. Guide
to Fire and Explosion Investigations. Each of the motives
listed applies to an industrial setting and should be
considered if the fire appears to be incendiary. Even though
the listed items may apply to a residence, indiv iduals set
fires fo r the same reasons in an industrial setting.
1. Vandalis m
2. Excitement
3. Revenge
4. Crime concealment
5. Profit
6. Extremis m
Arsonists who are motivated by excitement are rela -
tively easy to apprehend because they usually have so me

Brigade Member Tips
Arson Facts
• Ars on is oft en called a "y oung m an' s crim e;" 54% of t hos e
arrested for arson are under the age of 18.
• Only about 2% of all incendiary or sus pected inc endiary fires lead
to conviction.
• Arson is the leading caus e of property dam age in the U nited
States, resulting in $1. 3 billion of property dam age annually. • One
out of eight fire fat alities is due t o a fire start ed by ars on.
Brigade Member Tips
Serial A rson
There are three types of serial (repetitiv e) ars on identified by
NFPA 921, Guide to Fire and Ex plosion Investigations: l. Serial
arson inv olv es an off ender w ho sets t hree or m ore fires, wit h a
cooling-off period between fires. 2. Spree arson inv olves an
ars onist who sets t hree or more fires at s eparate locations wit h
no emotional c ooling-off period between fires. 3. Mass arson
inv olv es an offender w ho sets three or more fires at t he sam e sit e
or location during a limited period of time.
SOURCE: NFPA 921, Guide to Fire and Explosion Investigations, 2001
Edition, Section 19.4.8.2
ident ifiab le connect ion with their t argets, such as a d is-
gruntled emp loyee to a co mpany. One category o f excite-
• Photograph the fire scene extensively. Start fro m the
area of least damage and work toward the area of possi
ble origin . Take several pictures of the point of o rig in
fro m various angles. Photograph any incendiary devices
on the premises exactly where they were found.
• If weather, traffic, or other factors could destroy the
evidence, take steps to preserve it in the best way
Fire C ause D e t e r m i n a t i o n 769
ment fires includes fires started by a wou ld-be hero. The
wou ld-b e hero can be either a d iscoverer or an assister.
The discoverer sets the fire, "discovers" it, and turns in the
alarm. The assister sets the fire, sometimes discovers it and
reports it, and is always on hand to help or init iate fire
extinguish ment.
An unfortunate category of excitement arsonists is closely
related to the would-be hero. These are fire fighters and
would-be fire fighters (persons who have tried to become fire
fighters and failed) who intentionally start fires.
Revenge arsonists are often very careful, and make
detailed plans for setting the fire and escaping detection
afterwards. Arsonists motivated by revenge seldom consider
the extent of damage fire can inflict. Their intent is to harm a
particular person or group to get revenge for a perceived
injustice.
Arson for profit occurs because the arsonist will benefit
fro m the fire either d irect ly or ind irect ly. Fires that
direct ly benefit the arsonist often involve businesses. The
business owner might set the fire or arrange to have it set, to
gain an insurance settlement that can be used to cover other
financial needs. An increas ing prob lem connected with this
arson for pro fit is fraud. For examp le, a person may buy
and insure a property, only to burn it for the sole purpose of
defraud ing an insurance co mpany.
The other type of profit arsonist sets a fire to benefit from
another persons loss. Included in this mot ive category are:
• Insurance agents who want to sell more insurance to
the victi m's neighbors
• Contractors who want to secure a contract for
rebuild ing or wrecking or to get a salvage
• Co mpet itors who want to drive the v ict im out of
business
• Owners of adjo in ing property who would like to
buy the property and expand their own hold ings
• Owners of nearby p roperty who want to prevent an
occupancy change, such as the conversion of a
building to a drug rehab ilitat ion center
possible. Protect t ire tracks or footprints by placing
bo xes over them to p revent dust accu mu lat ion. Use
barricades to block off the area to further traffic. Rope
off areas surrounding plants, trailers, and devices, and
post a guard.
The p ropert y shou ld b e secu red by co rdo n ing o ff t he
area with fire - or police -line tape. A member of the brigade
770 I N D U S T R I A L F I R E B R I G A D E :
( Figure 26-8) Some fire brigades have contracts with local companies that
provide 24-hour board-up service.
security o r law enfo rcement agency should remain at the
scene to ensure that no unauthorized persons cross the line.
Befo re leav ing the scene, make sure that the build ing is
properly secured, and no hazards to public safety exist. Shut
off all ut ilities and seal any open ings in the roof to p revent
P R I N C I P L E S AND P R A C T I C E
additional water damage. Board up and secure windows and
doors to prevent unauthorized ent ry.
Fire b rigades can secu re and prot ect the p remises in
several ways. Lock and guard gates if necessary, rope off
dangerous areas and mark them with signs. So me b rigades'
co mpan ies have cont racts with local co mpan ies that p ro vide
24-hou r board -up serv ices and so metimes h ire p rivate
security guards to secu re a p roperty after a fire (Figure 26-8
).
Eventually, when brigade operations are over, the prop -
erty will b e retu rned to operat ions as no rmal. Th is should
not be done, however, unt il the investig ation is co mplete
and all evidence is collected.
Incendiary Fires
The term incendiary fires refers to all fires that were deliber-
ately started for malicious or criminal intent. In many juris-
dictions, arson has a narrower, specific legal defin ition. This
chapter uses arson to mean the malicious burn ing of p rop erty
with criminal intent.
Brigade members must be aware of factors that could
indicate an intent ionally set fire, to report any observations
to a brigade leader o r fire investigator, and to help protect
evidence.

Indications of Arson
Arson fires have several d istinct, recognizab le patterns or
indicat ions. Fo r examp le, a deliberate fire might have mu l-
tip le po ints of o rigin or mu lt iple simu ltaneous fires. An
arsonist will ign ite fires in different areas to create a large
fire as qu ickly as possible and involve the ent ire bu ilding.
Arsonists also use trailers made fro m co mbustible materials,
such as p aper, rags , cloth ing , cu rtains, kerosene -soaked
rope or other fuels, to spread a fire. Trailers often leave dis -
tinctive char and/or burn patterns that investigators can use
to trace the spread of a fire.
An incendiary device is a device or mechanism, such as
candles, timers, or electrical heaters that is used to start a fire or
explosion. Many incendiary devices leave evidence, such as
metal parts, electrical co mponents, or mechanical devices, at
the point of origin. Often an arsonist will use more than one
incendiary device; sometimes, a failed incendiary device is
found at the fire scene. If trailers were used, investigators may
be able to trace the burn patterns back to an incendiary device.
Ev idence of a flammable liquid often indicates an incen-
diary fire but do es not necessarily establish arson as the
cause because there could be an accidental exp lanation fo r a
Fi r e Cause Dete r mina tion 771
flammable liquid spill. To prove arson, the fire investigator
must determine that a flammab le liquid was used and that
there is no explanation other than arson for the p resence of
the flammab le liqu id.
Extensive burn damage on a floor's surface cou ld ind icate
that a flammable liquid was poured and ign ited. Fo r examp le,
a wood floor might have a pool-shaped burn pattern, or floor
tiles could be d iscolored or blistered with an irregu lar burn
pattern. On concrete and masonry floors, a flammab le liquid
pattern is usually irregu lar with various shades of g ray to
black. Cracked and p itted concrete may also suggest
flammab le liqu id use. Liquids flow to the low est level
possible, so the evidence of pooled liquids could be visib le in
corners and along the base of walls, where there might also
be lo w levels of charring.
So met imes the first indications o f a possib le arson fire
are ent irely circu mstantial. A part icular fire could fit into a
pattern , such as a series o f fires in the same area, at about
the same t ime on the same d ays of th e week. There might be
a series of fires in the same location or on the same shift. A
brigade member who notices a pattern o r a set of similar
circu mstances should immed iat ely repo rt the observ at ion
to a brigade leader o r a fire investigator.

Pres erv ing evidenc e as sists brigade m embers with t he prim ary
goal of prev enting loss of liv es and property loss.
Fires are c aus ed by eit her inc endiary or acc ident al c aus es.
Bas ic fire inv estigat ion includes loc at ing t he point of origin,
determ ining t he fuel us ed, and identify ing t he ignition s ource.
Fire investigation s hould be perf ormed by one of the f ollowing:
trained fire brigade investigat ors, the f ire m ars hal's office, ins ur-
anc e com pany inv estigators, or a law enf orc em ent agency.
Physical evidenc e must be pres erv ed by m aint aining an unbro -
ken chain of c ust ody.
The brigade m ember's role in fire inv estigation is t o identify and
pres erve poss ible ev idenc e unt il it c an be turned ov er t o a trained
fire inv est igat or.
The brigade m ember's role in identif ying and pres erving evidenc e
continues throughout t he fire suppression sequenc e, and
inc ludes the f ollowing f act ors:
o T im e of day, w eat her
o People leaving t he sc ene
o Ext ent of fire, num ber of loc ations of f ire
° Sec urit y of t he building
° Signs of propert y break -in
o Vehicles or people in t he area
o I ndic at ions of unus ual f ire sit uat ions
o U nus ual c olor of s m ok e
o Position of window s and roof
° T he react ion of t he fire during init ial att ack
o Abnorm al behavior of fire
o C ondition of t he building c ont ent s
° Need to coordinat e ov erhaul and evidence pres erv ation
activ ities
0
Need t o transf er res ponsibility of t he property from fire s up -
pression pers onnel t o fire inv estigat ors
o N eed t o s ec ure t he property
Acc eler ants M at erials, us ually f lam m able li quids, us ed t o initiate or
inc rease t he s pread of fire. Accide ntal fire s F ire c aus e c las sific at ion
that inc ludes f ires with a proven c ause t hat does not inv olv e a
deliberat e hum an act.
Ars on T he m alic ious burning of one's ow n or anot her's property
wit h a c riminal int ent.
Ars onist A pers on w ho deliberat ely s ets a fire t o dest roy property
wit h c rim inal int ent.
C hai n of c ust o dy A legal t erm us ed t o desc ribe t he paperw ork
or doc um ent ation desc ribing the m ov em ent, storage, and c ust ody of
evidenc e, such as t he rec ord of poss ess ion of a gas c an from a fire
scene.
C ir c u msta nt ia l evi d e nce T h e m ea ns by w hic h alleged f ac t s
are prov en by deduction or inferenc e from other f acts t hat w ere
obs erv ed first hand.
C o mp e te nt i g n it i o n s o u rce A c om p et ent ignit ion s o urc e is
one t hat can ignit e a fuel under the existing c onditions at t he tim e of
the fire. It must have s ufficient heat and be in proxim ity to t he f uel
for s uffic ient tim e t o ignit e t he f uel.
Co nta minate d A t erm us ed t o desc ribe ev idenc e t hat m ay hav e
been alt ered from its original st ate.
D e mo n str ati ve ev i de n ce T erm us e d t o des c ribe m at erials
us ed to dem onstrat e a t heory or ex plain an ev ent.
De pth of c har T he t hic k ness of t he lay er of a m at erial t hat has
been c ons um ed by a fire. T he depth of char on wood c an be us ed to
help det ermine the duration of a fire.
D irect evi de nc e Ev idenc e t hat is report ed f irs t hand, s uc h as
stat em ents from an ey ewit ness who s aw or heard s om ething.
Inc e nd iar y dev ice A dev ic e or m ec hanis m us ed t o st art a f ire
or ex plosion.
I nce n d i ar y f i res I nt ent io nally s et f ires .
Mass arso n I nv olv es an off ender w ho s ets t hree or m ore f ires at the
sam e s it e or loc ation during a lim it ed period of t im e. Phy sical
evide nce I t em s t hat c an be obs erv ed, phot ographed, m eas ured,
collected, ex amined in a laborat ory, and pres ented in c ourt to prove or
dem onst rat e a point.
Poi nt of ori gin T he ex ac t loc ation w here a heat s ourc e and a fuel
com e in c ont act w ith eac h ot her and a f ire begins.
Pyr o ma nia c A pat hologic al fire -s ett er.
Serial ars o n A s eries of f ires s et by t he s am e off ender, wit h a
cooling-off period bet w een fires.
Spre e ars on A s eries of fires st art ed by an ars onist w ho s ets three
or more fires at s eparate loc ations w ith no emot ional c ooling-off period
betw een fires.
Tr ace (tra n sfer) ev id e nce Ev idenc e of a m inut e qua nt it y t hat is
conv ey ed from one plac e t o anot her. Trailers C om bustible m at erial,
suc h as rolled rags, blank ets, and news papers or flamm able liquid,
us ed t o s pread fire f rom one point or area t o ot her point s or areas,
oft en us ed in conjunction wit h an inc endiary devic e.
U nd eter mi ne d C aus e c lass if ic ation t hat includes f ires f or w hic h
the caus e has not or c annot be prov en.
 On a third shift you hear the alert that a fire has been discovered in the fabrication
area of the plant. As you respond you notice smoke is spreading from that area and
you hear the water flow alarm for the sprinkler system. You go to the standpipe,
connect a hoseline, and advance it toward the equipment in the fire area.

You notice that the fire is still burning under the equipment. Flames are starting to melt
hydraulic lines on the machine and the fire is growing. As you advance your hose line and
extinguish the fire, you observe that the fire area was all underneath the equipment. You know from working
at the plant that this machine does not produce a lot of heat. You observe that there are tools and parts lying
nearby. You know from experience that a fire investigator will want to know what you have seen. You make
notes of your observations.

1. Based on your obs erv ations of t he fire area, w hat is t he
m ost lik ely reason t he s prinkler s yst em didn't ext in guis h
the f ire?
A. The s prinkler s ystem malfunct ioned.
B. The fire w as too hot f or the s prink ler syst em w at er
flow t o extinguis h.
C. The mac hinery acted as a shield and prev ent ed
wat er f rom reac hing t he f ire.
D. The fire involv ed a c ombust ible m et al.
3. Onc e the fire sc ene is secured and t he area is s afe, the
maintenanc e tec hnic ians as k if they can rem ov e their
tools and parts. W hen c an t he t ools and parts be
rem oved?
A. Aft er y ou m ak e a list of t he t ools, parts, and their
loc ation.
B. W hen t he f abric ation s hop foreman says it is ok ay
to do s o.
C. After you have t aken pict ures of the area.
D. After the fire inv estigat or releas es the sc ene.

2. W hy does the fire inv estigator remove and ins pect eac h 4. As y ou c ons ider t he c irc um st anc es of t his f ire, y ou
lay er of debris ? wonder if t he c ause w as intent ional. W ho s hould y ou
A. To determ ine how long it burned. share y our obs erv ations wit h?
B. To determ ine t he s equenc e in w hic h items burned. A. The f abric ation s hop supervis or.
C. To take fingerprints of t he m aterial that w as burned. B. Other brigade m em bers.
D. Bot h A and B. C. The fire inv estigat or.
D. The plant manager.