2022-2023

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 Alexandria University
Faculty of Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Introduction To Gas Dynamics

By

Elsayed M. Marzouk, Ph. D

Professor of Mechanical Engineering

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Table of contents

Chapter 1
Foundation of Gas Dynamics 6

1.1 Introduction to gas dynamics 6

1.2 Outline, historical notes, and objectives 6
1.3 Control volume approach and conservation equations 9
1.3.1 Conservation of Mass 13
1.3.2 Conservation of Momentum 17
1.3.3 Conservation of Energy 25
1.3.4 Second Law of Thermodynamics 30
1.4 The Perfect Gas 31
1.5 Summary 33
Problems 33

Chapter 2
Basic Concepts to Compressible Flow & Isentropic Flow 37

2.1 Introduction 37
2.2 Compressible Flow 33
2.3 Speed of Small Amplitude Pressure Wave 38
2.3.1 Mach Number 40
2.4 Physical Difference Between Subsonic and Supersonic Flow 41
2.5 Effect of Area Change on Compressible Flow Properties 43
2.5.1 Physical Interpretation of Isentropic Flow 43
2.5.2 Difference Between Subsonic and Supersonic Flow 45
2.5.3 Stagnation and Static Properties 47
2.5.4 Stagnation Pressure and Compressibility 48
2.5.5 Mass Flow Parameters 49
2.5.6 Impulse Function 51
2.6 Choking in Isentropic Flow 53
2.6.1 Operation of Convergent Nozzle 54
2.6.2 Operation of Convergent Divergent Nozzle 56
2.7 Summary 64
Problems 65

Chapter 3
Propulsion Engines 68

3.1 Introduction 68
3.2 Non-Air Breathing Engines (Rocket Engines) 68
3.2.1 Acceleration of a Rocket Propelled Vehicle 72
3.2.2 Rocket Staging 76

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3.3 Air-Breathing Engines 78
3.3.1 Performance Parameters 78
3.3.2 Propeller Engine 82
3.3.3 Turb Jet Engine 84
3.3.3.1 Compressor and Turbine 88
3.3.3.2 Combustion Chamber 89
3.3.3.3 Diffuser Efficiency 90
3.3.3.4 Propulsion Nozzle 91
3.3.3.5 Nozzle Efficiency for Non-Isentropic Flow 93
3.3.3.6 Small Stage Efficiency 94
3.3.4 Turbo Fan Jet Engine 97
3.3.5 Thrust Augmentation 102
3.3.6 Turbo-Propeller Jet Engine 105
3.3.7 Ram Jet Engine 107
3.3.8 Pulse Jet Engine 108
3.4 Summary 117
Problems 118

Chapter 4
Normal Shock Wave 121

4.1 Introduction 121

4.2 Shock Wave in Nozzle 119
4.3 Governing Equations 123
4.3.1 Fanno Line 124
4.3.2 Raleigh Line 125
4.4 Normal Shock Wave in Calorically Perfect Gas 127
4.5 Entropy Rise and Stagnation Pressure Ratio Across wave 130
4.6 Representation of Normal Shock on (T-S) Chart 131
4.7 Some Practical Problems in Nozzles 132
4.7.1 Shock wave Location is known 132
4.7.2 Back Pressure is Known 133
4.8 Formation of Normal Shock Wave and Expansion Fan 138
4.9 Moving Shock Wave 142
4.9.1 Moving Shock in Stationary Gas 146
4.9.2 Moving Shock in Moving Gas 147
4.10 Supersonic Normal Shock Diffuser 148
4.11 Pitot Tube 150
4.12 Supersonic Diffusers 153
4.12.1 Supersonic Wind Tunnels 153
4.12.2 Supersonic Inlets 158
4.13 Summary 167
Problems 167
List of symbols 170
References 171

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2022-2023

2022-2023

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 Chapter (1)

Foundation of Gas Dynamics

1.1 Introduction
This chapter gives a preface of gas dynamics, short historical outline, and objectives of
this basic course. The analyses of the motion of compressible flow begin with the four
basic physical laws governing such motion. The control volume formulation of the four
conservation equations laws of fluid flow and thermodynamics and subsidiary laws are
detailed.

1.2 Outline, historical notes, and objectives

Gas dynamics or the study of compressible flow implies variation of density all over
the flow field. These variations are principally due to pressure changes from point to
point in the flow field. Hence, the rate of change of density with respect to pressure is
a very important parameter in the study of gas dynamics.

Engineering is the application of knowledge to behavior of materials for the solution

of practical problems. The word fluid is used to denote either liquid or gas. A basic
difference between solid and fluid is made as follows. When a force is applied
tangentially to solid surface experiences a finite deformation and the shear stress is
usually proportional to the change of deformation. However, for fluid, no matter how
small shear force, it deforms continuously, and the shear stress is proportional to the
rate of shear deformation.
From another point of view the basic difference between solid, liquid or gas is at the
atomic or molecular level. In solids, the molecules are packed together by powerful
intermolecular forces. In liquid, the spacing between molecules is large and the
intermolecular forces are weaker. This gives a liquid its fluidity. In gas, the spacing is
much larger, hence, the influence of intermolecular forces is much weaker, and the
molecule moves rather freely. Fluid mechanics is therefore divided into:
• Hydrodynamics, which is the flow of liquid.
• Gas dynamics which is the flow of gases (or aerodynamics or flow of air)
Sometimes, under certain conditions, gas can be made into an electrically conducting
fluid, possessing electrical properties like solid for conduction (plasma gas). The
behavior of such gas is included in gas dynamic with the added electromagnetic forces.

Changes in density in flow are usually caused by external forces acting on the fluid
which are strong enough to cause changes in the average molecular spacing. However,
changes in temperature may also cause changes in density. In addition to variable

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density, another pivotal aspect of high-speed compressible flow is energy. A high-
speed flow is high-energy flow. When energy changes, some kinetic energy is lost or
gained and reappears as internal energy and hence temperature. Gas dynamic is
therefore a misnomer since thermodynamic is equally important as the fluid mechanics.

Flow of liquids is considered incompressible since density is very nearly constant

because external forces acting on fluid are not strong enough to cause changes in the
intermolecular spacing and changes in temperature always negligible and hardly affect
density. It will be shown physically a meaningful measure, as to whether the flow may
be compressible or incompressible.
Gas dynamic is one of the most mathematically demanding courses in engineering.
However, care is taken in the present text to not let the mathematics hide the physical
meanings. The most important goal of engineering is understanding and not
memorizing. Facts are quickly forgotten but understanding based on fundamental
concepts and physical meanings remain.
Gas dynamics or aerodynamics is a basic course for mechanical engineering students,
to be read, understood, and enjoyed.
The science of aerodynamics may be traced back to the start of the dynamics of flow
at the seventeenth century. The dynamics of flow originated principally by the works
of scientists like Newton (1640-1727), Dalmbert (1715-1783) and Euler (1707-1783).
However, the successful flight of the Wright brothers' glider in 1901 is considered the
cornerstone of the present-day aero plane. Their good aerodynamics results on wing
airfoils obtained experimentally from wind tunnel turned their previous two failed trials
into success in 1903 when they corrected the available existing scientific data at that
time. Efforts then started to powered flight to propeller engine and turbojet engine. The
speed of flight progressively increased from low subsonic to supersonic and hypersonic
speed during this century. The important point is that good aerodynamics was crucial
for the first flight success and to all subsequent progress up to present day in
aeronautics and astronautics.
To cite another example of gas dynamic importance, compressors were used in early
gas turbines but insufficient knowledge of the dynamics of flow through blades resulted
in machines of prohibitively low efficiency. The advancement of the science of
aerodynamics, which accompanied the development of airplane greatly, assisted rapid
improvement of compressor performance.
There are some engineering devices the very functioning of which depends on the
internal gas dynamics processes such are pressure exchangers, pulsating combustors,
shock tubes… etc. development of industrial and aero-gas turbines and other plants
have been dependent on the science of gas dynamics.

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The charges and discharges of the cylinder and associated flow in inlet and exhaust
manifolds of internal compression ignition and spark ignition piston engines are gas
dynamic processes that are always essential for their adequate performance.
The importance of aerodynamic understanding made the aerospace flights possible and
the intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBM) possible since the early nineteen fifties,
Blunt body vehicles implementation instead of sharp pointed slender body shapes,
which reduced the aerodynamic heating of reentry at hypersonic speeds to
nondestructive levels, was the breakthrough for this success. This breakthrough
established by H. Allen at NASA Aeronautical laboratory in 1953.

Small heating of air Large heating of air

Large htg body Small heating body

High speed High speed

Fig (1.1) Blunt body and Sharp body interaction with air.
These are only few examples to point out the importance of gas dynamics. However,
whatever complexity and sophistication gas dynamics theory is, gas dynamics
experiments, or mathematical model is, the aim is mainly directed towards one of the
following.
a) Internal flow:
This describes the flow moving internally through ducts. The aim is to predict and
measure flow properties, e.g., rocket engine, air breathing jet engine or industrial gas
turbine and to determine the produced thrust or in general engine performance.
Determine flow rates and flow properties resulting from area change, friction, and
energy transfer. Also determine flow condition in devices such as wind tunnels, shock
tubes…etc. Analysis and design of propulsion components such as diffusers,
compressors, turbines, and nozzles. Also, design and analysis of unsteady gas
dynamics devices such as pressure exchangers, pulse combustors pulse ejectors and
reciprocating ICE inlet and exhaust system tuning.
b) External flow:
This relates to the interaction of bodies moving in air (gas). For example, it is needed
to predict forces, moments and heat transfer to bodies moving through air. As an

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example, is the determination of lift and drag on airfoils, wings, fuselage, engine
nacelles and of course the whole airplane.

Fig (1.2) Interaction of moving airfoil with air

1.3 Control Volume Approach and Conservation Equations

There are, basically, two possible approaches for writing down the equations of motion
of flowing fluid. The first follows a fixed identity of mass of gas particles as it moves
through the flow field. The other considers a fixed volume in space (control volume)
in the flow field and relates the movement of mass, momentum, energy, and entropy
across the control volume surfaces to changes taking place within the control volume.
The control volume concept is used throughout this course. It is therefore an essential
task to transfer the basic laws from normal system concept into control volume concept.
For control volume formulation of each basic law from system concept, the symbol B
designate any extensive property of the system such as mass, momentum, energy, or
entropy. The system intensive property (Extensive property/unit mass) is b:

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i.e., Bsystem = ∫mass,system 𝑏 𝑑𝑚 = ∫volume,system b ρ𝑑𝑣 (1.1)

A major task in going from system to control volume formulation is to express the rate
of change of an arbitrary extensive property of system in terms of time variations of
that property associated with c.v.

Fig (1.3)

Figure (1.3) shows a c.v. in the flow field. A system occupies the c.v. at any instant of
time t After an elapsed period of time ∆t, the system moves in the flow field, Divide
the system at time t and time (t + ∆t) as shown in the figure so that subregions (I + II)
equals volume bounded by the system at time t and subregions (II,III) equals volume
bounded by system at time (t+ ∆t).
⃗ (x, y, z, t) is relative to coordinate system which is attached
Note that the flow field V
to c.v.
The control volume may be stationary or moving.
𝐵𝑡 = 𝐵𝐼𝑡 + 𝐵𝐼𝐼𝑡 (1.2)

Where 𝐵𝐼𝑡 represent extensive property associated with fluid particles in subregion I
at time t.

𝐵𝑡+∆𝑡 = 𝐵𝐼𝐼𝑡+∆𝑡 + 𝐵𝐼𝐼𝐼𝑡+∆𝑡 (1.3)

The change in B of the system of particles during ∆t is:

𝐵𝑡+∆𝑡 − 𝐵𝑡 = 𝐵𝐼𝐼𝑡+∆𝑡 − 𝐵𝐼𝐼 𝑡 + 𝐵𝐼𝐼𝐼𝑡+∆𝑡 − 𝐵𝐼 𝑡 (1.4)

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∆𝐵 ∆𝐵𝐼𝐼 𝐵𝐼𝐼𝐼𝑡+∆𝑡 −𝐵𝐼 𝑡
= + (1.5)
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡

As ∆𝑡 approaches zero, so that subregion II approaches that of the c.v., the first
term of on right hand side of eqn. (1.5) represent the rate of change of extensive
property B within the control volume.

𝐵𝑐.𝑣. = ∫𝑐.𝑣. bρ𝑑𝑣

𝑑𝐵𝑐.𝑣. 𝜕
The time derivative of this term is: = ∫ bρ𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡𝑐.𝑣. 𝑐.𝑣.

Note that the partial derivative is used here since both b, ρ are functions of both position
and time.
The second term expresses, as ∆𝑡 tends to zero, the difference between the rate at which
extensive property B leaves c.v. and that which enters c.v. this net rate of efflux can be
expressed in more familiar terms, consider an elemental area dA on the surface of c.v.
as in figure (1.3). Note that the vector dA is assumed positive with normal to
differential area and pointing outwards. The rate at which mass flows across this area
is given by the dot product as 𝜌 V.dA, so that the flux of extensive property B through
dA is given by (b 𝜌 V.dA)
Equation. (1.5) can therefore be written as:
𝑑𝐵 𝜕
( ) = ∫ bρ𝑑𝑣 + ∫𝐶.𝑆 𝑏(𝝆𝑽. 𝒅𝑨) (1.6)
𝑑𝑡 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝜕𝑡 𝑐.𝑣.

The left-hand side represent the rate of change of extensive property B of the system
the first term on the right-hand side represents the time rate of extensive property B
within the control volume, and the second term is the net rate of efflux of extensive
property B through the control surface.

Dimensionality and Directionality

Number of dimensions: It is the number of coordinates required to describe any
property of the flow.

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Number of directions: It is the number of non-zero velocity components in the flow.

(a) Flow is one-dimension in y and one-direction in x

(b) Flow is one-dimension in x and one- direction in x

Fig (1.4) One dimension and one direction flows

1.3.1 Conservation of Mass:

For a fixed mass system of total mass M, the mass can neither be created nor destroyed.
Nuclear and relativity effects are of course absent.

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Where the mass of the system is

Msystem = ∫mass(system) dm = ∫vol,(system) ρ dv

The conservation of mass for a system is:

dM
( dt ) =0 (1.7)
system

The conservation equation for a control volume is:

𝜕
0= ∫ ρ𝑑𝑣 + ∫𝐶.𝑆 𝜌(𝑽. 𝒅𝑨) (1.8)
𝜕𝑡 𝑐.𝑣.

That is the rate of accumulation of mass within the control volume is equal to the access
of incoming mass flow rate over the outgoing rate of mass flow. This integral form is
general, it may be applied on finite control volume or infinitesimal control, on steady
flow or unsteady flow, on compressible flow or incompressible flow, on one-
dimensional or multi-dimensional flow.
It is emphasized here that there is no unique c.v. selection for the correct solution of a
problem. The proper selection should, however, expose the unknowns in terms of the
known quantities.

Example (l)
Derive the continuity equation for an infinitesimal control volume in strict one
dimension flow.
The integral form of continuity eqn. reference to figure (4.15) is.
𝜕 𝜕
∫ ρ𝑑𝑣 = 𝜕𝑡 (𝜌∆𝑥 ∆𝑦 ∆𝑧)
𝜕𝑡 𝑐.𝑣.

Since the dimensions of control volume is not dependent on time:

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 Fig (1.4)

𝜕 𝜕𝜌 𝜕(𝜌𝑉)
∫ ρ𝑑𝑣 =
𝜕𝑡 𝑐.𝑣. 𝜕𝑡
∆𝑦 ∆𝑧 𝑑𝑥 = −
𝜕𝑥
∆𝑦 ∆𝑧 𝑑𝑥

𝜕𝜌 𝜕(𝜌𝑉)
+ = 0 , for steady flow, there is only one independent variable x,
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥

𝑑(𝜌𝑉)
= 0 i.e. 𝜌𝑉 = const. = mass flow rate / unit area.
𝑑𝑥

For incompressible flow, 𝜌 = constant

𝜕𝑉
𝜌 = 0, since compressibility does not affect time dependence
𝜕𝑥

Therefore, the solution is V = f(t)

Quasi-one-dimensional Flow:

Fig (1.5) Real three-dimension flow

For the flow in the above varying area duct in figure (1.5), the flow is (3-D), thus very
complex to solve need numerical solution.

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Sometimes, it is possible to relax accuracy for ease of solution. The assumption of
quasi one dimension flow simplifies the problem in two ways. We will consider it to
be as if it is (1-D) as follows.

uniform

• Flow as if one-dimension , inviscid

Fig (1.6) Quasi one dimension flow approximation

Example (2)
Apply the integral form of continuity equation to a quasi-one-dimension infinitesimal
control volume.
𝜕 𝜕𝜌
∫ ρ𝑑𝑣 =
𝜕𝑡 𝑐.𝑣. 𝜕𝑡
𝐴𝑑𝑥

The area is brought outside the derivative by assuming the passage has a rigid wall.

⃗ . 𝑑𝐴) = 𝜕 (𝜌𝐴𝑉 )𝑑𝑥

∫𝐶.𝑆 𝜌(𝑉 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝜌 𝜕
∴𝐴 + (𝜌𝐴𝑉 ) = 0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥

Fig (1.7)

Note the flow area appears in the equation whereas for strictly one dimension the flow
area did not appear. As the change of area becomes more gradual, the flow becomes

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more truly one dimension, and the two equations approaches same result. For steady
flow, the quasi-one-dimension flow becomes:
𝑑
(𝜌𝐴𝑉 ) = 0 , by integration
𝑑𝑥

𝜌𝐴𝑉 = constant = 𝑚̇
𝐄𝐱𝐚𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞 𝟑:
A circular tank of diameter D= 1.0 mt, height =0.5 mt, is to be filled with water
from a pipe of inner diameter 7.5 mm. The water leaves the pipe at uniform constant
of velocity 2.0 mt/sec. Determine the time required to fill the tank.

Fig (1.8)

Select the control volume as shown in the figure. Since the mass within the c.v. is
changing with time, apply the integral form of the continuity eqn. to the c.v.
𝜕
∫ ρ𝑑𝑣 = − ∫𝐶.𝑆. ρ(𝑽. 𝒅𝑨)
𝜕𝑡 𝑐.𝑣.

At any time the water level y(t), therefore the rate change of mass within the c.v.
𝜕 𝜕 𝜋𝐷2 𝜋𝐷2 𝑑𝑦
∫ ρ𝑑𝑣 = 𝜕𝑡 (𝜌
𝜕𝑡 𝑐.𝑣. 4
𝑦(𝑡)) = 𝜌
4 𝑑𝑡

The density can be brought out of the derivative since water is incompressible
2
⃗⃗ ) = −𝜌𝑉 𝜋𝑑
⃗ . 𝒅𝑨
∫𝐶.𝑆,𝑖𝑛 𝜌(𝑽 4

And substitute into continuing equation

𝑑𝑦 𝑑 2
∴ = ( ) 𝑉, by integration
𝑑𝑡 𝐷

𝑑 2
∴ 𝑦 = ( ) 𝑉𝑡 + Constant
𝐷

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at t = 0, y = 0 const. = 0, y = h, t = T
1
T= h/V = 1.23 hours
(𝑑/𝐷)2

Example 4:
Two kg/s of liquid H2 and eight kg/s of liquid O2 are injected into a rocket combustion
chamber in steady flow. The gaseous products of combustion are expelled through the
exhaust nozzle. Assume uniform flow in rocket exhaust plane of nozzle, determine exit
velocity. Nozzle exit diameter is 30cm and density of gases at exit plane 0.18 kg/m3.

Fig (1.9)

Select a c.v. as shown in figure, for steady flow the equation is:

⃗)=0
⃗ . dA
∫𝑆 𝜌(V

The rate of flow into c.v.= 10 kg/sec

The rate of flow out c.v.= 𝜌 A Vex
10
∴ 𝑉𝑒𝑥 = = 785.9 m/s
0.18×0.071

1.3.2 Conservation of Momentum:

For a system moving relative to an inertial reference frame, Newton's second law states
that the sum of all external forces acting on the system is equal to the time rate of
change of linear momentum of the system.
d(M𝐕)𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑛 d𝐕 d𝐏
∑F = = M𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 =( ) (1.8′ )
dt dt dt 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚

Where the linear momentum of the system P is:

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𝑃𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = ∫𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚) 𝑽𝑑𝑚 = ∫𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒(𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚) 𝑽𝜌𝑑𝑣 (1.9)

The result can be applied to a c.v. in a flow by substituting P for B and

b = P/M = V
𝑑𝑷 𝜕
( ) = ∫ 𝐕 ρ𝑑𝑣 + ∫𝐶.𝑆. 𝑽 (ρ𝑽. 𝑑𝑨) (1.10)
𝑑𝑡 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝜕𝑡 𝑐.𝑣.

Since the system and control volume coincides at any instant of time t,
𝐅)𝐬𝐲𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐦 = 𝐅)𝐜.𝐯 (1.11)
Therefore,
𝜕
∑ 𝑭𝒄.𝒗. = ∑ 𝑭𝑩 + ∑ 𝑭𝑺 = ∫ 𝑽 ρ𝑑𝑣 + ∫𝐶.𝑆. 𝑽 ρ(𝑽. 𝒅𝑨) (1.12)
𝜕𝑡 𝑐.𝑣.

The left-hand side represents the summation of all forces (body and surface) acting on
the c.v. The right-hand side represents the rate of change of linear momentum inside
the c.v. added to the net rate of efflux of momentum from the c.v.
A restriction is imposed, however, on eqn. (l. 12) using eqn. (1.8′ ) in its derivation.
The acceleration in eqn. (1.8′ ) must be measured relative to an inertial reference. Since
fluid velocities in eqn. (1.12) are taken relative to c.v. It is only valid for a stationary
c.v. or a control volume moving at constant speed relative to inertial frame of reference.
The equation is a vector eqn., it is therefore, may be written in its three scalar
components. The c.v. must be defined clearly and label the coordinate directions before
its application. The flux term in eqn. (l.12) is the product of two terms both of which
have sign associated with it. It is suggested therefore, to carry it out in two steps in
determining momentum flux through any location of control surface. The sign of mass
flux 𝜌 (V.dA) depends on direction of V and dA. The sign of vector V depends on
coordinate system directions.

Momentum Equation for C.V. with Linear Acceleration:

For an inertial coordinate system that is a coordinate system attached to c.v. stationary
or moving with constant velocity (c.v. not accelerating relative to stationery reference
on earth). The following eqn. is the c.v. formulation:

𝑭 = 𝑭𝒔 + 𝑭𝑩 = ∫𝒄.𝒗. 𝑽𝑥𝑦𝑧 𝜌𝑑𝑣 + ∫𝒄.𝒗. 𝜌(𝑽𝑥𝑦𝑧 . 𝑑𝑨) (1.13)

Note that in deriving c.v. formulation eqn. (1.6), the coordinate xyz was fixed relative
to c.v., the flow field V (x, y, z, t) was specified relative to x y z. No restriction was
placed however, on movement of x y z reference frame. Therefore, eqn. (l. 6) is valid
at any instant for any arbitrary motion of coordinates x, y, z provided time derivative
and velocities are measured relative to the control volume.

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We are interested in analyzing c.v. that may accelerate relative to an inertial coordinate
system (a rocket must accelerate to get off ground and reach high altitude).
Is equation. (1.13) is valid for accelerating control volume? To answer this question,
let us start with the system concept equation.
d𝐏
F=( )
dt system

𝑷𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = ∫𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠,𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑽 𝑑𝑚

is valid for velocities measured relative to inertial reference. So, if we denote the
inertial reference XYZ, then Newton’s second law is:
𝑑𝑷𝑋𝑌𝑍
𝑭=( ) (1.14)
𝑑𝑡 𝑠𝑦𝑡𝑒𝑚

It is necessary to relate PXYZ to Pxyz. In writing down Newton’s law, acceleration

must be measured relative to inertial coordinate system XYZ.
𝑑𝑷𝑋𝑌𝑍 𝑑 𝑑𝑽𝑋𝑌𝑍
𝑭=(
𝑑𝑡
) = ∫ 𝑽 𝑑𝑚
𝑑𝑡 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑋𝑌𝑍
= ∫𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑚 = ∫𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝒂𝑋𝑌𝑍 𝑑𝑚 (1.15)
𝑠𝑦𝑡𝑒𝑚

Relative to the inertial coordinates XYZ,

𝒂𝑋𝑌𝑍 = 𝒂𝑥𝑦𝑧 + 𝒂𝑟𝑓 (1.16)

𝒂𝑋𝑌𝑍 is acceleration of system relative to inertial reference frame XYZ

𝒂𝑥𝑦𝑧 is acceleration of system relative to non-inertial frame xyz

𝒂𝑟𝑓 is acceleration of non-inertial frame relative to inertial frame.

𝑑𝑽𝑥𝑦𝑧
𝐅system − ∫𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝒂𝑟𝑓 𝑑𝑚 = ∫𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝒂𝑥𝑦𝑧 𝑑𝑚 = ∫𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑑𝑚 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝑑𝑷𝑥𝑦𝑧
∫ 𝑽 𝑑𝑚 = ( ) (1.17)
𝑑𝑡 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑥𝑦𝑧 𝑑𝑡 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚

Since:
𝑑𝑷𝑥𝑦𝑧 𝜕
= ∫ 𝑽𝒙𝒚𝒛 ρ𝑑𝑣 + ∫𝐶.𝑆. 𝑽𝒙𝒚𝒛 ρ(𝑽𝒙𝒚𝒛 . 𝒅𝑨) (1.18)
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝑐.𝑣.

Since the system and c.v. coincides at any arbitrary time t:

𝐅system − ∫𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝒂𝑟𝑓 ρ𝑑𝑣 = 𝐅c.v. − ∫𝑐.𝑣. 𝒂𝑟𝑓 ρ𝑑𝑣

19
 𝜕
𝐅c.v. − ∫𝑐.𝑣 𝒂𝑟𝑓 ρ𝑑𝑣 = ∫ 𝑽𝒙𝒚𝒛 ρ𝑑𝑣 + ∫𝐶.𝑆. 𝑽𝒙𝒚𝒛 ρ(𝑽𝒙𝒚𝒛 . 𝒅𝑨) (1.19)
𝜕𝑡 𝑐.𝑣.

In comparison with the non-accelerating c.v., the presence of additional term in eqn. (l. 19)
is being noticed., When the c.v. is not accelerating relative to inertial reference XYZ, that
is when arf = 0,eqn.(1.19) reduces to eqn.(1.12)
Example 5:
Develop the momentum equation for quasi one-dimensional flow, infinitesimal control
volume.

+x

Fig (1.10)

𝜕
𝑭𝑐.𝑣.,𝑥 = 𝐹𝑐.𝑣.,𝑠,𝑥 + 𝐹𝑐.𝑣.,𝐵,𝑥 = ∫ 𝑽ρ𝑑𝑣 + ∫𝐶.𝑆. 𝑽ρ(𝑽. 𝒅𝑨)
𝜕𝑡 𝑐.𝑣.
𝜕𝑝
𝐹𝑐.𝑣.,𝑠,𝑥 = − A dx
𝜕𝑥
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝑝
𝐴 (𝜌𝑉 ) + (𝜌𝐴𝑉 2 ) + 𝐴 =0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝜌 𝜕 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑝
𝑉 [𝐴 + (𝜌𝐴𝑉 )] + 𝐴 (𝜌 + 𝜌𝑉 + )=0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

From continuity eqn. for quasi one-dimensional flow.

𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑝
𝜌 + 𝜌𝑉 + =0 which is Euler equation
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

For steady flow, it becomes

𝑑𝑝 = −𝜌𝑉𝑑𝑉

20
Example 6:
An air stream jet at velocity of 100 m/s and density of 1.2 kg/m3 strikes stationary plate
supported as shown and then deflect by 90°. Determine the force on support. Assume
standard atmospheric pressure surrounding the jet and initial jet diameter is 2 cm. Try
to use another two different control volumes to solve the same.

Fig (1.11)
For steady flow the integral forms of momentum and continuity eqns. are:

𝑭 = ∫𝐶.𝑆. ρ(𝑽. 𝒅𝑨) ∫𝐶.𝑆. ρ𝑽. 𝒅𝑨 = 0

In applying the momentum eqn., the force F represent all forces on the c.v. Since it is
needed to evaluate the horizontal force, the x-component of momentum equation,
FB,x= 0

𝐹𝑆.𝑋 = ∫𝐶.𝑆. uρ(𝑽. 𝒅𝑨)

𝐹𝑆.𝑋 = 𝑝𝑎 𝐴 − 𝑝𝑎 𝐴 + 𝑅𝑥 , 𝑅𝑥 is force of support on c.v. assumed positive.

𝑅𝑥 = ∫𝐶.𝑆. uρ(𝑽. 𝒅𝑨) = ∫𝐴1 uρ(𝑽. 𝒅𝑨) = − ∫𝐴1 u|ρ𝑽. 𝒅𝑨| = −𝑢1 𝜌𝑢1 𝐴1
𝜋
= −100 (1.2 ∗ 100 ∗ (0.02)2 ) = −3.77 𝑁
4

For second C.V.II: you do it.

For third C.V.III: you do it.

21
Example 7:
A rocket motor is fired on a test bed. The rocket exhausts 10 kg/sec at exit velocity of
800 mt/sec. Assume uniform steady conditions at exit plane of 100 cm2 and exit plane
static pressure of 50 kPa. For an ambient pressure of 101 kPa, find the rocket motor
static thrust.

+x

Fig (1.12)

Select an external c.v. as shown in the Figure, apply eqn. (l. 12) on the c.v.

𝜏 − 𝑝𝑒 𝐴𝑒 + 𝑝𝑎 𝐴𝑒 = ∫𝐶.𝑆. 𝑽ρ(𝑽. 𝒅𝑨) = 𝑚̇𝑉𝑒

1
𝜏 = (50 − 101)(0.01) + 10 ∗ 800 ∗ = 7.49 KN.
1000

Example 8:
The sketch shows a vane with a turning angle of 60° .The vane moves at constant speed
of U=10 mt/sec and receives a jet of water that leaves a stationary nozzle with speed
of V=30 mt/sec. The nozzle has exit area of 0.003 mt2 Determine the force of the water
on the moving vane.

Fig (1.13)

22
Select a control volume as shown to expose the required force. Rx and Ry are the
components of the force on c.v. required to maintain the vane moving at 10 mt/sec in
x-direction. The c.v. is inertial since it is not accelerating relative to XY.
The basic equations are:
𝜕
𝑭𝒔 + 𝑭𝑩 = ∫ 𝑽𝑥𝑦𝑧 ρ𝑑𝑣 + ∫𝐶.𝑆. 𝑽𝑥𝑦𝑧 ρ(𝑽𝑥𝑦𝑧 . 𝒅𝑨)
𝜕𝑡 𝑐.𝑣.

0 = ∫𝑐.𝑣. ρ𝑑𝑣 + ∫𝐶.𝑆. ρ𝑽𝑥𝑦𝑧 . 𝒅𝑨

Since the flow is incompressible, steady. The magnitude of the relative velocity along
the vane is constant, i.e. at sections 1 and 2 equal(V-U). Properties are uniform at
sections 1 and 2. FB,x = FB,x= 0 . No net pressure force on the c.v.
Therefore, the x-component of momentum eqn. is:

𝐹𝑆,𝑋 = ∫𝐶.𝑆. uρ(𝑽. 𝒅𝑨)

𝑅𝑥 = ∫𝐴1 u(−|ρ𝑽𝒅𝑨| + ∫𝐴2 u|ρ𝑽𝒅𝑨| = −𝑢1 |ρ𝑽𝟏 𝑨𝟏 | + 𝑢2 |ρ𝑽𝟐 𝑨𝟐 |

Continuity equation:
ρ𝑽𝟏 𝑨𝟏 = ρ𝑽𝟐 𝑨𝟐 therefore,
𝑅𝑥 = (𝑢2 − 𝑢1 )(ρ𝑉1 𝐴1 )
Velocities are measured relative to c.v,
u1= V – U u2 = (V – U)cos 𝜃
v1= V – U v2 = (V – U)sin 𝜃
𝑅𝑥 = (V – U)(cos 𝜃 − 1)𝜌(𝑉 − 𝑈)𝐴1 = −599 N
Force of water on the plate Kx = −Rx = 599 N
The y - component of momentum equation
𝑣
𝑅𝑦 = ∫𝐶.𝑆 𝜌(𝑉. 𝑑𝐴) = (𝑉 − 𝑈)2 sin 𝜃𝜌𝐴1 = 1.04 KN

Ky = −Ry = − 1.04 KN downwards.

23
Example 9:
A small rocket, with an initial mass of400 Kg is to be launched vertically. Upon
ignition the rocket consumes propellants at the rate of 5 Kg/sec and ejects gas at
atmospheric pressure with speed of 1500 mt/sec relative to the rocket. Determine the
initial acceleration of the rocket, and the rocket velocity after 10 see if air resistance
is neglected.

Fig (1.14)

Choose a c.v. as shown in the figure Because the c.v. is accelerating, we need to define
an inertial coordinate system XY. The coordinate system xy is attached to the c.v.
Apply the component of the momentum eqn.:
𝜕
𝑭𝒔.𝒚 = ∫𝑐.𝑣. 𝑩𝑦 ρ𝑑𝑣 − ∫𝐶.𝑉. 𝒂𝑟𝑓 ρdv = ∫ 𝑽𝑥𝑦𝑧 ρ𝑑𝑣 + ∫𝑐.𝑆. 𝑽𝑥𝑦𝑧 ρ𝑽𝑥𝑦𝑧 . 𝑑𝑨
𝜕𝑡 𝑐.𝑣.

Assumptions are 𝑭𝒔.𝒚 = 0, body force of gravity 𝑩𝑦 = -g, properties are uniform at exit
section
𝜕
− ∫𝑐.𝑣 g 𝜌𝑑𝑣 − ∫𝐶.𝑉. 𝒂𝑟𝑓 ρdv = ∫ 𝑽𝑥𝑦𝑧 ρ𝑑𝑣 + ∫𝑐.𝑆. 𝑽𝑥𝑦𝑧 ρ𝑽𝑥𝑦𝑧 . 𝑑𝑨
𝜕𝑡 𝑐.𝑣.

The first term

− ∫𝑐.𝑣 g 𝜌𝑑𝑣 = −g ∫𝑐.𝑣 𝜌𝑑𝑣 = −g𝑀𝑐.𝑣, g is constant

To determine 𝑀𝑐.𝑣, use conservation of mass

𝜕
∫ ρ𝑑𝑣 + ∫𝐶.𝑆. ρ𝑽. 𝒅𝑨 = 0 , then
𝜕𝑡 𝑐.𝑣.

𝜕
∫ ρ𝑑𝑣 = − ∫𝐶.𝑆. ρ𝑽. 𝒅𝑨 = − ∫𝐴𝑒 ρ𝑽. 𝒅𝑨 = − ∫𝐴𝑒|ρ𝑽. 𝒅𝑨| = −𝑚̇
𝜕𝑡 𝑐.𝑣.

24
 𝑑𝑀𝑐.𝑣.
Therefore, = −𝑚̇
𝑑𝑡

To find the mass of the control volume at any time

𝑀 𝑡
∫𝑀 𝑑𝑀𝑐.𝑣. = − ∫0 𝑚̇ 𝑑𝑡 therefore,
0

M = 𝑀0 − 𝑚̇ 𝑡

∫𝑐.𝑣 g 𝜌𝑑𝑣 = −g𝑀𝑐.𝑣. = −g(𝑀0 − 𝑚̇ 𝑡)

The second term is,

− ∫𝐶.𝑉. 𝒂𝑟𝑓 ρdv = − 𝒂𝑟𝑓 ∫𝐶.𝑉. ρdv = −𝒂𝑟𝑓 𝑀𝑐.𝑣. = −𝒂𝑟𝑓 (𝑀0 − 𝑚̇ 𝑡)

The third term is,

𝜕
∫ 𝑽𝑥𝑦𝑧 ρ𝑑𝑣 ≈ 0
𝜕𝑡 𝑐.𝑣.

The fourth term is,

∫𝑐.𝑣. 𝑽𝑥𝑦𝑧 ρ𝑽𝑥𝑦𝑧 . 𝑑𝑨 = ∫𝑐.𝑣. 𝑽𝑥𝑦𝑧 |ρ𝑽𝑥𝑦𝑧 𝑑𝑨| = 𝑽𝑥𝑦𝑧 𝑚̇ = −𝑉𝑒 𝑚̇

Substitute into the momentum eqn.,

− g (𝑀0 − 𝑚̇ 𝑡) − 𝒂𝑟𝑓 (𝑀0 − 𝑚̇ 𝑡) = −𝑉𝑒 𝑚̇
𝑽𝑒 𝑚̇
𝒂𝑟𝑓 = −g
𝑀0 −𝑚̇ 𝑡

At time, t = 0
𝑽𝑒 𝑚̇
𝑎𝑟𝑓 = − g = 8.94 mt / sec2
𝑀0 −𝑚̇ 𝑡

𝒅𝑽𝒓𝒇 𝑽𝑒 𝑚̇
= −g
𝒅𝒕 𝑀0 −𝑚̇ 𝑡

𝑉𝑟𝑓 𝑡
𝑽𝑒 𝑚̇
∫ 𝑑𝑉𝑟𝑓 = ∫ ( − 𝑔) 𝑑𝑡
0 0 𝑀0 − 𝑚̇ 𝑡
𝑀𝑜
𝑉𝑟𝑓 = 𝑉𝑒 ln ̇
− 𝑔𝑡= 102.2 m/s
𝑀𝑜 −𝑚𝑡

1.3.3 Conservation of Energy (first Law of Thermodynamics)

For a system of fixed mass of particles undergoing a process, the first law of
thermodynamics is:
𝛿𝑄 = 𝑑𝐸 + 𝛿𝑊 (1.20)

25
Where dE is the change in total energy possessed by the system, and E is a state point
function that depends only on the end state points. Q and W are heat and work and are
forms of energy in transition at the boundaries of the system. E includes the
internal energy U associated with the random motion of molecules possessed by the
system, kinetic energy KE and potential energy PE due the movement and relative
position of the entire system.
In a rate form, the first law of thermodynamics is:
𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝑊
) = ) +
𝑑𝑡 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑑𝑡

In which the total energy of the system is given by:

𝐸𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = ∫𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠, 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚

𝑒 𝑑𝑚 = ∫𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒, 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
𝑒𝜌 𝑑𝑣

The intensive property e is given by:

e = (E/M)system = (u + v2/2+ gz + ..)
Where u is the internal energy per unit mass.
Application of eqn. (1.6) to transfer from system concept into c.v. concept.
𝑑𝐸 𝜕
) = ∫ eρ𝑑𝑣 + ∫𝐶.𝑆. eρ(𝑽. 𝒅𝑨)
𝑑𝑡 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝜕𝑡 𝑐.𝑣.

In deriving eqn.( 1.6), System and c.v. coincides at any arbitrary instant of time t.,
therefore
(dQ/dt – dW/dt)system = (dQ/dt – dW/dt)c.v.
Therefore, the control volume formulation of the first law is:
𝑑𝑄 𝜕 𝑑𝑊
= ∫ eρ𝑑𝑣 + ∫𝐶.𝑆. eρ(𝑽. 𝒅𝑨) + (1.21)
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝑐.𝑣. 𝑑𝑡

When mass flows across the c.v. boundaries, it is convenient to divide the work into
two parts. The first part is the work necessary to push the mass across the boundaries.
The other part relates to all other crossing the control surface such as shaft work, work
from external surface forces i.e. viscous shear work, etc.
A simple expression may be derived for the first part work

Fig (1.15)

26
Consider a mass ∆m as in figure, which is to flow across control surface. To find the
work required to push this mass against external pressure at the boundaries.
Since ∆m/∆v = ρ, where the volume of mass is ∆v.
This work done per unit mass is. therefore 𝑝/ ρ and is negative when mass is flowing
into c.v. as conventionally known in thermodynamics.
Combining the internal energy per unit mass u and the flow work per unit mass 𝑝/ ρ
into enthalpy h
𝜕 V2
Q̇ = ∫ 𝑒 𝜌dv + ∫c.s (h + + gz) 𝜌(𝐕. 𝐝𝐀) + Ẇ + Ωshear (1.22)
𝜕𝑡 c.v. 2

That is the rate of heat transfer through the control surface of the c.v. is equal to the
rate of change of energy within the c.v. plus the net rate of efflux of enthalpy, KE and
PE from the control surface added to the rate of shaft work and the rate of shear work
at the control surface.
Example 10:
Atmospheric air is allowed to fill an initially evacuated and insulated bottle.
What is the temperature of the bottle when it is full?

Fig (1.16)

Select a c.v, enclosing the bottle as shown in the figure.

The fluid inside the bottle is motionless and has only internal energy,
Mass conservation:
𝜕
∫ ρ𝑑𝑣 = − ∫𝐶.𝑆. ρ(𝑉. 𝑑𝐴)
𝜕𝑡 𝑐.𝑣.
𝑑𝑀
− 𝑚̇ = 0
𝑑𝑡

27
 𝑀𝑓 𝑡
̇
∫0 𝑑𝑀 = ∫0 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 ∴ 𝑀𝑓 = 𝑚̇ 𝑡

Energy conservation:
𝜕 V2
Q̇ = ∫ 𝑒 𝜌dv + ∫c.s (h + + gz) 𝜌(𝑽. 𝒅𝑨) + Ẇ + Ωshear
𝜕𝑡 c.v. 2
𝑑 𝑀𝑢
0= − ℎ𝑜 𝑚̇ =̇ 0
𝑑𝑡
(𝑢𝑓 𝑀𝑓 ) 𝑡
∫0 ̇ = 𝑀𝑓 ho
𝑑 𝑀𝑢 = ℎ𝑜 ∫0 𝑚̇ 𝑑𝑡

𝑀𝑓 𝑢𝑓 = 𝑀𝑓 ℎ𝑜
𝑇𝑓 𝐶𝑃
= =𝛾 ∴ 𝑇𝑓 = 300 ∗ 1.4 = 420 oK
𝑇𝑜 𝐶𝑣

Example 11:

Fig (1.17)

Use the fixed mass system and control volume to analyze the filling of a tank from line
at pressure P1 and temperature T1 and specific volume v1 and at velocity V1 the initial
condition in the tank is Pi, Ti and vi and the initial mass is mi.

28
Example 12:

Derive the energy equation for quasi steady one dimensional and one directional flow
infinitesimal control volume.

Fig (1.18)

𝜕 V2
𝑄̇ = ∫ 𝑒 𝜌dv + ∫c.s (h + + gz) + Ẇ + Ωshear
𝜕𝑡 c.v. 2

Assume an in viscid flow, Ωshear = 0, no shaft work and neglect the potential
energy, 𝑞̇ is rate heat transfer per unit duct length,

𝜕 𝜕
∫ 𝑒 𝜌dv = A 𝜕𝑡 (𝜌e)dx therefore,
𝜕𝑡 c.v.

𝜕 𝜕 V2
𝑞̇ dx = A (𝜌e)dx + [𝜌 (h + ) VA] dx
𝜕𝑡 𝜕x 2

The flow is steady, so if it is adiabatic, the eqn. simplifies to:

d V2
[𝜌 (h + )] VA = 0
dx 2

Integration gives:
(h + V 2 /2)ρ VA = constant,

For quasi- one-dimension steady flow, the continuity equation is

ρ VA = const.

Therefore, (h + V 2 /2) = constant = ho

29
ho is called stagnation (total) enthalpy. For this flow, the static enthalpy and kinetic
energy, at any location in the flow field, therefore, is constant and called stagnation
enthalpy.

1.3.4 Second Law of Thermodynamics:

Two important corollaries from the second law of thermodynamics to the study of
compressible flow are the reversible process, the entropy property.
For a thermodynamic system, a reversible process is one which when carried out, it
can be reversed to the initial state and leaves no changes to the system or its
surroundings. As a result, it can be shown that in a reversible process, changes occur
infinitely slowly with no energy dissipation. Definite thermodynamic changes taking
place during process can be derived for a reversible process (under thermo-
equilibrium). Irreversible process, however, can be described with the use of
inequalities. Irreversible processes involve friction, heat transfer through finite
temperature difference, quick expansion, and compression, mixing of different gases,
etc. Any actual process is irreversible. Therefore, reversible process is an idealization
which simplifies thermodynamic equations. However, the assumption of irreversibility
sometimes leads to very accurate results.
The thermodynamic property derived from the second law is the entropy, which is
defined for a system undergoing reversible process as:
dQ
ds = ) (1.23)
T reversible

For an irreversible process

dQ
ds ≥
T

For an adiabatic process, entropy can either increase or remain constant. When entropy
remains constant for reversible process, it is isentropic. A useful thermodynamic
relation derived from the first and second laws, regardless the process reversible or not
is
T ds = dh − dp/ρ

On rate basis, the law of increase of entropy for a system is:

(ds/dt)system ≥ Q̇/T

Where the total entropy of the system is,

30
Ssystem = ∫mass,system s dm = ∫Volume,system s𝜌dv

The formulation for a C.V. is therefore:

𝜕 1 Q̇
∫ 𝑠 𝜌dv + ∫c.s. s 𝜌(V . dA) ≥ ∫c.s. T (A) dA (1.24)
𝜕𝑡 c.v.

For steady flow, one dimension, this reduces to

1 Q̇
𝑚̇(𝑠2 − 𝑠1 ) ≥ ∫c.s. ( ) dA
T A

1.4 The Perfect Gas:

An equation of state for pure substance is a relation between pressure, temperature and
density. Depending on the phase of a substance and range of conditions, there is one
equation 1 of state to follow. For liquids and solids, it is generally more convenient to
use tables of thermodynamic properties since state equations are cumbersome and
applicable in very limited ranges. For gas, there is an equation of state applicable for a
wide range of conditions. The perfect gas law is:
P = 𝜌 RT (1.25)
̅
R
Where R is the gas constant = ̅
M
̅ is the universal gas constant = 1.986 Kcal/Kgmol °K = 8314.3 J/Kg mol °K
R
̅ is the molecular weight of the gas.
M
The assumptions, based on which, the equation of state is derived, are the neglecting
of the volume of gas molecules and the intermolecular forces. These assumptions are
satisfied generally at low to medium densities for real gas. Therefore, even at high
pressures, real gas approximates perfect gas when temperature is high enough.
The specific internal energy of a thermally perfect gas is a function only. of
temperature.
P = 𝜌 RT
u = u (T)
From the definition of enthalpy,
h = u + RT

31
dh = du + R dT
The differentials dh, du are related to specific heat at constant pressure and specific
heat at constant volume as:
∂h dh
Cp = ) =
∂T p=ct dT

∂u du
Cv = ) =
∂T v=ct dT

By integration, the above eqns.

T T
h2 − h1 = ∫T 2 Cp dT , u2 − u1 = ∫T 2 Cv dT
1 1

Cp = Cp (T) Cv = Cv (T) Cp + Cv = R , 𝛾 = Cp / Cv

ds = Cv (dT/T) + R(dv/v)
ds = Cp (dT/T) − R(dp/p)
T dT v2
s2 − s1 = ∫T 2 Cv + R ln
1 T v1

T dT P2
s2 − s1 = ∫T 1 Cp − R ln
2 T P1

Calorically perfect gas is a perfect gas with constant values of specific heats and in this
case the changes in internal energy, enthalpy and entropy simplify to the following.
u2 − u1 = Cv (T2 − T1 )
h2 − h1 = Cp (T2 − T1 )

s2 − s1 = Cv In(T2 /T1 ) − R In (𝜌2 /𝜌1 )

s2 − s1 = Cv In(T2 /T1 ) − R In (p2 /p1 )
From the last two equations, it is shown that,
R⁄ s2 −s1
T2 𝜌2 Cv
=( ) exp Cv and
T1 𝜌1
R⁄ s2 −s1
T2 p2 Cp
=( ) exp Cp
(1.26)
T1 p1

Isentropic process is a reversible adiabatic process in which s2 = s1 , therefore

(𝛾−1)
T2 /T1 = (p2 /p1 ) 𝛾 (1.27 a)
T2 /T1 = (ρ2 /ρ1 )(𝛾−1) (1.27 b)

32
P2 /P1 = (ρ2 /ρ1 )𝛾 (1.27 c)
These relations hold only for calorically perfect gas undergoing isentropic process.

1.5 Summary
The laws of conservation of mass, momentum, energy and second law of
thermodynamics are detailed in control volume formulation. The density and
temperature are additional variables in compressible flow. The equations of
incompressible flow should be supplemented with the laws of thermodynamics and
equation of state. The additional complexities introduced by compressible flow need
approximations to be made to simplify engineering problems and obtain satisfactory
results. Steady flow, one dimension flow and ideal gas approximations greatly simplify
the equation and yield satisfactory results to engineering problems.

Problems
1) The compressor of a large gas turbine receives air from the surroundings at 97
kPa, 27°C. At the compressor outlet, the pressure is 390 kPa; the temperature is 190°C,
and the velocity is 100 m/s. The power input to the compressor is 2000 kW. Determine
the mass flow rate of the air.

2) A small, high-speed turbine operating on compressed air produces 100 W. The

inlet conditions are 400 kPa, 20°C. The exit conditions are 100 kPa, 50°C. Assume the
velocities to be low. Find the required mass flow rate of air.

3) Air flows through a long duct of constant area at 0.15 kg/s. A short section of
the duct is cooled by liquid nitrogen that surrounds the duct. The rate of heat loss in
this section is (15.0 kJ/s) from the air. The absolute pressure, temperature, and velocity
entering the cooled section are 188 kPa, 440 K, and 210 m/s, respectively. At the outlet,
the absolute pressure and temperature are 213 kPa and 351 K. Compute the duct cross-
sectional area and the changes in enthalpy, internal energy, and entropy for this flow.
5) Is an adiabatic expansion of air from 300 kPa, 60 oC, to 150 kPa, 27 oC, possible?
Justify your answer. Show the process states on a T-S diagram.

6) The figure (1.1) shows the cross section of the end oc circular duct through
which air flows with gage pressure and density of 1065 kPa and 2.66 kg/m3,
respectively. The air discharged through circumferential slot to the atmosphere with
velocity of 30 m/s. Find the force exerted by the air on the duct.

7) The elbow filter nozzle assembly shown in figure (1.2) is bolted to a water main.
The pressure in the main is 3 bar and the water main is 30 cm. The nozzle has an exit
diameter of 5 cm and water passes through it at 6.5 m3/min. The flow leaves the nozzle

33
at atmospheric pressure. Calculate the force on bolts of the flange , assume uniform
velocity profile everywhere . Select a suitable control volume.

8) Atmospheric air is allowed to fill an initially an evacuated bottle. What is the

temperature of the air in the bottle when it is filled? Assume air at 22C and k = 1.4.

9) Consider the process of charging an air bottle from a main supply. Apply the
fluid mechanics and thermodynamics laws to find the mass charged inside bottle
a-The compressibility of a liquid is usually expressed in terms of the bulk modulus of
compression where:

𝑑𝑃
𝛽=𝜌
𝑑𝜌
And sonic speed a is:
𝛽
𝑎=√
𝜌

b-To what pressure must liquid water be compressed in order to leave the nozzle at
atmospheric pressure with a jet velocity equal to the sonic speed. (𝛽 = 2000 MPa)
10) The compression pulse changes the velocity of the fluid over which it passes by
3 m/s. Calculate the pressure rise across the pulse
a-water b-air at 100 kPa and 25 oC.

11) Photographs of bullet in flight show that at a great distance from the bullet the
total included angle of the cone is 50.3o. The pressure and temperature of undisturbed
air are 100 kPa and 22 oC respectively. Calculate the velocity of the bullet.
12) Consider the flow over two circular cylinders, one having four times the
diameter of the other, the flow over the smaller cylinder has free stream density,
velocity and temperature as ρ1, V1 and T1, respectively. The flow over larger cylinder
has free stream ρ2, V2 and T2, respectively, where:
ρ2 = ρ1/4 V2 = 2 V1 T2 = 4 T1
Assume both μ (dynamic viscosity) and a sonic speed) are proportional to T. Show that
the flow is dynamically similar.

34
 Fig (1.2)
Fig (1.1)

Fig (1.3)

35
 2022-2023

36
 Chapter 2
Basic Concepts to Compressible Flow & Isentropic Flow
2.1 Introduction
The way by which the flow adjust to the presence of a body in compressible and
incompressible flows are explained. The speed of small amplitude pressure wave in
elastic material is given. The differences between subsonic, sonic, and supersonic
flows are explained. The effect of area changes on properties compressible flow and
flow choking phenomena are detailed.
2.2 Compressible Flow
The method by which flow adjusts to the presence of a body is shown from the
streamlines around the body. Figure (2.1) shows the streamlines of uniform, steady,
incompressible flow around a cylinder and flow around airfoil.
The fluid particles can sense the body way ahead before reaching it. This suggests that
there is a signal mechanism by which fluid particles are forewarned of the body way
ahead of it. The velocity of the signal waves sent from the body relative to the moving
fluid must be greater than the fluid absolute velocity since the fluid starts to adjust to
the body before reaching it, as noticed of particles at a, b in figure (2.1).

Figure (2.1) Streamlines around body in incompressible flow

37
Thus, the mechanism by which the signal wave is propagated through incompressible
and compressible flows must be studied. An expression for the velocity of propagation
of waves is derived and significant conclusions are obtained to see the difference
between compressible and incompressible flows.

2.3 Speed of Small Amplitude Pressure Wave and Mach number

Consider a long cylinder filled with motionless gas as in figure (2.2). A slight inward
motion is given to the piston by an infinitesimal velocity dV. An infinitesimal small
amplitude plane pressure wave is caused by the piston motion and moves down the
cylinder at constant speed a. The physical function of the wave is to signal the fluid to
move with the piston. The gas behind the wave is infinitesimally compressed due to
wave passage by dP. Ahead of the wave the gas remains undisturbed. Distinction must
be made between the propagation velocity of the wave a and the fluid particle velocity
dV.

Figure (2.2) Propagation of infinitesimal pressure wave.

Analysis is simplified by reducing the flow to one of steady flow by imagining the
observer to move with the wave speed.
Continuity equation:
∂
∂t
∫C.V. ρ dv + ∫C.S. ρ (𝐕 . 𝐝𝐀 ) = 0, for stationary C.V.

−(ρ A a) + (ρ + dρ) A (a − dV) = 0

a dρ = ρdV (2.1)

38
Momentum equation:

𝐹𝑆𝑥 + 𝐹𝐵𝑥 = ∫𝐶.𝑆. Vx ρ( 𝐕 . 𝐝𝐀 )

PA − (P + dP)A = ρAa ⌈(a − dV) − a⌉

dP = 𝜌𝑎 𝑑𝑉 (2.2)
From (2.1) and (2.2)
dP
𝑎2 =
dρ

The wave is infinitesimal amplitude, so thin that flow basically adiabatic and
reversible; the wave motion is isentropic.
∂P
𝑎 = √ )S (2.3)
∂ρ

If the piston is withdrawn from cylinder with velocity dV , a plane expansion wave
propagates down the cylinder. The fluid behind the wave is expanded and set in motion
with velocity dV in direction of the piston motion. It can be shown that the speed of
wave propagation also given by equation (2.3). If the wave propagates into the fluid
which is already moving, the wave moves at velocity a relative to the moving fluid.
𝑃
For calorically perfect gas with constant specific heats, = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡.
𝜌𝛾

γP
a= √ = √g c γRT
ρ

The equation agrees very well with experimentally measured values for common
gases.
For air at 0 oC, R = 0.287 KJ/Kg oK

𝑎 = √1.4 ∗ 0.287 ∗ 273 ∗ 1000 = 331.2 m/s

𝑎 for H2 is of the order of 1300 m/s, for heavy gases like Freon refrigerating gases, it
is of the order of 90 m/s. An important point in the design of turbomachinery must be
addressed here based on these figures. To avoid excessive stresses, tip rotor speed is
not to exceed 300 to 450 m/s. On the other hand, loss in efficiency increases rapidly
when the velocity of the flow relative to the blade approaches sonic speed. Therefore,
it is expected that compressibility effects will be limiting factor on relative speed in
design of Freon compressors. However, mechanical stresses will be the factor in design
of hydrogen compressor.

39
For a substance like liquid or solid, it is desirable to express the velocity of sound in
terms of physical properties of the substance. For water at 0 oC and atmospheric
pressure, the bulk modulus of elasticity, K = 1.96∗106 kPa.
𝐾
𝑎 = √ = 1400 m/s
𝜌

For cupper at 300 oK, 𝜌 = 8950 Kg/m3 ,

K = 1.32 ∗1011kPa, 𝑎 =3840 m/s.

2.3.1 The Mach Number:

There is a great difference between subsonic, sonic, and supersonic flow. The criterion
of the type of flow is the Mach number defined as,
V
𝑀= . (2.4)
a

It is extremely important non dimensional parameter in the study of compressible flow.

In the derivation of equations of motion, most of the analysis includes the Mach
number.
From another point of view, the Mach number is a very important parameter for flow
similarity. To obtain information regarding flow phenomena in or around a machine
or structure prototype, it is convenient and economical to experiment with a model.
This requires the flow around the two bodies to be similar. Similarity requires:
1. Geometric similarity: This requires the ratios of all lengths between the two
bodies to be constants and all angles are the same.
2. Dynamic similarity: This dynamic similarity means that the corresponding
points in the flow field with respect to the two bodies have the same velocity
direction. The velocity direction at a point in the flow is determined by the ratio
of forces acting on a particle at the point. i.e. dynamic similarity is realized when
the ratio of forces acting at a point in one flow is the same as the ratio of forces
at the corresponding point in the other flow. Various similarity laws can, then,
be realized.
Example: Incompressible flows, the dominant forces in the flow are inertia forces,
pressure forces and friction forces. When three forces in equilibrium, specifying
two, the third is automatically specified. For a representative length l around a
certain point in the flow, velocity V, density, the inertia and viscous forces are
proportional to:
𝑉
Inertia Force ∝ 𝜌 𝑙 3 ( ) ∝ 𝜌𝑙 2 𝑉 2
𝑡

Viscous force ∝ 𝜇 𝑙 𝑉

40
Inertia F. ρlV
= Reynolds number
Viscous F. μ

Compressible flow: in the potential flow outside of the boundary layer, dominant
forces are inertia forces and elastic forces.
Inertia F. V2
= = M2 , M is a dynamic similarity parameter for compressible flow. It
Elasic F. a2
is the ratio of the average kinetic energy of the organized flow to the average kinetic
energy of the gas molecules.

2.4 Physical Difference Between Subsonic and Supersonic Flow

For better understanding of the physical significance of Mach number, consider a
point source of pressure wave of small amplitude, which emits pulses at equal time
interval of say every one second. The instantaneous position plot of waves at
previous times or the pattern of pressure waves in the flow is to be established. If
the fluid is incompressible, the generated sound waves spread at an extremely high
speed and can be considered as series of concentric circles for two-dimensional
patterns as if the source is stationary as shown in figure (2.3a).
In compressible flow, the speed of sound is finite. Suppose the source is moving sub
1
sonically at M=0.5, V = 𝑎 . The flow pattern is shown in figure (2.3b), though not
2
symmetrical, the disturbance still felt everywhere.

3at

Figure (2.3) Sound wave source moving at different speeds

41
If the source is moving at sonic speed, V = a, the fluid ahead of the source does not
receive any signaling pressure waves indicating its approach. The region ahead of
source is called zone of silence. All waves from past times intersect and their
amplitude reinforces each other on a plane called plane of concentrated action. The
pattern of pressure waves in the flow field is shown in figure (2.3c).
If the source moves faster than the speed of sound, say twice, V = 2a, the zone of
concentrated action is now conical surface called Mach cone. The zone of silence
includes fluid behind the source and all fluid ahead. Half the angle of the Mach
cone is the Mach angle,
a 1 1
sin μ = = , μ = sin−1
V M M

What happens when a stationary source is placed in uniform flow of velocity V. All
waves are carried downstream and confined in Mach cone.
Practical importance of these ideas is illustrated by comparing a low-speed subsonic
flow and supersonic flow over the same body (say a wedge) shown in figure (2.4).
In subsonic flow, the presence of wedge is signaled upstream by pressure waves
and streamlines begin to turn well ahead of the wedge.
In supersonic flow all waves carried downstream and are unable to travel upstream
to signal the flow to adjust to the presence of the wedge. The flow changes direction
abruptly by passing through a concentrated action plane called oblique shock.

M>1, Supersonic flow

M<1, Subsonic Flow

Figure (2.4) subsonic and supersonic wedge flow.

42
2.5 Effect of Area Change on Compressible Flow Properties (Isentropic
Flow)
This type of flow of one dimension and steady finds applications in internal and
external flows.
Internal flow
Flow in short ducts and high speed are very often adiabatic and frictional effects are
relatively small that the flow is nearly isentropic. Isentropic flows find applications in
nozzles, diffusers, blade passages in roto dynamic machines.
External flow:
In all problems involving flow around bodies and many involving flow through
passages, there are elementary stream tubes outside the boundary layer where viscous
effects and heat conduction are negligible. Hence, isentropic flow is appropriate to
apply.

2.5.1 Physical interpretation of isentropic flow:

For the shown flow, it is one dimension, steady adiabatic and frictionless.

Fig (2.5) control volume in area change duct

Conservation of mass:

∫C.S. ρ(𝐕. 𝐝𝐀) = 0

ρ1 A1 V1 = ρ2 A2 V2
ṁ⁄ = ρ V (2.5)
A
Conservation of Energy:

43
 V2
∫C.S.( h + + g z) ρ(𝐕. 𝐝𝐀) = 0 , for gas flows, neglect potential energy
2

V21 V22
h1 + = h2 + The corresponding enthalpy is the total enthalpy.
2 2

Second law of thermodynamics

∫C.S. sρ(𝐕. 𝐝𝐀) ≥ 0 , for steady, one-dimension, isentropic flow, (s2 − s1 ) = 0

One state on this constant entropy line corresponds to zero velocity. The pressure at
this state is called isentropic stagnation pressure (total pressure) the corresponding
enthalpy is the total enthalpy, ℎ𝑜 and independent of whether or not entropy changes.
V2
∴ ho = h + (2.6)
2

so = s (2.7)
Equation of state may be written as follows:
h = h(p, s) (2.8a)
ρ = ρ(p, s ) (2.8b)
Mach number definition.
V V
M= = ∂P (2.9)
a ( )
∂ρ s

Figure (2.5) Variation of flow properties in isentropic flow

44
For a given stagnation condition 𝑃𝑜 , 𝑠𝑜 , select any value of P less than 𝑃𝑜 , obtain the
corresponding values of h and 𝜌 since s is known. From (2.6) V is obtained and 𝑚̇⁄𝐴
and M are found from (2.5) and (2.9). The most interesting point in the behavior is the
flow per unit area curve which indicates for accelerating flow, the area must first
decrease and then increase. The pressure ratio at maximum 𝑚̇⁄𝐴 is called critical
pressure ratio.
For P > Pcritical , the flow is subsonic & for P < Pcritical , the flow is supersonic.

2.5.2 Difference Between Subsonic and Supersonic Flow:

Fig (2.7)
For an infinitesimal control volume shown in figure (2.7)

∫𝐶.𝑆. ρ(𝐕. 𝐝𝐀) = 0

(ρ + dρ)(A + dA)(V + dV) − ρAV = 0

dA dρ dV
+ + =0 (2.10)
A ρ V

V2
∫C.S.( h + + g z) ρ(𝐕. 𝐝𝐀) = 0
2

dh + VdV = 0 (2.11)
From first and second laws property relation
dP
T ds = dh − (2.12)
ρ

Substitute from (2.12) into (2.11))

dP + ρV dV =0 (2.13)
This is Euler equation; it can be obtained directly from the momentum equation.

45
Combining equations (2.10), (2.13)
dA dP
= (1 − M 2 ) (2.14)
A ρV2

a) For M< 1 (subsonic flow) and for M > 1 (supersonic flow)

Subsonic diffuser Supersonic nozzle

Subsonic nozzle
Supersonic diffuser

Fig (2.8) Effects of area change on pressure and velocity in

subsonic and supersonic flow
b) For M = 1, Sonic flow

𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐴
= 0 , 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =0
𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑉
Since change in P or V must be finite, therefore dA = 0, i.e. at a throat.

46
Note:
In a converging nozzle, supersonic flow is never attained even with application of any
great pressure change across.
To obtain supersonic flow, we must have dA = 0 (i.e. Throat), this is obtained by
convergent-divergent nozzle. However, the reverse is not true, that is the presence of
a throat does not mean the flow must be sonic at the throat.

2.5.3 Stagnation and Static Properties:

Stagnation properties make useful reference for compressible flow and used as a better
and convenient measurable value with static pressure to completely describe state of
flowing gas.
Stagnation pressure (total pressure): It is the pressure attained by the flow when
stopped isentropic ally, (𝑃𝑜 ).
Stagnation enthalpy: It is the enthalpy attained by the flow when it stopped
adiabatically.

Fig (2.9) Flow processes on (T-s) diagram

• s2 − s1 = so2 − so1
𝑇 𝑃
• 𝑠2 − 𝑠1 = 𝐶𝑃 ln 2 − 𝑅 ln 2
𝑇1 𝑃1
To2 Po2 Po2
• 𝑠𝑜2 − 𝑠𝑜1 = 𝐶𝑃 ln − 𝑅 ln = −𝑅 ln
To1 𝑃𝑜1 Po1

47
Energy equation:
𝑉2 γR
ho = h + , CP =
2 γ−1

γ − 1 V2
To = T +
2 γR
To γ−1
=1+ ( ) M 2 , for adiabatic flow
T 2

For isentropic process:

γ
Po To γ−1
= ( )
P T
γ
Po γ−1 2 γ−1
∴ = (1 + M ) , for isentropic flow
P 2
1
𝜌𝑜 γ−1 2 γ−1
= (1 + M ) , for isentropic flow
𝜌 2

The critical condition at M = 1, will be given superscript ∗

T∗ 2
= For air = 0.833
To γ +1
γ
P∗ 2 γ−1
= ( ) For air = 0.528
Po γ +1
1
ρ∗ 2 γ−1
= ( ) For air = 0.6339
ρo γ +1

Note: the Mach number as a parameter, it has two disadvantages; it is not

proportional to velocity and at high speeds it tends to infinity. Sometimes, it is useful
to use dimensionless velocity through
V a
M∗ = =
V ∗ a∗
𝑀∗ is not the value of M at local sonic speed. The critical speed is defied as
V ∗ = a∗

48
2.5.4 The Stagnation Pressure and Compressibility
The relation of the isentropic stagnation (total pressure) and static pressure:
γ
Po γ−1 2 γ−1
= (1 + M ) , expand in binomial series,
P 2
𝛾 𝛾 1
=1+ 𝑀2 + 𝑀4 + 𝛾 (2 − 𝛾 ) 𝑀 6 + ⋯ (i)
2 8 48

Bernolli equation for incompressible flow

1
𝑃𝑜 = 𝑃 + 𝜌 𝑉2
2
Po 𝛾
= 1 + 𝑀2 (ii)
P 2

By using incompressible assumption, only two terms of the expansion terms are used.
From the following figure, the compressibility effects may be neglected for M< 0.25,
though the relation (i) may be used for very low Mach numbers.

𝑃𝑜
𝑃

Fig (2.10) Compressibility effect

2.5.5 Mass Flow Parameters:

ṁ √̇ 𝑇 γ
ω( P, T) = = √ M = MFP(P,T)
PA R

For calorically perfect gases

49
 ̇ P γ P γ−1
ṁ = ρAV = A M √γRT = √ MA √1 + ( ) M2
RT R √To 2

ṁ √̇ To γ γ−1
ω( P, To ) = = √ M √1 + ( ) M 2 For adiabatic flow. (2.15)
PA R 2

For isentropic Flow:

γ
Po γ−1 2 γ−1
= (1 + M ) , substitute for P from (2.15)
P 2

ṁ √̇ To 𝛾 M
ω( Po , To ) = = √ γ+1 , for isentropic flow
Po A 𝑅 γ−1 2 2(γ−1)
(1+ M )
2

ṁ̇ γ M Po
= √ γ+1
A R γ−1 2 2(γ−1) √To
(1+ M )
2

ṁ
d
A
=0 , at M=1
dM

𝑚̇
To find ( ) , Substitute with M = 1
𝐴 𝑚𝑎𝑥

γ+1
ṁ̇ ṁ γ 2 Po
= √ √(
γ−1
( ) = )
A max A∗ R γ +1 √To

This is Fliegner Formula for MKS, kgm, kgf, m, s:

ṁ √̇ To
= 0.396
Po A

For S.I.,
̇
ṁ √To
= 0.04041
Po A
ṁ
A A∗
Area ratio = = ṁ
A∗
A

50
 𝛾+1
𝛾+1
𝐴 1 2
∴ = √( )
𝛾−1
√(1 + (𝛾−1) 𝑀2 )𝛾−1 = fn ( M , 𝛾 )
𝐴∗ 𝑀 𝛾 +1 2

The mass flow parameters in SI unite is shown in figure (2.6).

Figure (2.6) Mass flow parameters

2.5.6 Impulse Function:

For the shown control volume, the net force T from the duct and strut on fluid . The
force from the fluid on the duct (propulsion effect) is the thrust force and equal and
opposite direction to T.

T + P1A1 – P2A2 = - 𝑚̇ V1 + 𝑚̇ V2 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑉22 −𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉1 2

T = F2 – F 1 , F is impulse function

F = PA + 𝜌𝐴 𝑉 2 = PA (1 + 𝛾 M2)
𝐹 𝑃 𝐴 (1 + 𝛾 M2)
= = 𝑓𝑛 ( 𝑀 , 𝛾)
𝐹∗ 𝑃 ∗ 𝐴∗ 1+ 𝛾

51
 Figure (2.7) Impulse function

Figure (2.8) Chart of properties for isentropic flow

52
2.6 Choking in Isentropic Flow:
A2
Let us consider two sections of stream tube having area ratio of with given
A1
properties at section (1) as P1 , T1 , M1,.. From tables and chart, we can solve for the
properties at section (2).
P T A
At M1, obtain (
Po 1
) , (T ) and (A∗) , 𝐴∗ is constant for the process
o 1 1
A
A2 ( ∗)
A 2
=
A1 A
( ∗)
A 1
A P T
From ( ∗) obtain ( ) , ( ) and M2 and obtain P2 , T2 since Po , To constant .
A 2 Po 2 To 2

M2

M1

Fig (2.14) Curves of M2against M1for fixed area change A2/A1

A2
For a given compute M2 for different M1. There are two solutions, one subsonic
A1
and one supersonic or no solution. The no solution signifies that if the conditions at (1)
are specified, the mass flow is determined, and a minimum cross section is required to
pass this flow at which the flow is choked.
To clarify this situation a flow in a duct as shown in the sketch with the walls of the
passage downstream is flexible. Assume subsonic flow at section (1), with P1, T1 , M1,..
If A2 = A1 no change in properties at (2) occur. If A2< A1 then P2 decrease, M2 increase
and T2 decrease. Let the back pressure is adjusted as required. This occurs without
change in conditions at (1). Further reductions in A2, same changes occur until M2 =
1. After this point any reduction in area cannot be made with steady flow at section (1)
and this reduction in area, then, act as restriction to the flow, and the flow after transient

53
period of wave propagations, will settle down with reduced value of M1. This means a
reduction in 𝑚̇ and the flow is said that it is choked.

2.6.1 Operation of Convergent Nozzle:

We will vary the back pressure Pb and keep the area change same (that is same cut
nozzle). The nozzle draws in air from a large reservoir (atmosphere) and connected
downstream to an exhauster via a regulating valve. So, the nozzle back can be adjusted
with constant stagnation pressure upstream.

This is explained in figure (2.16) with the pressure distributions along the nozzle axis
P
and the mass flow rate as function of( b).
Po

So, if the nozzle is not choked, the exit plane and back pressure are equal and exit flow
leaves the nozzle subsonic. At back pressures less than 𝑃∗ results in an exit plane
pressure greater than the back pressure. There are sonic conditions in the exit. Outside
the nozzle, the flow then expands, and the pressure is reduced to the back pressure.
This expansion is accomplished by a Prandtle-Mayer expansion. The exit plane flow
is initially turned outward, then reflection the fan at the centerline, as will be explained
later in detail. This is shown in figure (2.17).

54
Figure (2.16) Operation of convergent nozzle at variable back pressure

Figure (2.17) Expansion from choked converging nozzle

55
2.6.2 Operation of Convergent Divergent Nozzle:
Consider an experiment like the one described above but with a convergent divergent
𝐴
nozzle shown in figure (2.18) having a certain area ratio ( 𝑒∗ ) .
𝐴

• For Pb equal to Po There is no flow in the nozzle.

• For Pb slightly less than Po, flow is induced through the nozzle with subsonic
velocities in the convergent and the divergent sections of the nozzle. The
corresponding pressure distribution is shown by curves for Pe1 and Pe2. With Pb
is decreased more and more flow is induced through the nozzle until until sonic
speed occurs at the throat, curve Pb = Pe3 . For all Pb less than Pe3, the atmosphere
upstream nozzle continues to send out the same flow rate as at Pe3 and the
pressure distribution upstream the throat remain the same. That is for all Pb< Pe3
the convergent divergent nozzle is choked. There are two isentropic solutions
𝐴
for a given( 𝑒∗ ) , one subsonic and the other supersonic, That is the diverging
𝐴
section may behave as an isentropic diffuser to Pe3 or isentropic nozzle for Pe4 .
𝑃
• For ( 𝑏 ) between values corresponding that between Pe3 and Pe4 no isentropic
𝑃𝑜
solution is possible, as will be detailed later.
𝑃
For the present case now, it must be noticed that at ( 𝑏 ) between Pe3 and Pe4
𝑃𝑜
𝐴 𝐴
and from isentropic tables give ( 𝑒∗ ) value which is different than the actual ( 𝑒∗ )
𝐴 𝐴
of the already cut nozzle.

56
Figure (2.18) Operation of convergent divergent nozzle with variable back pressure

57
Example 1:
The temperature of stagnant air is 800 oK, calculate its sonic speed. What the maximum
attainable velocity of this air. Find the sonic speed when the air flow speed equals half
the maximum attainable velocity.
Solution.
For steady flow in a stream tube, the energy equation is
𝑉2
ℎ+ = ℎ𝑜
2
2 2
𝑉2 + 𝑎2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝑎𝑜2 = 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
𝛾−1 𝛾−1
𝑎𝑜 = √𝛾𝑅𝑇𝑜 = √1.4 ∗ 287 ∗ 800 = 567 𝑚/𝑠
2
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 =√ 𝑎𝑜 = 1268 m/s
𝛾−1

1
V= 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 634 m/s
2
𝛾−1
𝑎2 = 2
(𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑉 2 ) = 634√0.2 ∗ 3 = 491 m/s
2

Example 2.
Find the sonic speed of standard atmosphere at altitude of 6000 m above sea level.
At 6000 m altitude, T= -23.977 oC = 249.02 oK.
𝑎 = √𝛾𝑅𝑇 =√1.4 ∗ 287 ∗ 249 = 316 𝑚/𝑠

Example 3.
Calculate the sonic speed in:
a) Air at – 100 oC
b) CO2 at 70 o C
c) Water

58
Example 4.
A nozzle is designed for supersonic for Helium wind tunnel. Test section
specifications are Diameter 10 cm, Mach number 3, static pressure at altitude 12.1 kPa,
static temperature at altitude 216.7 oK.

Determine the flow rate that must be provided, the nozzle throat and the reservoir
pressure and temperature.

Assume isentropic flow and neglect boundary layer effect. For Helium, 𝛾 =1.667, R=
2.077 kJ/kgoK

Po
To

Fig (2.19)

Test section mass flow rate is given by

𝑃 𝜋
𝑚̇ = 𝜌 𝐴 𝑉 = ( 𝐷2 ) 𝑀√𝛾 𝑅 𝑇 = 0.5487 kg/s
𝑅𝑇 4

For M = 3, 𝛾 = 1.667
γ
Po γ−1 2 γ−1 𝑃
= (1 + M ) , ∴ = 0,03126
P 2 𝑃𝑜

To γ−1 𝑇
=1+ ( ) M2 ,∴ = 0.25
T 2 𝑇𝑜

𝛾+1
𝛾+1
𝐴 1 2
= √( )
𝛾−1
√(1 + (𝛾−1) 𝑀2 )𝛾−1 ,
𝐴
=3
𝐴∗ 𝑀 𝛾 +1 2 𝐴∗

Throat area = 0.00785 / 3 = 0.002617 m2

P
t = 12.1/ 0.03126 = 387.1 kPa

Tt = 216.7 / 0.25 = 866.8 oK

59
Example 5.
It is found that the air pressure and temperature at nozzle entry are 142 kPa and 60 oC,
respectively where the Mach number is 0.4 . The back pressure is 1.06 bar. Calculate
the following:
a) The speed, temperature, and Mach number at nozzle exit.
b) The mass flow rate per unit exit area.
c) The ratio of mass flow per unit exit area to the mass flow per unit critical area.

P1= 1.42 bar P2=1.06

bar
T1=60 oC

M1=0.4

Fig (2.20
𝑃1 𝑇1
At entry, = 0.896 , = 0.9689
𝑃𝑜 𝑇𝑜

𝑃𝑜 =158.6 kPa , 𝑇𝑜 = 343.69 oK

𝑃2 1.06
At exit, = = 0.668 , ∴M2=0.78
𝑃𝑜 1.586
𝑇2
= 0.0.891, T2=343.96 *0.891=406.21 oK
𝑇𝑜

𝑎2 =350.7 m/s
V2=0.78 *350.7=273.5 m/s
𝑚̇ √𝑇𝑜
MFP)M=0.78=0.0386=
𝑃𝑜 𝐴2

𝑚̇ √𝑇𝑜
MFP)M=1.0=0.04041=
𝑃𝑜 𝐴∗

𝑚̇
𝐴2
= 0.955
𝑚̇
𝐴∗

60
Example 6:
A converging nozzle with an exit area of 0.05 m2 is connected to a reservoir
containi9ng air with stagnation pressure of 600 kPa and stagnation temperature 0f 27
o
C . Find the exit plane pressure, the exit plane Mach number, and the mass flow rate
for backpressure of 400 kPa, 200 kPa and 100 kPa.

Fig (2.22)
The maximum back pressure 𝑃𝑏∗ , to allow choked flow
𝑃∗ = 0.528 *600 = 316 . kPa
a) Pb = 400 kPa
𝑃𝑏 𝑃𝑒 400
= = = 0.667
𝑃𝑜 𝑃𝑜 600
𝑇
From isentropic tables, M<1, Me = 0.7836 , 𝑒 = 0.89
𝑇𝑜
The mass flow rate is 𝑚̇ = 𝜌̇ 𝑒 𝐴𝑒 𝑉𝑒
𝑃𝑒 400000
𝜌𝑒 = = = 5.2164 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑅 𝑇𝑒 287∗0.89(300)
𝑉𝑒 = 0.7836√1.4 ∗ 287 ∗ (0.89 ∗ 300 = 256.7 m/s
𝑚̇ = 5.2164 ∗0.05 *256.7 = 66.95 kg/s

b) Pb = 200 kPa
The flow is choked since back pressure is less than 𝑃𝑏∗ and the conditions in the
nozzle exit plane are critical.
𝑚̇ = 𝜌̇ 𝑒 𝐴𝑒 𝑉𝑒 = 𝜌∗ 𝐴∗ 𝑉 ∗
0.528∗600∗1000
𝜌∗ = = 4.418 kg/m3
287∗0.833∗300

𝑉 ∗ = 𝑎∗ = 316.9 m/s
𝑚̇ = 70 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
c) Pb = 100 kPa

61
 The flow is choked and exit conditions are unchanged frm (b) the mass flow rate
is the same as in (b)
Example 7:
This is an important problem of unsteady blow down of a pressurized tank. As shown
in figure the pressurized tank of volume Vt , initially containing gas at Poi and Toi
suddenly venting through a convergent nozzle or (an orifice) of exit area Ae into a
back pressure Pb. The process is unsteady since as the blow down proceeds, the
pressure in the tank decreases and the mass flow is function of time. The properties
change in the tank during blow down may be assumed isentropic or isothermal and
the actual is bounded by the two solutions. The flow here is isentropic both
temporally and spatially. It is required to obtain the time needed to drop the initial
tank pressure from Pti to final tank pressure Pof .
Find the time for the tank pressure to drop from 10 bar to 3 bar. The tank dimensions
are 0.5x0.5x0.5 m and orifice area 0.314 x10-4 m2 . Initial tank temperature is 423 oK.

The flow here is isentropic both temporally and spatially.

the conservation of mass:
𝜕
0= ∫ ρ𝑑𝑣 + ∫𝐶.𝑆 𝜌𝑽. 𝒅𝑨
𝜕𝑡 𝑐.𝑣.

For the shown C.V., the mass conservation is

𝑉𝑡 𝑑 𝑃
( 𝑜 ) + 𝜌𝑒 𝐴𝑒 𝑉𝑒 = 0 (i)
𝑅 𝑑𝑡 𝑇𝑜

The analysis here is limited to conditions for which the nozzle is choked. For uniform
conditions in the tank and at nozzle exit section.
𝜌𝑒 𝐴𝑒 𝑉𝑒 = 𝜌∗ 𝐴∗ 𝑉 ∗ = 𝑚̇∗

62
The mass flow parameter for the choked nozzle condition is.

γ+1
ṁ √̇ To γ 2
= √ √(
γ−1
MFP for M=1 = )
Po A R γ +1

Substitute in (i)
𝛾+1
𝑉𝑡 𝑑 𝑃𝑜 𝑃 γ 2 2(𝛾−1)
( )= −√ 𝐴∗ 𝑜 ( ) (ii)
𝑅 𝑑𝑡 𝑇𝑜 R √𝑇𝑜 γ +1

To integrate equation (ii), the relation between Po and To in the tank must be
specified. The properties in the tank during the process are assumed either isothermal
or isentropic.
For the isothermal behavior in the tank during blow down, To = Toi
𝛾+1
𝑉𝑡 𝑑𝑃𝑜 γ ∗ 𝑃𝑜 2 2(𝛾−1)
= −√ 𝐴 ( )
𝑅𝑇𝑜𝑖 𝑑𝑡 R √𝑇𝑜𝑖 γ +1

Separate the variables and integrate from initial time t =0 when Po= Poi to time
t =t when Po = Po
𝛾+1
𝑉𝑡 𝑃𝑜 𝑑𝑃𝑜 γ ∗ 1 2 2(𝛾−1) 𝑡
∫ = −√ 𝐴 ( ) ∫0 𝑑𝑡
𝑅𝑇𝑜𝑖 𝑃𝑜𝑖 𝑃𝑜 R √𝑇𝑜𝑖 γ +1

𝛾+1
𝑉𝑡 𝛾+1 2(𝛾−1) 1 𝑃𝑜
T=− ( ) 𝑙𝑛
𝐴∗ 2 √𝛾 𝑅 𝑇𝑜𝑖 𝑃𝑜𝑖

T = 20.02 sec
For isentropic behavior in the tank
(𝛾−1)
To /Toi = (po /poi ) 𝛾

Substitute for To from this relation in equation (2), separate variables and integrate as
before to obtain the time required. This solution may be accurate at the early stages
of blow down.
For the specific case with isentropic behavior in the tank, you get:
T = 15.67 sec

63
2.7 Summary
A body moving in a stagnant fluid emits waves from each point on the body that travels
away at speed of sound relative to the fluid. In compressible flow, the speed of sound
has a finite value while in an incompressible flow it is infinite. When the body moves
through compressible fluid at subsonic speed, the waves emitted moves ahead of the
body and signal the fluid to adjust itself to the body presence. For supersonic body
movement, the waves are not able to signal the fluid ahead of the body. This is the
reason for the supersonic case in which the fluid must adjust abruptly through shock
wave creation.
The conservation equations are applied for steady one-dimension isentropic flow
through duct with area change. The effect of Mach number on flow is analyzed. Fluid
flow properties variation as function of Mach number is evaluated. The variations are
completely different in subsonic flow compared to supersonic flow.
The Phenomenon of choking is analyzed and explained. The convergent and
convergent divergent nozzles performances are studied showing the choking
occurrence.

64
Problems
1) An air stream, having a pressure of 40 MPa and Mach number of 0.5, is
isentropic ally decelerated to a Mach number of 0.2. Determine the change in static
pressure and area ratio required to achieve this.

2) Air with a stagnation pressure of 1000 kPa and a stagnation temperature of 360
K enters a convergent nozzle having an exit area of 500 mm2. Determine the mass flow
rate for back pressures of 800 kPa, 528 kPa and 300 kPa. Assume isentropic flow.

3) The pressure and the temperature at entry of a nozzle are 143 kPa and 60 oC, the
exit pressure is 107 kPa when the entry Mach number is 0.4 . Determine the
following:
a- The velocity and temperature at exit.
b-Rate of flow /unit exit area.
c- Rate of flow as percentage of choked flow
4) A perfect gas (k = 1.4, R = 284 J/kg K) is supplied to a converging nozzle
low velocity and 707 kPa and 300 oC. The nozzle discharges to the atmosphere where
the pressure is 100 kPa (abs). Assuming frictionless adiabatic flow and a mass flow
rate of 1 kg/s, calculate:
a- The pressure in the exit plane.
b- The velocity in the exit plane.
c- The cross-sectional area of the plane

5) A nozzle is required to pass 1.5 kg/s of air. The inlet conditions are a zero
velocity, a pressure of 350 kPa and a temperature of 425 OC. If the air is to expand
to 140 kPa, determine the throat area required. Also calculate the exit velocity
and exit area if the nozzle efficiency is 95 %. Assume that friction takes place in
the diverging part only.

6) A stream of air flows in a duct of 10 cm diameter at a rate 1 kg/s. The

stagnation temperature is 35 C. At one section of the duct static pressure is 40
kPa. Calculate the Mach number, velocity, and stagnation pressure at this section.

6) A converging-diverging nozzle has an exit to throat area ratio of 2. Air

enters the nozzle with a stagnation pressure of 1000 kPa and a stagnation
temperature of 360 K. The throat area is 500 mm2. Determine the mass flow rate,
exit pressure, exit temperature, exit Mach number and exit velocity for the
following conditions:

65
a- sonic velocity at throat (diverging section act as a nozzle).
b- sonic velocity at throat (diverging section act as a diffuser).

8) At a certain point in a stream tube, air flows with a velocity of 150 m/s and
has a pressure and temperature of 70 kPa and 4 oC respectively. At a point further
downstream in the stream tube where the cross-sectional area is 15 % smaller
than the upstream sectional area, calculate the following quantities:
a- Stagnation pressure and temperature.
b- The stream pressure and temperature
c- The stream velocity and Mach number.
9) A large main is connected to an evacuated tank with a volume of 10 m3 by
means of a rounded entrance converging nozzle having a diameter of 5.0 cm.
Initially, a diaphragm over the orifice seals the tank from the main. The air in
the main is at 1 MPa and 2 C. The diaphragm is suddenly broken and air
rushes into the tank. Estimate the time required for the pressure in the tank to
reach 250 kPa, assuming isentropic condition

66
 2022-2023

67
 Chapter (3)
Propulsion Engines
3.1 Introduction
The chapter discusses engines whose purpose is to generate thrust force by
changing the linear momentum of the working fluid. The technique may involve
the generation of high velocity fluid stream from materials carried along with the
engine or may involve alteration of momentum of the surrounding fluid. The
propulsive force generated is utilized to overcome drag of the body moving at
constant speed through ambient or it may be used to accelerate (or decelerate) the
body or used to overcome the effect of gravity.
In case of propeller engine, mechanical energy is supplied to the shaft of a bladed
rotor, which increases the velocity of ambient air passing through propeller.
In jet engine, chemical energy is supplied to the engine in order to obtain high
velocity jet of fluid, using the ambient air as oxidizer for fuel. In rocket engine, the
propellants (fuel and oxidizer) are carried along as part of the engine.
Experimental results of the thrust produced from these engines verify good
agreement with isentropic flow model results. Parametric cycle analysis (design
point calculations) with adequate figure of merits for engine components, are
essential to determine the engine's performance at different flight conditions and
values of design choice.

3.2 Rocket Engines (Non- air breathing engines)

These engines differ from air breathing propulsion engines in that they carry their
own oxidizer instead of using ambient air. For this reason, they are the only power
plants satisfactory for very high altitudes or for space flights, hence:
• Primary application of rocket engines is military (SSM, ASM, SAM, AAM).
• Also used as RATO (Rocket Assisted Take off) airplanes.
• SCRAM jet planes which are developed to be launched by rocket engines
and fly at edge of atmosphere at Mach of 10 to 15.
• For space travel vehicles – moon landing in 1969 (Apollo program) to the
Shuttle program, and the exploration of interstellar systems. All the
programs resulted from the development of the rocket engines.

The principal elements of liquid bi-propellants rocket engine are shown in figure
(3.1).
68
To predict the thrust produced, apply the momentum equation to the control
volume shown,
τ − 𝑃𝑒 𝐴𝑒 + 𝑃𝑎 𝐴𝑒 = 𝑚̇ 𝑉𝑒
𝜏 = 𝑚̇ 𝑉𝑒 + 𝐴𝑒 (𝑃𝑒 − 𝑃𝑎 ) ( 3.1 )
The specific thrust (specific impulse) ( N/ kg /s or kN/kg /s) or m/ s is very important
parameter for rocket engine performance.

Figure (3.1) Diagrammatic sketch of a liquid bi- propellant rocket engine.

Ae (Pe − Pa )
Isp = τ⁄ṁ = [Ve + ] (3.2)
ṁ

For full gas expansion in nozzle, Pe = Pa , Isp = Ve and from the energy equation
to the shown control volume from combustion chamber. to nozzle exit section.
Cp To = Cp Te + Ve2/ 2
Te
Ve = √2Cp To (1 − )
To

γ−1
̅
R T Pe γ
Ve = √2 γ ( ̅o ) [1 − ( ) ] (3.3)
γ−1 M Po

Therefore, the high specific impulse is associated with propellants that produce
high combustion chamber temperature and gases with low molecular weight.
The rocket motor is the heart of a rocket propelled vehicle. The injection plate
receives propellants (liquid oxidizer +fuel) and directs them in liquid stream for
thorough mixing to produce the chemical reaction in the combustion chamber. If
propellants react when their liquid streams come in contact, they said to be

69
hypergolic such as red fume nitric acid and aniline. Otherwise, they are diergolic
and an igniter is required to initiate combustion.
In order that the rocket motor functions properly, the combustion chamber pressure
must be much higher than the surrounding pressure and typical values of its level
are 20 – 50 bar. The source of this high combustion pressure must be originated
upstream to force the propellants into the combustion chamber. This is done by gas
pressurization system as shown in figure (3.1) or by pump pressurization system as
sketched in figure (3.2). Care must be taken in this design against gas leaks to
prevent explosions in this system.

Figure (3.2) Diagrammatic sketch of a pump pressurization system

Two of solid propellant rockets are shown in figure (3.3). The solid propellant may
be heterogeneous that contains fuel and oxidizer with binder like asphalt or
homogeneous that contains all the chemicals required for combustion. The solid
propellant mixture named grain can be designed to be end burning or internal
burning with rate of gas generation from solid fuel dependent on the shape of
propellant in the chamber. The gas generation rate 𝑚̇𝑔 is given by:

ṁg = ρ Ab r (3.4)

𝜌 is the solid propellant density

Ab is the burning surface area

r is the burning rate normal to the propellant surface in length per unit time.

70
 Figure (3.3) two different grain burn of solid propellant

A great variety of propellants have been produced and used for rocket motors.
The following are some typical values of rocket performance parameters for
several fuel / oxidizer combinations. (Pc =6.9 MPa, Pa = 101 kPa, Perfect
expansion.)
A. Liquid bi- propellants

Oxidizer Fuel Mixture ratio ISP.

(Mass oxidizer/mass KN/kg/s
fuel)
Liquid O2 Liquid H2 3.5 3.8
Liquid O2 Liquid methane 3.0 2.9
Liquid O2 R-P1, Kerosene 2.24 2.8
Liquid O2 Hydrazine, 0.73 2.95
N2H4
Hydrogen peroxide Hydrazine 1.5 2.77
Liquid fluorine Liquid H2 4.7 3.9

B. Solid bi-propellant (heterogeneous) Composite with binder (asphalt or 15% weight

polyethylene binder)

Ammonium nitrate Beryllium 6.9 2.83

Ammonium nitrate Boron 6.1 2,46
Hydrazinium nitrate Aluminum 6.1 2.57
C. Monopropellants (homogeneous), which is capable of releasing its chemical energy
without addition of oxidizer.

Nitroglycerine,
C3H4(ONO2)
Trinitrotoluene, C6H2(CH3)
(NO2)3
Nitromethane CH3NO2 2.14
Hydrogen peroxide H2O2 1.24

71
Desirable characteristics for propellants are:
1.Ability to produce high combustion chamber temperature.
2.Low molecular weight of products of combustion.
3.High density to reduce physical dimensions.
4.Ease of storage and handling with no reaction with motor
5. Ready ignitable

Advantages of liquid propellants:

1. Combustion of large units can be programmed automatically and remotely.

2. Thrust control and termination relatively simple.
3. Known to have high ISP.
4. Relatively not Sen sensitive to temperature variations.

3.2.1 Acceleration of a rocket propelled vehicle:

Consider a rocket engine which propels vehicle to move vertically in earth’s
gravity. Application of the momentum equation in x- direction referring to figure
(3.4):
∂
∑ Fx =
∂t
∫C.V. Vxyz ρ dv + ∫C.S. Vxyz ρ (Vxyz . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
dA)

Vx is the velocity of fluid relative to C.V.

The x-momentum of fluid inside the control volume is large number, however, it
does not change with time.

∂
∫ V ρ dv ≅ 0
∂t C.V. xyz

∫ Vxyz ρ (Vxyz . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

dA) = − Ve ṁ
C.S

∴ −T + Ae (Pe − Pa ) = − ṁ Ve

or T = ṁ Ve + Ae ( Pe − Pa ) (3.1) This
thrust produced would be counteracted by the aerodynamic drag, gravity force
and inertia force of vehicle driven rocket.
𝑑𝑉
i.e. T = D + MR * g + MR 𝑑𝑡𝑅 (3.5)

72
Experimental results verify that isentropic flow equations predict thrust produced
by such rockets within few percent. Gases generated at Po of 20 to 50 bars or
more and operate in sea level pressure or less; the nozzle is always choked.

The question now is ; what nozzle exit area required for maximum thrust ?

So, non-dimentionalyse equation (3.1):

Figure (3.4) Sketch of inertial coordinate system.

𝑇 𝑚̇ 𝑉𝑒 𝐴𝑒 𝑃𝑒 𝑃𝑎
𝑃𝑜 𝐴∗
=
𝑃𝑜 𝐴∗
+
𝐴∗
(
𝑃𝑜
−
𝑃𝑜
) (3.6)

For choked nozzle, the throat Mach number is 1.0 and

γ+1
ṁ √To γ 2
=√ ( )γ−1 (3.7)
Po A∗ R γ+1

From the energy equation to C.V. from combustion chamber to nozzle exit
section as before:

γ−1
Te Pe γ
Ve = √2Cp To (1 − ) = √2Cp To √[1 − ( ) ] (3.8)
To P
o

73
Substitute equations (2.7) ad (2.8) into (2.6)

𝛾+1 𝛾−1
𝑇 2 2 𝑃𝑒 𝛾 𝐴𝑒 𝑃𝑒 𝑃𝑎
= 𝛾√ ( ) 𝛾−1 √[1 − ( ) ]+ ( − ) (3.9)
𝑃𝑜 𝐴∗ 𝛾−1 𝛾+1 𝑃 𝑜 𝐴∗ 𝑃𝑜 𝑃𝑜

This shows that given designed nozzle, the thrust depends on Po and ( Pa/Po)

However, for a given throat nozzle area 𝐴∗ , combustion chamber Po and ambient
pressure Pa ,What exit area should be used to produce maximum thrust ?
𝐴𝑒 P
Note that = fn( e )
𝐴∗ Po

After some lengthy algebraic manipulation, it can be shown that the condition for
maximum thrust produced is:
𝑑(𝑇 ⁄𝑃𝑜 𝐴⋆ )
=0 , when Pe = Pa
𝑑(𝑃𝑒 ⁄𝑃 𝑜 )

i.e. When gases expand in the nozzle to ambient pressure. This result can be seen
easily from physical reasoning of the shown figure.

Application of this condition to equation (2.9) gives:

𝛾+1 𝛾−1
𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 2 𝑃𝑒 𝛾
= 𝛾√ ( ) 𝛾−1 √[1 − ( ) ] (3.10)
𝑃𝑜 𝐴∗ 𝛾−1 𝛾+1 𝑃 𝑜

Figure (3.5) Pressure distributions of divergent part of nozzle

74
If the nozzle is only convergent nozzle, then,
γ
𝑃𝑒 𝑃∗ 2
Ae = Ath = 𝐴 ⋆
, = =( ) γ−1
𝑃𝑜 𝑃𝑜 γ+1

Substitution into (3.9) gives:

1
𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 2 γ−1 𝑃𝑎
=2 ( ) − (3.11)
𝑃𝑜 𝐴∗ γ+1 𝑃𝑜

The effect of area ratio of the C-D nozzle on thrust can be shown from:
γ−1
γ+1
2 2 P γ A P P
γ√ ( )γ−1 √[1 − ( e ) ] + Ae∗ ( Pe − Pa )
T T ∕ Po A∗ R γ+1 Po o o
= = 1
Tconv. Tconv. ∕ Po A∗
2 γ−1 Pa
2( ) −
γ+1 Po

(3.12)

This thrust coefficient is shown in figure (3.6) as function of nozzle area ratio
𝑃𝑎
and( ). You can see the curves are quite flat near their maxima so that the area
𝑃𝑜
ratio needs not to be cut exactly at the maximum value. In practice, it is usually cut
for Pe greater than Pa (i.e. before full expansion where Pe = Pa). This reduces Ae
and the weight and aerodynamic drag is reduced.

Figure (3.6) Performance characteristics of a rocket nozzle for 𝛾 = 1.2

75
3.2.2 Rocket Staging:
As an example of rocket engine performance, let us examine the case of rocket
moving vertically against gravity field.

From equation (3.5), the thrust is counteracted by drag force, gravity force and
inertia force. Let MR be the mass of the C.V. and is function of time. VR is the
velocity of the C.V. relative to an inertial coordinate system.

Conservation of mass:

∂
∫ ρ dv + ∫ ρ (V. dA) = 0
∂t C.V. C.S.

𝜕
∫ ρ dv = − ∫ ρ (V. dA) = − ṁ
𝜕𝑡 C.V. C.S.

To obtain the mass of the C.V. at any instant of time,

d MC.V.
= − ṁ
dt

MR t
̇
∫M d MC.V. = − ∫0 m dt
o

∴ MR = Mo − m ̇ t Substitute this into (3.5) and for the present

analysis, neglect drag and gravity force, then:
d VR
(Pe − Pa )Ae + ṁ Ve = MR Integrate, after separation of variables from
dt
t = 0 when VR =0 to t = t , when VR = VR
(Pe − Pa ) Mo
VR = [Ve + ] ln or
ṁ Mo − ṁ t

Mo 𝑀𝑜
VR = C ln = 𝐼𝑠𝑝 ln (3.13)
Mo − ṁ t 𝑀𝑜 − 𝑀𝑃𝑟

Where MPr is the propellant mass consumed during the burn out time t.

Mo is the initial mass of the rocket at the instant of firing

C Is known as the characteristic speed of the rocket motor.

Mo
( ) is the rocket mass ratio or mass fraction of the rocket or ratio of initial
Mo − MPr
mass to burn out mass.

76
Equation (3.13) shows the increase in rocket velocity during the burn time and is
known as the rocket equation. It is represented qualitatively for different
propellants having different characteristic speeds as sketched in figure (3.7).

Figure (3.7) Increase of Rocket speed against mass ratio.

The mass of propellants is significantly larger than the payload. The propellants
tanks and structure also exceed the payload. So, to avoid consuming propellants
to accelerate nearly empty tanks and structure, rockets are designed with several
stages. Each stage is separated from the portion of the vehicle carrying the pay
load. A multistage rocket, thus, consists of several stages, each one having its
own tankage, structure, and engines. If the ratio of initial to burn out mass is the
same for each stage, and each stage has the same exhaust velocity , then, the
increment of velocity provided by each stage will be the same .Therefore, for n
stages the rocket velocity will
𝑀𝑜 𝑀𝑜
VR = 𝑛 𝑉𝑒 ln ,( ) is the mass ratio for each stage
𝑀𝑜 − 𝑚̇ 𝑡 𝑀𝑜 − 𝑚̇ 𝑡

Payload

3 rd. Stage

2 nd. Stage

1 st. Stage, its payload,

includes 2 nd. , 3 rd. Stages
and principle payload

The photo, figure (3.7’) is one of Space Shuttle launched in 1980’s.

77
 Fig (3.7’) Rockets for Shuttle Program Launch

3.3 Air breathing propulsion engines

Jet propulsion power engines differ from power engines in that power output in the
former is produced wholly or in part as a result of gas expansion in a propelling
nozzle; wholly as in turbojet engine, turbofan engine, ram jet engine and pulse jet
engine; in part as in turbo propeller jet engine. A basic feature in these propulsion
engines is the beneficial effects of forward speed and altitude on the performance
of these engines. These effects and the very large power /weight ratio are the
reasons that basically made these engines completely surpass the reciprocating
internal combustion engines for aircraft propulsion except for the very small power
levels.

3.3.1 Performance parameters:

Consider a schematic diagram of propulsive duct (engine nacelle) as shown in
figure (3.8). Relative to the engine, air enters the intake with velocity V1 which is
equal and opposite of the forward cruise speed of the craft Vi at design flight
conditions. The power unit accelerate the air ingested so that it leaves with jet speed
Ve . Consider an external control volume enclosing the engine as shown and apply
the momentum equation in x-direction.

78
 Figure (3.8) Engine nacelle enclosing power unit

−𝑇 + 𝑃𝑒 𝐴𝑒 − 𝑃1 𝐴1 + (𝐴𝑚 − 𝐴𝑒 )𝑃𝑎 − (𝐴𝑚 − 𝐴1 )𝑃𝑎 = −𝑚̇𝑎 ( −𝑉1 ) + (𝑚̇𝑎 +

𝑚̇𝑓 )( − 𝑉𝑒 )

Where (𝑚̇𝑓 ∕ 𝑚̇𝑎 ) , is the fuel air ratio of the combustion mixture. Assuming
(𝑚̇𝑎 + 𝑚̇𝑓 ) ≅ 𝑚̇𝑎

𝑇 = ( 𝑚̇ 𝑉𝑒 − 𝑚̇ 𝑉1 ) + ( 𝑃𝑒 𝐴𝑒 − 𝑃1 𝐴1 ) + 𝑃𝑎 ( 𝐴1 − 𝐴𝑒 ) (3.14)

( 𝑚̇ 𝑉𝑒 − 𝑚̇ 𝑉1 ) is the net momentum thrust, 𝑚̇ 𝑉𝑒 is gross momentum thrust

, 𝑚̇ 𝑉1 is momentum drag.

( Pe Ae − P1 A1 ) is internal pressure thrust,

Pa ( A1 − Ae ) is external pressure drag.

When the engine is under design flight conditions, P1= Pa and V1= Vi

T = ( ṁ Ve − ṁ Vi ) + Ae ( Pe − Pa ) (3.15)

It can be shown that the engine thrust produced under SLS conditions is:

T = ( ṁ Ve ) + Ae ( Pe − Pa ) (3.16)

79
Note that for accelerating C.V., the thrust exerted by the propulsive device has to
counteract aerodynamic drag force, gravity force and inertia force of the C.V.
d VC.V.
i.e. T = D + Mg cosθ + MC.V. (3.17)
dt

In constant speed and leveled flight, the thrust is utilized to overcome only the
vehicle drag and when the vehicle is accelerated the thrust exceeds the drag force.

Reference to equation (3.15), if the combustion gases expand completely in the

propulsion nozzle, the equation is reduced to,

T = ṁ (Ve − Vi ) (3.18)

From this equation, the required thrust can be obtained by designing engine to
produce a high velocity jet for small mass flow rate or low velocity jet for large
mass flow rate.

The question, then, is what the most efficient combination of these two variables.
A simple answer may be provided qualitatively by analysis of some basic
performance parameters.

The propulsion efficiency:

It is the ratio of useful propulsive power (thrust power) to the sum of that energy
and the unused kinetic energy of the jet relative to earth i.e., the useful kinetic
energy available for propulsion.
ṁ
ηP = ṁ (Ve − Vi ) Vi ⁄ [ṁ(Ve − Vi )Vi + (Ve − Vi )2 ] )
2

= 2⁄[1 + (Ve ⁄Vi )] (3.19)

(Ve ⁄Vi ) is known as the effective speed ratio.

This is of course, not power plant efficiency, it a measure of the effectiveness with
which the propulsive duct is being used to propel the engine.

From (2.18) and (2.19) ,it is evident that :

i-T is maximum when Vi = 0, i.e. under static conditions, but 𝜂𝑃 is, then
zero, that is no propulsive effect.
ii- 𝜂𝑃 is maximum when (Ve ⁄Vi ) = 1, but the thrust produced is then zero.
∴ Ve Should be greater than 𝑉𝑖 and the difference should not be too large for better
propulsion efficiency. This is the basic reason for development of number of types
of propulsion engines.

80
Propeller engines with reciprocating I.C. engines, turbo propeller jet engine,
turbofan jet engines, turbojet engines, ram jet engines and pulse jet engines. In the
given order, they provide propulsion jets of decreasing mass flow rate and
increasing jet speed. Of course, the final selection will also depend on the desired
flight range and maximum rate of climb.

The rate of energy supplied in the fuel is in effect (𝑚̇𝑓 x calorific value). This is
ṁ
converted into useful kinetic energy available for propulsion ( Ve2 − Vi2 ) and
2
unusable enthalpy in the jet ṁe CP ( Te − Ta ) .

The thermal efficiency or fuel energy conversion efficiency 𝜂𝑒 is:

𝑚̇
( 𝑉𝑒2 − 𝑉𝑖2 )
𝜂𝑒 = 2
(3.20)
𝑚̇𝑓 x C.V.

The overall efficiency ηo is the ratio of work done in overcoming the drag to
the energy supplied in fuel.
T∗ Vi
𝜂𝑜 = = ηe ηP (3.21)
ṁf ∗C.V.

The efficiency of an aircraft power plant is linked to aircraft speed. It may be used
to compare different engines at same flight conditions. However, to compare
performance at different flight conditions such as SLS conditions, take off
conditions (maximum inlet turbine temperature) and cruise conditions …etc., the
efficiency is discarded in favor of the thrust specific fuel consumption (TSFC).

TSFC = 𝑚̇𝑓 ⁄𝑇 ( mg/N.S, kg/kN.s ) (3.22)

Another important performance parameter is the specific thrust which is the engine
thrust produced per unit mass flow of air. This parameter indicates the relative size
of engines producing the same thrust level. Dimensions of the engine are
determined, in principle by the air flow ingestion to the engine. The engine size of
these engines is important since it dictates engine weight and associated drag.

S = T ∕ ṁa ( N/ kg/s, kN/ kg/h) (3.23)

TSFC = f⁄S where f is the fuel to air ratio of the combustion mixture.

3.3.2 Propeller Engine:

81
The propeller consists of several rotating blades (2 -5) attached to a hub that
connects to the shaft transmitting engine power. Engine may be a reciprocating
I.C.E. or a turboshaft engine. Torque application to the propeller causes ambient
air ahead to move past the blades, imparting to the fluid an exit velocity greater
than the approach velocity. Propeller diameter ranges from 1 to 4 m. An exact
treatment of the flow past the blades would require the use of a blade element
theory. Here, an approximate treatment of a propeller performance by assuming
the effect of blades is concentrated in the propeller plane.

Assume the inflow velocity to the control volume around the propeller and attached
to it, equals and opposite the forward speed of the propeller. A schematic of the
flow and the C.V. is shown in figure (3.9). The sections with velocities 𝑉𝐶.𝑉. and 𝑉𝑒
are taken at sufficient distances from propeller so that the pressures at the sections
are ambient.

Figure (3.9) Flow past a propeller and C.V

ṁprop
Tprop ∗Va ṁprop ( Ve − Va )Va (V2e − V2a )
2
ηProp = = ṁprop = ηP ∗ ηL
ẆP (V2e − V2a ) ẆP
2
(3.24)

82
Tprop = ṁprop ( Ve − Va ) and were

ηP is propulsive efficiency,

ηL is loss efficiency = 1, when there is no blade tip loss.

The energy equation on the C.V. gives:

dW ṁprop 2
= (Ve2 − VC.V. )
dt 2
The rate of work done on the fluid is the product of thrust and the slip velocity V P
in the propeller plane.
ṁprop 2
T ∗ VP = (Ve2 − VC.V. )
2

Ve + VC.V.
VP =
2
The propeller efficiency can be seen as the ratio of the power output to power input
as:
T ∗ VC.V. 2
ηprop = =
T ∗ VP V
1 + e⁄V
C.V.

Provided that there are no propeller tip losses, it is the same as that of jet engine
equation (3.19). Since the advent of jet engine with the propulsion nozzle replacing
the propeller as propulsive device, importance and research and development of air
craft propellers declines. However, there are some uses of propeller in small power
level aircraft, in short takeoff and landing (STOL) and vertical takeoff and landing
(VTOL) applications. In this engine the mass flow rate is large and the velocity rise
across is small compared to jet engine having same thrust. The propulsion
efficiency is high at relatively low flight speed (≃ 500 𝐾𝑚/ℎ) .The speed ratio
𝑉
( 𝑒⁄𝑉 ) is ≃ 1.5 . However, the thrust and propulsion efficiency of propeller falls
𝐶.𝑉.
rapidly as compressibility effects on blades becomes excessive at higher flight
speeds. The performance of the jet engine, on the other hand, is much superior at
V
high flight speeds ( e⁄V ) > 2.5 .
C.V.

However, renewed interest in turbo propeller jet engines for very efficient long
range aircraft at relatively higher flight speeds that lies in the very high by pass
ratio turbofan engine is now strongly progressing.

3.3.3 Turbo jet Engine:

83
It is one of the most popular types of air-breathing engines whose essential features
and corresponding (T –S) diagram are shown in figure (3.10).

The diffuser (inlet), (1 -2) section function is to convert the kinetic energy into
static pressure rise. The compressor (2 – 3) section, either axial or centrifugal type
further compresses the air and delivers it to the combustion chamber. The
compressor pressure ratio ranges from 5 to 25 or even higher. The combustion
chamber which is of the tubular (can) type, annular type or can annular type
increase the total temperature of combustion gases at turbine inlet to maximum of
~ 1400 oC (with blade cooling). The high pressure and temperature gases, then,
expand in the turbine (4 -5) section to provide power for the compressor and
auxiliary apparatus. The gases, then, expands in the propulsion nozzle to provide
the required thrust.

The turbo jet engine is suitable for propelling aircraft at speed of the order of 3000
km/h. The propulsion efficiency is high at higher cruise speeds which results in
better TSFC. As the flight speed is increased, the ram pressure increases rapidly
and at supersonic speeds of M =3 and more, the characteristics of turbojet engine
tend to merge with those of the ram jet engine.

Higher maximum inlet temperature to turbine 𝑇𝑜4 results in higher specific thrust;
specific thrust is strongly dependent on 𝑇𝑜4 and the utilization of highest possible
total temperature is desirable to keep the engine size as small as possible. This
would reduce engine weight and the aerodynamic drag. However, at certain
compressor pressure ratio, increase in 𝑇𝑜4 causes increase in TSFC. The reason is
that increase in 𝑇𝑜4 and jet speed, then, decreases the propulsion efficiency which
more offsetting the gain in efficiency of energy conversion.

The main disadvantage of these engines appears to be at low flight speeds when
the propulsion efficiency drops sharply with corresponding increase in TSFC.

Figure (3.11) is a photo of a cutaway of F100 turbojet with afterburner. A photo of

a cutaway of the F414-GE-400 Engine is shown. Figure (3.13) shows the F414
engine test aboard Abraham Lincoln.

84
 (3.10 a)

Figure (3.10) Schematic drawing of a turbo jet engine and (T –S) diagram

85
 Fig (3.11) F100- cutaway Turbojet with afterburner Engine

Fig (3.12) F414-GE-400 Cutaway with afterburner Turbojet Engine

86
Fig (3.13) F414 Engine Test aboard Abraham Lincoln

87
3.3.3.1 Compressor and Turbine:
These rotating machines are for transfer and transformation of energy. They are
centrifugal or axial design machines. They are basically adiabatic and from the
SFEE, their isentropic efficiencies are as follows, figure (3.14):

Figure (3.14a)

Figure (3.14b)

Figure (3.14) ( T- S) diagram for compression and expansion processes

Ideal work To3′ −To2

ηc = =
Actual work To3 −To2

88
 γ−1
To2 Po3 γ
∆To23 = (( ) − 1)
ηc Po2
Actual work To4 − To5
ηt = =
Isentropic work To4 −To5′

1
ΔT𝑜45 = To4 ηt ( 1 − γ−1 )
Po4 γ
( )
Po5

Calculation of the compressor and turbine power requirement:

𝑚̇ CPa ∆To23 = ṁ CPg ∆To45 ηmech , ma ≅ mg

3.3.3.2 Combustion chamber:

Many demands are required from gas turbine combustion chamber, schematic
drawing is shown in figure (3.15). The temperature of combustion gases must be
comparatively low, the temperature distribution at the end of combustion space
must be uniform without hot streaks and the combustion must be maintained
stable under severe conditions of high velocity stream and wide range of fuel air
ratio in wide change in combustion chamber pressure. All these must be satisfied
with the least stagnation pressure drop and with highest combustion efficiency.

Figure (3.15) Schematic drawing of a gas turbine combustor

Energy balance of the combustion chamber:

ṁa CPa To3 + ṁf C. V. = ( ṁa + ṁf ) CPg To4 (3.25)

CPa To3 + f C. V. = ( 1 + f) CPg To4

89
This based on taking constant mean values for the specific heats of air and
combustion gases in the respected temperature ranges. This also used for the
mean values of specific heat ratios for the compression and expansion processes.
The fuel air ratio obtained from equation (2.25) is the theoretical f since it is
assumed complete fuel combustion and no dissociation. The best way to take the
combustion loss into account is to use combustion efficiency.
f theoretical for actual ∆To ∆To actual for actual f
ηcomb = or =
f actual for actual ∆To ∆To theoretical for actual f

3.3.3.3 Diffuser (Inlet) efficiency:

Reference to figure (3.16), the diffuser efficiency is defined in many ways, the
most widely used is based on temperature rise, the second way is based on ram
pressure the third way is the total pressure ratio across diffuser.
To2′ − T1
ηD = (i)
To2 − T1

V21
To2′ − T1 = ηD ( )
2 CP

To2′ γ−1
= ( 1 + ηD M12 )
T1 γ

Po2 γ−1 2 𝛾
∴ = ( 1 + ηD M1 )𝛾−1
P1 γ
Po2 − P1
or ηD = (ii)
Po1 − P1

Po2
or ηD = (iii)
Po1

Values of definitions (i) and (ii) are about the same and both are used in design
and cycle analysis. However, (ii) is easier to determine experimentally. Both
suffer from the inability to determine any loss in stagnation pressure at SLS
condition. The inlet efficiency is not dependent on Mach no. for subsonic flow.
But it depends on the engine position in aircraft. Under high speed supersonic
flow the (i) , (ii) are discarded in favor of definition (iii), the stagnation pressure
ratio across the diffuser.

90
 Figure (3.16) (T –S) diagram for diffuser efficiency

3.3.3.4 Propulsion nozzle:

The engine part downstream of the last turbine exit stage is the propulsion nozzle.
It may consist of the parts shown in figure (3.17).

Even with moderate cycle pressure ratios, the pressure ratio across the nozzle
P
( o5⁄P ) will be greater than the critical pressure ratio over at least part of the
a
operating range of forward speed and altitude. It may be thought that a convergent
–divergent nozzle would be the right choice, however most aircraft gas turbine
engines use only convergent nozzles due to the flollowing reasons:
Po5
For pressure ratios aross the nozzle ( ⁄P ) values 2 to 4.5 , the thrust produced
a
from convergent nozzle is about the same as that of convergent divergent nozzle
even when the latter is operating with design pressure ratio. When (C-D) nozzle is
operating at lower pressue ratio ,it would suffer from the shock losses. There are
also other advantages of using convergent nozzle . Examples are ,it much easier to
change exit area when using afterburner and at part load operation. Also , it is much
suitable to incude thrust reversal and noise suppressores in the convergent nozzle
design. Figure 3.18 shows two ways to change the exit area of convergent nozzle.
The plug nozzle is shown which is a relatively new development in jet propulsion
that replaces the divergent part of C-D supersonic nozzle with some benefits on
thrust at off design performance of nozzle.

91
Hoevever, for pressure ratios of ( 8-20) and higher and flight speeds of 2-3 Mach
number and higher, convergent – divergent nozzle with adjustable exit/ throat area
is justified.

Figure (3.17) Propulsion nozzle

Figure (3.18) Variable area inclusion in convergent nozzle

92
3.3.3.5 The Nozzle efficiency for non-isentropic flow:

Figure (3.19) Actual nozzle losses for subcritical and supercritical flows.

V62
To5 − T6 2CP
ηN = =
To5 − T6′
1
To5 [1 − ]
P γ−1
( o5 ) γ
P6

V26 1
i.e. = ηN To5 [1 − γ−1 ]
2CP Po5 γ
( )
P6

Po5 Po5
For < , subsonic flow at exit, M6 < 1 and P6 = Pa
Pa P∗

Po5 Po5
For choked nozzle, ≥
Pa P∗

∗
∴ For actual flow reach 𝑀6 = 1, the flow must be expanded to 𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑡 and not
∗
only to 𝑃𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 , then
To5 − T6∗
ηN =
To5 − T6∗′
1
To5 − T6∗′ = (T − T6∗ )
ηN o5
T ′ To5 T6∗ To5 2
6∗
∙ To5 ( 1 − )= (1− )= (1− )
To5 ηN To5 ηN γ+1

93
 γ
P∗act 1 γ−1
∴ =(1− ) γ− 1
Po5 ηN γ+1

3.3.3.6 Small stage efficiency (polytrophic efficiency):

For design point calculations (parametric cycle analysis or on-design calculations)
of jet engines, the important question is “ Is it adequate to assume same isentropic
efficiencies
𝜂𝐶 , 𝜂𝑡 for different compressor pressure ratios. The answer is directly no, as for
increase in compressor pressure ratio, 𝜂𝐶 decreases and 𝜂𝑡 increases.

Figure (3.20) Compressor next stage requires more work and turbine delivers
more work than previous ones.

This can be evaluated by what is known as small stage efficiency or polytropic

efficiency.

94
For compressor:

The following figure is a small stage in compression process:

Figure (3.21) Differential process on compression line.

dTo′
∙ η∞C =
dTo

Po + dPo γ−1 dTo′ + To

∵( ) γ =
Po To
γ−1
dTo′ dPo γ γ−1 dPo
1+ = (1 + ) ≅1+ + ∙∙
To Po γ Po

dTo′ γ − 1 dPo
=
To γ Po
Integrate for constant 𝜂∞𝐶
To3
dTo γ − 1 Po3 dPo
η∞C ∫ = ∫
To2 To γ Po2 Po

𝑇𝑜3 𝛾 − 1 𝑃𝑜3
∙ 𝜂∞𝐶 ln = ln
𝑇𝑜2 𝛾 𝑃𝑜2
γ−1
To3 P η γ γ−1 n−1
To2
= (Po3) ∞C where
η∞C γ
=
n
so named polytropic efficiency
o2

Now, the relation between 𝜂𝑐 and 𝜂∞𝑐 is given by:

95
 γ−1
Po3 γ
To3′ − To2 (P ) −1
o2
ηc = = γ−1
To3 − To2 Po3 η∞C γ
( ) −1
Po2

Similarly for expansion in turbine in a small stage:

Figure (3.22) Differential process on expansion line.

𝑑𝑇𝑜
𝜂∞𝑡 = = constant
𝑑𝑇𝑜′

Po − dPo γ−1 To − dTo′

∵( ) γ =
Po To
γ−1
dTo′ dPo γ
1− = (1 − )
To Po
1 To4 γ − 1 Po4
ln = ln
η∞t To5 γ Po5
To4 η∞t (γ − 1) Po4
∙ ln = ln
To5 γ Po5

(γ−1)η∞t
To4 Po4 γ
= ( )
To5 Po5

the relation between 𝜂𝑡 and 𝜂∞𝑡 is given by:

96
 (𝛾−1)𝜂∞𝑡
𝛾
1
1− ( 𝑃 )
𝑜4
𝑇𝑜4 − 𝑇𝑜5 𝑃𝑜5
ηt = = = (𝛾−1)
𝑇𝑜4 −𝑇𝑜5′
𝛾
1
1− ( 𝑃 )
𝑜4
𝑃𝑜5

Figure (3.23) Compressor and turbine efficiencies versus pressure ratios

3.3.4 Turbofan jet engine:

The turbofan jet engine was originally conceived as method of improving the
propulsion efficiency by reducing the jet velocity for operation at high subsonic
speeds (Mach number from 0.85 – 0.95). It is soon realized that reducing jet speed
has a considerable effect on jet noise. Noise level is proportional to (Vj)8. Noise
level reduction has become a major advantage of this engine. In this engine, a
portion of the total flow by passes part of the compressor, combustion chamber,
turbine and nozzle before being ejected from separate nozzle as shown schematic
in figures (3.24a,b) configurations and the corresponding (T – S ) diagram of the
cycle (3.21c). Turbofan jet engines are usually described in terms of by-
pass ratio, which is the ratio of cold (fan) stream to hot (core) stream.
𝑚̇𝐹
Assume (∝) is the by- pass ratio = ,
𝑚̇𝐻

97
𝑚̇ = (𝑚̇𝐹 + 𝑚̇𝐻 )
∝ 1
ṁF = ṁ , ṁH = ṁ ,
∝ +1 ∝ +1

The total engine thrust is composed of two components TF and TH . Design point
calculations for turbofan are about the same as that for turbojet engine. Here,
overall pressure ratio, and turbine inlet temperature 𝑇𝑜4 are specified as before,
also the by-pass ratio and fan pressure ratio are to be specified. The cold stream
thrust can then, be determined, noting that the working fluid is air, checking if the
nozzle is choked.
For the two spool configuration in figure (3.24a), the fan is driven by the low
pressure turbine and the high pressure compressor is driven by HP turbine, and as
given for the turbojet engine , the conditions at the inlet to LP turbine ( To4.5, Po4.5)
are then determined.
𝑚𝐻
̇ CPa ∆T02.5/03 = ηmech ṁH CPg ∆To4/04.5

Work requirement of the fan is:

ṁ CPa ∆T02/013 = ηmech ṁH CPg ∆To4.5/05
𝑚̇ 𝐶𝑃𝑎
∆𝑇𝑜4.5/05 = ∆𝑇02/013
𝑚̇𝐻 𝜂𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ 𝐶𝑃𝑔

The value of by- pass ratio (∝ )may range from 0.5 to 15 or more ant its value has
a major effect on the temperature drop and the pressure ratio required from the
low-pressure turbine.

Figure (3.24a) Schematic drawing of turbofan jet engine

98
 Figure (3.24b) Schematic drawing of an after fan jet engine

Figure (3.24c) (T – S) diagram of a turbofan jet engine.

Figure (3.25 a) shows a cutaway of the JT-9D high bypass turbofan engine.
Figure (3.25b) is a cutaway of the CF-700 Afterfan engine. A cutaway of the BR-
700 mixed flow turbofan engine is shown in figure (3.25c). And figure (3.25d)
shows a cutaway representation of the GE-90 turbofan Engine.

99
Fig (3.25a) Cutaway of JT-9D High Bypass Turbofan Engine

Fig (3.25 b) Cutaway of the CF-700 Afterfan Engine

100
 Fig (3.25 c) Cutaway of BR710 Mixed Flow Turbofan Engine

Fig (3.25 d) GE90 Turbofan Engine

Reference to figure (3.24)

Po5 Po5
If ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑖𝑠 = >
Pa P∗

101
V6 = √𝛾𝑔 R T ∗

Po5 Po5
If ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑖𝑠 = <
Pa P∗

V6 = √𝐶𝑝𝑔 (𝑇𝑜5 − 𝑇6 )

It is important to point out here that modern high by-pass ratio turbofan now is
designed with some compressor stages on the LP spool as shown with the station
numbering in figure (3.27). This has proved to give better balance between the LP
and HP turbines.
3.3.5 Thrust augmentation:
For temporary increase of thrust (take off, climbing, acceleration from subsonic to
supersonic or combat maneuvers in military planes), sometimes there is need for
thrust augmentation.
• Liquid (water with methanol) injection before compressor would reduce
inlet temperature to compressor and hence increase the compressor pressure
ratio and thrust.
• Liquid sometimes injected directly into the combustion chamber. This has a
blockage effect to compressor and hence increases the compressor pressure
ratio.
• Reheat the combustion gases after expansion in turbine by combustion of
fuel. There is no turbomachinery, and the temperature may be increased to
much higher temperatures.
The following figure (3.26) shows a (T-s) diagram of a simple turbo jet
with after burner on.

102
 Figure(3.26) (T-s) diagram for an a turbojet with after burner.

For choked nozzle, without the the afterburner, jet velocity corresponds to sonic
speed.
Tc 2
= , when the reheater is on:
To5 γ+1

Tc 2
=
To7 γ+1

∴ jet speed is proportional to √𝑇𝑜

2000
Gross thrust increase relative to the simple turbo jet by the ratio = √ = 1.41.
1000
That is thrust augmentation at take off by about 40%. At flight speed , the net thrust
inrease may reach 100%.This requires variable area nozzle due to increase in total
temperature upstream of the nozzle.

103
 Figure (3.27) Turbofan with compressor stages on LP spool

Figure (3.28) Station numbering of a gas turbine engine

Figures (3.27) and (3.28) show the station numbering of cross sections in turbofan
engines according to Aerospace Recommended Practice (ARP). Note stations (13)
to (19) are for the by-pass stream and decimal numbers are used for intermediate
stations.

Also, total temperatures and total pressures are extensively used in this practice.
Ratio of total pressures across a component is denoted by 𝜋 and ratio of total
temperatures by 𝜏 with a subscript indicating the component, d diffuser, c
compressor, t turbine, n for nozzle and f for fan. As an example:
totat pressure leaving diffuser
𝜋𝑑 =
total pressure entering diffuser

The only exceptions are for the free stream condition, 𝜋𝑟 and 𝜏𝑟 as:

104
 𝛾−1 𝑇𝑡𝑜
𝜏𝑟 = ( 1 + 𝑀2 ) =
𝛾 𝑇𝑜
𝛾
𝛾−1 𝛾−1 𝑃𝑡𝑜
𝜋𝑟 = ( 1 + 𝑀2 ) =
𝛾 𝑃𝑜

3.3.6 Turbo-propeller jet engine:

It is proper now to ask, why turbofan engines became much more popular than
turbo-propeller jet engine. The main reasons are:
a- A major reason is its high subsonic Mach number capability (~ to 0.95) . In
turbo –propeller, tip blade Mach losses and sharp reduction in 𝜂𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝. Limits
flight Mach number to less than 0.65.
b- They require no gear box to reduce tip velocity from their short blades with
diffusion ahead of the blades. Gear box is always heavy and subject to
reliability problems and lead to “hunting” for equilibrium during speed
increase in flight speed.
c- High tip speed of turbo-propeller lead to high noise level both in the airport
vicinity and in the aircraft on flight.
Reference to figure (3.9),
TProp V0
ηprop. = ̇
, V0 is flight speed
WProp

ṁ
ṁProp ( Vj − Vo )𝑉𝑜 (V2j − V20 )
2
ηprop. = ṁ = ηp ηL
(V2j − V2o ) ẆProp
2
𝜂𝐿 is the ratio of the power available or o/p kinetic power given to air stream to
power i/p from shaft to propeller? This will be reduced sharply with the onset of
Mach number tip losses and equal 1 with no loss case. Sometimes, gear efficiency
𝜂𝑔 is given for the power balance LPT to the propeller in addition to the mechanical
efficiency.

2
ηprop = Ve , with no tip losses and like jet propulsion efficiency.
1+ ⁄V
C.V.

To facilitate analysis of the turbo-propeller engine, the dimensionless work output

coefficient C, is defined as the ratio of power interaction per flow rate of the core
engine to enthalpy ℎ0 of the air stream.
power interaction per flow rate of the core engine
𝐶= ⁄ℎ
0

For the thrust of the hot (core) stream CH,

105
 TH V0
CH = , and for the propeller a 𝐶𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝
ṁo CP T0

Ẇprop ηprop
Cprop = , The work o/p coefficient of the total engine, then
ṁ0 CP T0

Ctotal = Cprop + CH , the corresponding thrust T,is

Ctotal ṁ0 CP T0
T = Tprop + TH =
V0

A schematic drawing of a turboprop engine, (T-s) diagram is shown in figures

(3.29) and (3.30). A cutaway drawing of the TP400 turboprop is shown in figure
(3.31)

Figure (3.29) Turbo-propeller jet with station numbering

Figure (2.30) the ideal (T –S) diagram of the turbo-propeller jet engine

106
 Fig (3.31) TP400 Turboprop Engine

3.3.7 Ram jet engine:

The engine consists mainly of a supersonic diffuser (0 – 1) , subsonic diffuser ( 1-
2) ,combustion chamber ( 2 – 7) and propulsion nozzle (7 – 9) as shown in figure
(3.32).

Figure (3.32a) Typical ram jet engine

Since ram jet can function only if there is a ram compression pressure rise at
entrance to the combustion chamber , it is not self operating at sea level static
coditions (zero flight speed). It must, therefore be accelerated to a flight speed
which permit the engine to develop sufficient thrust to accelerate the vehicle to the
design Mach number. Ram jets must either be launched by dropping from mother
airoplane or boosted to the required flight speed by launching or booster rocket
motor.

107
The cycle pressure ratio of the engine depends upon the flight speed; the higher the
flight speed the larger is the pressure ratio of the engine. The best performance
capabilities of the engine lie in the supersonic speed range of Mach number 3 – 5.
The ram jet having fixed geometry, therefore, is designed for a constant design
flight Mach number.Since there is no turbine blades , high combustion chamber
temperature is permitted ~ 2300 oK.or even more, and the specific thrust ,
therefore, is very high compared to turbojets. It is a very low cost engine in mass
production that entails no lubricating problems since there are no rotating parts.

Figure (2.32b) The ( T – S) diagram of a ram jet engine

3.3.8 Pulse jet Engine:

The engine as shown in figure (3.33) , consists of a diffuser,valve grid (flap valves)
which close and open under the effect of spring force, combustion chamber with
spark plug and tail pipe.

When there is a pressure difference across the valve grid , valves open allowing
fresh air to enter the chamber where fuel is injected a charge that mixes with air
and combustion occurs at the start of cycling with the aid of the spark plug .

Combubustion rate is very fast and may be ideally considered to occurs at constant
volume, with correspoding rapid increase in the combustion chamber pressure .
This closes the valves and surges the products of combustion into the nozzle to be
expelled out at high velocity. When combustion products accelerate and due to its
inertia effects causes a partial vaccuum in the combustion chamber . This, in turn,
allows the valves to open again and new charge enters the chamber. Cycles ,then,
are repeated with the fuel air mixture ignite from some high temperature combution
gases return backward by wave action in the tail pipe.Proper design allows the duct
108
to fire at a certain pulse rate. Frequency of operation may reach ~ 300 -400
cycles/s. Unlike ram jet engine, pulse jet develops thrust at sea level static
conditions. It is simple, inexpensive engine with no rotating parts . Aerodynamic
valves may replace the mechanical valves.

Figure (3.33a) Typical valved pulse jet engine

Figure (3.33b) Quasi steady ( T – S) diagram of a pulse jet engine

Example 1:

A small rocket with an initial mass 400 kg is to be launched vertical upon ignition.
The rocket consumes fuel at the rate of 5 kg/s and ejects gas at atmospheric pressure
with speed of 1500 m/s relative to the rocket. Determine the initial acceleration the
rocket and the rocket velocity after 10 seconds if air resistance is neglected.

109
Mo= 400 kg , 𝑚̇𝑓 =5 kg/s , Pe = Pa
𝑑𝑉𝑅
T = D + MR * g +
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑉𝑅 𝑚𝑉̇ 𝑒 + 𝐴𝑒( Pe− Pa)

= −𝑔 (i)
𝑑𝑡 𝑀𝑅

To obtain the mass of the C.V. at any instant of time,

Conservation of mass:

∂
∫ ρ dv + ∫ ρ (V. dA) = 0
∂t C.V. C.S.

𝜕
∫ ρ dv = − ∫ ρ (V. dA) = − ṁ
𝜕𝑡 C.V. C.S.

d MC.V.
= − ṁ
dt

M t
R ̇
∫M d MC.V. = − ∫0 m dt
o

∴ MR = Mo − m ̇ t (ii)

Substitute this into (i) and for the present analysis, neglect drag and gravity force,
Integrate, after separation of variables from t = 0 when VR =0 to t = t , when VR =
VR
(Pe − Pa ) Mo
VR = [Ve + ] ln -gt
ṁ Mo − ṁ t

Initial acceleration of the C.V. at t = 0

𝑑𝑉𝑅 𝑚𝑉̇ 𝑒 5 (1500)
= −𝑔 = − 9.81 = 8.95 m/s2
𝑑𝑡 𝑀𝑅 400
110
 400
(𝑉𝑅 )𝑡=0 = 1500 ln [ ] − 9.81 ∗ 10 = 102.3 m/s
400−50

Example 2:

The initial mass of a rocket is to be 50000 kg of which 5% is to be structure , the

remainder is fuel and payload. If the specific impulse of the propellant combination
used is 3 kN/kg/s . Calculate the payload mass that would be escaped from earth
for a single stage and for two stages rocket. Neglect aerodynamic drag and gravity.

Payload

3 rd. Stage

2 nd Stage

1 st Stage, its payload Includes 2 nd

Stage ,3d stage and the payload

To determine the escape velocity from earth’s gravity, let R the earth radius. As the
distance Z of a body above the surface of earth increases, the acceleration due to
gravity decreases as:

𝑔 𝑅2
=
𝑔𝑜 (𝑅 + 𝑍)2

Equate the K.E. of a rocket to the work necessary to overcome the earth’s pull to
fine the rocket velocity required to just escape from earth’s surface in absence of
drag.
1 2 𝑍=∞
𝑚 𝑉𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑒 = 𝑚 ∫𝑍=0 𝑔 𝑑𝑍 , by integration
2

∴ Vesc= √2 𝑔𝑜 √𝑅 , R = 6378 km

= 11200 m/s

Mo = 5000 kg . 𝐼𝑠𝑝 = 3 kN/kg/s

For single stage rocket,

Mo = MPL + MPR + Mst.

111
 Mo
VR = 𝐼𝑠𝑝 ln from which
Mo − ṁ t

5000
11200 = 3 000 ln
5000− 𝑀𝑃𝑅

MPR = 48804 kg

MPL = negative number, it is impossible to escape with single stage.

For two stages:

Assume same 𝐼𝑠𝑝 and same mass ratio for each stage
Mo
VR = 2 𝐼𝑠𝑝 ln
Mo − 𝑀𝑃𝑅1

𝑀𝑃𝑅1 = 42268 kg

MPL1 = 0.95 0.95 Mo1 – MPR1 = 5232 kg

MPL1 = Mo2
Mo2
VR = 2 𝐼𝑠𝑝 ln
Mo2 − 𝑀𝑃𝑅2

MPR2 = 4423 kg

MPL2 = Mo2- 0.05 Mo2 – MPR2 = 0.95 * 5232 – 4423 = 547.4 kg.

Example 3:

The following data apply to twin spool turbofan engine with the fan driven by the
LP turbine and the compressor by the HP turbine , separate hot and cold nozzles
are used:
Overall pressure ratio 19 Fan pressure ratio 1.65
𝑚̇𝐶
By pass ratio 3 Turbine inlet temperature
𝑚̇𝐻
1300 oK

Fan, compressor and turbine polytropic efficiency 0.9

Isentropic efficiency for both propelling nozzles 0.95
Mechanical efficiency of each spool 0.99
Combustion pressure loss 1.23 bar
Total air mass flow 115 kg/s

Find the thrust under sea level static conditions of 1 bar and 288 oK.

112
COPR=19, FPR=1.65, Pa = 101.3 kPa, 𝛼 =3 , T04 = 1300 oK
γ−1 γ−1
For compressor, = 3.5, = 0.3175, CPa = 1.005 kJ/kgoK , γ = 1.4
γ η∞C γ

γ−1 (γ−1)η∞t
For turbines, =4 , = 0.225 CPg = 1.147 kJ/kgoK , 𝛾𝑔 = 1.33
γ γ

Fan stream:
(γ−1)
𝑇𝑜13 Po13 γ o
=( ) = 1.650.3175 = 337.6 K
𝑇𝑜1 Po1

Actual critical pressure ratio

γ
P∗act 1 γ−1
∴ =(1− ) γ− 1
Po13 ηN γ+1

𝑃𝑜13 1
= γ =1.964
P∗act 1 γ−1 γ− 1
( 1− )
ηN γ+1

Pressure ratio on cold nozzle

Po13
= 1.65 < 1.965 ∴ the cold nozzle is not choked and 𝑃16 = 𝑃𝑎
Pa
113
 To13 − T16
ηN = ′
To13 − 𝑇𝑜16

1
To13 − T16 = 𝜂𝑁 To13 [1 − 𝛾−1 ] = 42.8 oKType equation here.
P
( o13 ) 𝛾
P16

The energy equation through the fan nozzle,

𝑉𝑒𝐹 = 𝑉16 = √2𝐶𝑃𝑎 (𝑇𝑜13 − 𝑇𝑜16 ) = √2 ∗ 1005 ∗ 42.8 = 293.3 m/s

3
𝑚̇𝐹𝑎𝑛 = 𝑚̇ = 86.25 kg/s
4

𝑚̇𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 = 28.75 kg/s

Cold thrust = 𝑇𝐹 = 86.25 * 293.3 = 25,297.1 (N)

Hot stream

Since the HP turbine and the LP turbine have the same polytropic efficiency, the
power required for the fan and the compressor may be obtained as:

𝑚̇𝐹 𝐶𝑃𝑎 (𝑇𝑜13 − 𝑇𝑜2 ) + 𝑚̇𝑐 𝐶𝑃𝑎 (𝑇𝑜3 − 𝑇𝑜2 ) = 𝑚̇𝑐 𝐶𝑃𝑔 (𝑇𝑜4 − 𝑇𝑜5 )𝜂𝑚

To5 = 773.14 o K
(γ−1)η∞t
To4 Po4 γ
= ( )
To5 Po5

Po4 1300 4.44

= ( ) = 10.047
Po5 773.14

Po5 =1.792 bar

𝑃𝑜5 1 1
= γ = 1.33 = 1.91
P∗act 1 γ−1 γ− 1 1 1.33−1
( 1− ) ( 1− )1.33− 1
ηN γ+1 0.95 1.33+1

𝑃𝑜5 1.787
The pressure ratio on the hot nozzle = = = 1.764 < 1.91 ∴ nozzle is
𝑃𝑎 1.013
unchoked.
To5 − T6
ηN = ′
To5 − 𝑇𝑜6

114
 1
To5 − T6 = 𝜂𝑁 To5 [1 − 𝛾−1 ] = 97.23 oK
P 𝛾
( o5 )
P6

The energy equation through the core nozzle,

𝑉𝑒𝐶 = 𝑉6 = √2𝐶𝑃𝑔 (𝑇𝑜5 − 𝑇6 ) = √2 ∗ 1147 ∗ 97.23 = 472.27 m/s

TCore = TC = 28.75 * 472.27 = 13,577.96 (N)

Total thrust = 25,297.1 + 13,577.96 = 38,875.1 (N)

Example 4:

With improved propeller design, the aircraft industry is considering turbo propeller
jet engines for flight at Mach number 0.8 . Consider an engine suitable for cruise
at altitude of 7.6 km, the maximum inlet turbine temperature is 1370 oK and the
compressor pressure ratio of 10. The propeller efficiency is 0.83 based on modern
transonic techniques. The turbine total temperature ratio (exit total temp./inlet tot.
temp) = 0.53. Show if the propulsion nozzle is not choked. Calorific value of fuel
is 4200 kJ/kg. Assume ideal component performances. Draw a sketch of the engine
and (T-s) chart and calculate:
(a) The work output coefficient for the core engine, the propeller and the
whole engine
(b) The whole engine specific thrust and thrust specific fuel consumption.

115
Altitude = 7.6 km , Ma =0.8 , To4 = 1370 oK ,Ta = 239.1 oK , Pa = 37 kPa

Va = 0.8√1.4 ∗ 287 ∗ 239.1 = 247.96 m/s

𝑇𝑜2 𝛾−1
= (1 + 𝑀𝑎2 ) =269.7 oK
𝑇1 2

𝛾
Po2 γ−1
= (1+ Ma2 ) 𝛾−1 = 56.4 kPa , ∴ Po3 = 564 kPa
Pa γ

𝑇𝑜3
= 100.286 ∴ Po3 = 521.1 oK
𝑇𝑜2

Isentropic expansion in the turbines

To5 = 1370 * 0.53 = 726.1 oK and Po5 = 61.13 kPa

𝑃𝑜5 1
= = 1.984
𝑃∗ 0.528

𝑃𝑜5 61.13
Pressure ratio on nozzle = = = 1.652 < 1.984 , nozzle not choked
𝑃𝑎 37

(γ−1)
To5 Po5 γ
= ( ) = 1.1544
T6 P6

T6 = 628.98 oK

Energy equation on flow through nozzle

𝑉6 = √2𝐶𝑃𝑎 (𝑇𝑜5 − 𝑇6 ) = √2 ∗ 1005 ∗ 97.12 = 441.8 m/s

For the core stream:

Fcore = 𝑚̇𝐶 (𝑉𝑒 − 𝑉𝑎 )

𝐹𝐶
= 193.64 N/kg/s
𝑚̇𝐶

116
 𝐹𝐶 𝑉𝑎
𝐶𝐶 = = 0.199
𝑚̇𝐶 𝐶𝑃𝑎 𝑇𝑎

Energy balance of HP compressor and turbine

𝑚̇𝐶 𝐶𝑃𝑎 (𝑇𝑜3 − 𝑇𝑜2 ) = 𝑚̇𝐶 𝐶𝑃𝑎 (𝑇𝑜4 − 𝑇𝑜4.5 )

𝑇𝑜4.5 = 1118.65 oK

𝑊𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝 = 𝑚̇𝐶 𝐶𝑃𝑎 (𝑇𝑜4.5 − 𝑇𝑜5 ) = 392.55* 𝑚̇𝐶 𝐶𝑃𝑎

𝜂𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑊𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝
𝐶𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝 = = 1.363
𝑚̇𝐶 𝐶𝑃𝑎 𝑇𝑎

𝐹𝑇∗ 𝑉𝑎
CTotal = 1.363 + 0.199 = 1.482 =
𝑚̇𝐶 𝐶𝑃𝑎 𝑇𝑎

𝐹𝑇
= 1514.7 N/kg/s
𝑚̇𝐶

𝑚̇𝐶 𝐶𝑃𝑎 (𝑇𝑜4 − 𝑇𝑜3 ) = 𝑚̇𝑓 𝐶. 𝑉.

Fuel air ratio =0.0188

𝑓
Thrust specific fuel consumption = TSFC = 𝐹 = 12.4 mg/N.s
( ̇𝑇)
𝑚𝐶

3.4 Summary
The chapter discusses engines whose purpose is to generate thrust force by
changing the linear momentum of the working fluid. The technique may involve
the generation of high velocity fluid stream from materials carried along with the
engine or may involve alteration of momentum of the surrounding fluid.

In case of propeller engine, mechanical energy is supplied to the shaft of a bladed

rotor, which increases the velocity of ambient air passing through propeller.
In jet engine, chemical energy is supplied to the engine in order to obtain high
velocity jet of fluid, using the ambient air as oxidizer for fuel. These include
turbojet engine, turbofan jet engine turbo propeller jet engine ramjet engine and
pulsejet engine. In rocket engine, the propellants (fuel and oxidizer) are carried
along as part of the engine.
The performance parameters of these engines defined. The non-air breathing and
air breathing engines studied and analyzed.
Parametric cycle analysis (design point calculations) with adequate figure of merits
for engine components, are essential to determine the engine's performance at
different flight conditions and values of design choice.

117
Problems
1) A small rocket with an initial mass 400 kg is to be launched vertical upon
ignition . The rocket consumes fuel at the rate of 5 kg/s and ejects gas at
atmospheric pressure with speed of 1500 m/s relative to the rocket .
Determine the initial acceleration of the rocket and the rocket velocity after
10 seconds, if air resistance is neglected.

2) A rocket motor is to provide 5 MN of thrust at sea level , the rocket chamber

pressure and temperature are 5 MPa and 300 oK with the rocket exhaust gases
having a mean molecular mass of 16 and 𝛾= 1.4. In order to reduce both
initial mass and drag of the rocket , the area of the nozzle is to be restricted
to 3:1. Determine the nozzle throat and exit area required. Evaluate the thrust
produced with no area restriction.

3) The initial mass of a rocket is to be 50000 kg of which 5% is to be structure

, the remainder is fuel and payload. If the specific impulse of the propellant
combination used is 3 kN/kg/s . Calculate the payload mass that would be
escaped from earth for a single stage and for two stages rocket. Neglect
aerodynamic drag and gravity.

4) Define the isentropic efficiency of compressor and of turbine for a gas

turbine. Hence, find the stagnation temperature equivalent of work done for
compressor and turbine for given pressure and expansion ratios,
respectively. What is meant by polytropic ( small stage efficiency for
compressor and turbine. Obtain relations between isentropic and polytropic
efficiencies.

5) Determine the specific thrust and specific fuel consumption for a turbo jet
engine having the following components performance at design point at
which cruise speed is 270 m/s and at altitude of 5000 m ( Pa = 0.54 bar and
Ta = 255 oK)

Compressor pressure ratio 0.8 Turbine inlet temperature 1200 oK

Compressor isentropic efficiency 0.87 Turbine isentropic efficiency 0.87
Propulsion nozzle isentropic efficiency 0.95 Mechanical transmission
efficiency 0.99
Combustion efficiency 0.98
Combustion chamber pressure loss 4% of compressor delivery pressure.

118
6) The following data apply to twin spool turbofan engine with the fan driven
by the LP turbine and the compressor by the HP turbine, separate hot and
cold nozzles are used:

Overall pressure ratio 19 Fan pressure ratio 1.65

𝑚̇𝐶
Bypass ratio 3 Turbine inlet temperature 1300 oK
𝑚̇𝐻
Fan, compressor, and turbine polytropic efficiency 0.9
Isentropic efficiency for both propelling nozzles 0.95
Mechanical efficiency of each spool 0.99
Combustion pressure loss 1.23 bar
Total air mass flow 115 kg/s
Find the thrust under sea level static conditions of 1 bar and 288 oK.

7) Undertake off conditions when ambient pressure and temperature are 1.01
bar and 288 oK, the stagnation pressure and stagnation temperature in the jet
pipe of a turbo jet engine are 2.4 bar and 1000 oK and mass flow is 23 kg/s.
Assuming the expansion in the propulsion nozzle is isentropic, calculate the
exit area required and the thrust produced.

For a new version of the engine the thrust is to be increased by the addition
of an after fan which provides a separate fan and core streams, the engine
has a by-pass ratio of 2.0, fan and turbine pressure ratio are 1.75 , the
isentropic efficiencies of the fan ant turbine sections are 0.88 and 0.9 ,
respectively. Calculate the take-off thrust assuming the expansion in the fan
nozzle is also isentropic and the hot mass flow rate is 23 kg/s.

8) With improved propeller design, the aircraft industry is considering turbo

propeller jet engines for flight at Mach number 0.8 . Consider an engine
suitable for cruise at altitude of 7.6 km, the maximum inlet turbine
temperature is 1370 oK and the compressor pressure ratio of 10. The
propeller efficiency is 0.83 based on modern transonic techniques. The
turbine total temperature ratio (exit total temp./inlet tot. temp) = 0.53. Show
if the propulsion nozzle is not choked. Calorific value of fuel is 4200 kJ/kg.
Assume ideal component performances. Draw a sketch of the engine and (T-
s) chart and calculate:
(a) The work output coefficient for the core engine, the propeller, and the
whole engine
(b)The whole engine specific thrust and thrust specific fuel consumption.

119
 2022-2023

120
 Chapter (4)
Normal shock wave
4.1 Introduction
The Shock wave is a sudden change in fluid properties such as velocity, pressure,
temperature…etc. in which the finite variations occur over a shock thickness
comparable with the mean free path of the gas molecules. It has been shown in
previous chapters that supersonic flow adjusts to the presence of a body by means
of a shock wave while subsonic flow adjusts by gradual changes in flow properties.
This chapter is devoted to the detailed analysis of plane normal shock wave where
the shock is normal to the direction of flow. The one-dimensional conservation
equations applied to the normal shock. Solutions of the equations are presented to
enable the solution of practical engineering problems.

4.2 Shock wave in nozzle

From the behavior of convergent- divergent nozzle under variable back pressures. It has been
Pb2 Pb Pb5
shown that in the range ≥ ≥ that is region II in figure (4.1), there is no isentropic
Po Po Po
solution. Experimental results show that there is a normal shock wave in the divergent part of the
nozzle. This normal shock wave occurs in a layer of thickness of ∼ 1x 10-5 cm on Schlieren
photograph. Across this layer, there is a very large static pressure rise and very large velocity
drop of order of ∼ 2 – 5 times

Figure (4.1) shows the behavior of converging divergent nozzle under variable
back pressure.

Figure (4.1) Convergent divergent nozzle behavior

121
Figure (4.2) shows the nozzle exhausts different jet shapes for various conditions.

Figure (4.2) Jet shapes for different conditions.

The preceding convergent- divergent nozzle concepts easily identified in figure

(4.3) by the four regions 1, 2, 3 and 4. This is realized from the three back

122
 pressures Pb2 , Pb5, and Pb7 of figure (4.1) that separate these four regions.

Figure (4.3) Key pressures and regions for convergent-divergent nozzle flow

• Region 1. Subsonic flow through the nozzle

• Region 2. For normal shock wave in the divergent part,
• Region 3. For over expanded nozzle.
• Region 4. For under expanded nozzle.
•
4.3 Governing equations of normal shock:
Take the following control volume around the shock wave.

Fig (4.4) Infinitesimal control volume around shock wave

123
Conservation of mass:

∂
∫ ρ dv + ∫ ρ (𝐕. 𝐝𝐀) = 0
∂t CV CS

Assume steady state conditions and one dimension flow,

𝜌𝑥 𝑉𝑥 𝐴𝑥 = 𝜌𝑦 𝑉𝑦 𝐴𝑦 Ax = Ay= A (very thin)

𝑚̇
∴ 𝜌𝑥 𝑉𝑥 = 𝜌𝑦 𝑉𝑦 = (4.1)
𝐴

Conservation of momentum:

∂
∑ FB(1) + FS(1) = ∫ 𝐕 ρ dv + ∫ 𝐕(1) ρ (𝐕. 𝐝𝐀)
∂t CV (1) CS

F
Px + ρx Vx2 = Py + ρy Vy2 = (4.2)
A

F = Impulse function

Conservation of energy:
𝜕𝑄 𝜕 𝑉2 𝑑𝑊
= ∫ 𝑒 𝜌𝑑𝑣 + ∫𝐶𝑆(ℎ + ) 𝜌(𝑽. 𝒅𝑨) + +Ṗ
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝐶𝑉 2 𝑑𝑡

𝑉𝑥2 𝑉𝑦2
ℎ𝑥 + = ℎ𝑦 + (4.3)
2 2

Second law of thermodynamics:

𝜕 dQ
𝜕𝑡
∫CV s ρ dv + ∫CS s ρ (𝐕. 𝐝𝐀) ≥ ∫CS T

sy − sx ≥ 0 (4.4)

State equation:

h = h (h, ρ )

s = s (P, ρ) (4.5)

4.3.1 Fanno line:

Assume Vy in continuity eqn. (4.1), find ρy

From Vy find hy from energy eqn. (4.3)

From ρy and hy find Sy from state eqn.(4.5)

124
The Fanno line is the solution of the mass conservation, energy conservation and
state equation.

The frictional effects (momentum equation) changes along this line, thus the
frictional effects control any position on this line.

4.3.2 Raleigh line:

Assume Vy in continuity eqn. (4.1), find ρy

From Vy find Py from momentum eqn. (4.2)

From ρ𝑦 and Py find Sy , from state equation (4.5).

The Raleigh line is the solution of conservation of mass, momentum equation and
state equation. The energy (heat transfer) i.e. external energy exchanges vary from
point to point along this line, thus heat exchange control any location on this line.

The solution must satisfy the three conservation equations that is it will be at the
intersection point of the Fanno and Raleigh lines as shown in figure (4.5)

Figure (4.5) Fanno line and Raleigh line.

125
• The upper branches are for subsonic flow and lower branches for
supersonic flow.
V2x V2y
hx + = hy +
2 2
∴ Vy < Vx
Point (y) is subsonic, and point (x) is supersonic.

• Solution direction is always from (x) to (y) that is from supersonic to

subsonic. This can be seen from equation (4.4)
sy − sx ≥ 0
That is sy ≥ sx
Therefore, the solution must be from (x) to (y) or it will violate the second law of
thermodynamics.

Point (a) on Fanno Line has a sonic speed:

For an infinitesimal process around (a)

Energy equation: dh + VdV = 0 (4.6)

dP
T ds = dh - , ds = 0
ρ

dP
dh = (4.7)
ρ

dP
+ V dV = 0 (4.8)
ρ

Mass equation:

ρ dV + V dρ = 0
dρ
∴ dV = −V (4.9)
ρ

From (3.8) , (3.9)

dP dP ∂P
V2 = ∴ V = √ = √( ) ∴ 𝑀𝑎 = 1
dρ dρ ∂ρ s

Point (b) on Raleigh line has sonic speed:

126
Momentum equation.
PA – ( P + dP) A = 𝜌𝐴𝑉 (V + dV) - 𝜌 A 𝑉 2
dP = − ρV dV (4.10)
Mass equation:
𝑑𝜌
𝑑𝑉 = −𝑉 (4.11)
𝜌

From (3.10)and (3.11) above

dP ∂P
∴ V = √ = √( ) ∴ 𝑀𝑏 = 1
dρ ∂ρ s

4.4 Normal shock wave in calorically perfect gas:

Energy equation:

Tox = Toy
γ−1 γ−1
Tx [1 + Mx2 ] = Ty [1 + My2 ] (4.12)
2 2

Momentum equation:

Px + ρx Vx2 = Py + ρy Vy2

Px [1 + γ Mx2 ] = Py [1 + γ My2 ] (4.13)

Mass equation:

ρx Vx = ρy Vy (4.14)

Substitute from (4.12) and (4.13) into (4.14)

γ−1 2 γ−1 2
Mx2 [1 + Mx ] My2 [1 + My ]
2 = 2
[1 + γ Mx2 ]2 2
[1 + γ My2 ]

This equation has four solutions in My ,

Two trivial solutions are 𝑀𝑥2 = 𝑀𝑦2 , taking the left hand side of this equation as
A., the eqn. reduces to:
γ−1
M 4y [ − γ2 A] + My2 [1 − 2 γ A] − A = 0
2

127
 2
M2x + γ−1
My2 = [ 2γ ] (4.15)
M2x −1
γ−1

Substitute from (3.15) in R.L. (momentum equation)

Py [1+ γ M2x ] 2γ γ−1

= = Mx2 − = fn ( Mx , γ) (4.16)
Px [1+ γ M2y ] γ+1 γ+1

Substitute from (3.15) in F.L. (energy equation)

γ−1 2γ
Ty [1+ 2 M2x ] [γ−1 M2x −1]
= (γ+1)2 2
= 𝑓𝑛 ( 𝑀𝑥 , 𝛾) (4.17)
Tx M
2( γ−1) x

Entropy change:
dP
T ds = dh −
ρ

sy Ty Py
dT dP
∫ ds = CP ∫ − R∫
sx Tx T Px P

𝛾𝑅 𝑇𝑦 𝑃𝑦
sy − sx = ln − 𝑅 ln (4.18)
𝛾−1 𝑇𝑥 𝑃𝑥

Figure (4.6) Entropy change acrosfs normal shock wave

128
 From figure (4.6), entropy change is negative for subsonic flow, Mx < 1.0 .
Therefore, no discontinuity is possible for subsonic flow; this shows the
impossibility of an expansion shock.
The model of normal shock wave gives accurate results compared with
experimental results ∼ 1%.
ρy Vx Py T x (γ+1) M2x
= = =(γ−1) M2x +2
= fn ( Mx , γ) (4.19)
ρx Vy Px T y
ρy (γ+1)
As 𝑀𝑥 →→ ∞ = (γ−1)
=6.0 for air
ρx

γ−1
As 𝑀𝑥 →→ ∞ My = √ = 0.38 for air, from (4.15)
2γ

Stagnation pressure ratio across normal shock wave:

1 𝛾
𝐴∗𝑦 𝑃𝑜𝑥 2𝛾𝑀𝑥2 −(𝛾−1) (𝛾−1) 2+(𝛾−1)𝑀𝑥2 (𝛾−1)
= =[ ] [ (𝛾+1)𝑀2 ] (4.20)
𝐴∗𝑥 𝑃𝑜𝑦 𝛾+1 𝑥

Note: for normal shock wave

Poy
< 1.0
Pox

That is normal shock wave always decreases the potential of the flow to produce
work.

Figure (4.7) Properties change across normal shock wave, 𝛾 = 1.4, refer to
normal shock tables.

129
The variation of fluid properties across normal shock wave is shown in figure
(4.7).

4.5 Entropy rise and stagnation pressure ratio across normal S.W.
γR Ty Py
sy − sx = ln − 𝑅 ln
γ−1 Tx Px

Ty
Ty Py ( )
Tx
sy − sx = CP ln − R ln = CP ln R (4.21)
Tx Px Py CP
( )
Px

γ−1
Tox = Tx [1 + Mx2 ] (4.22)
2

γ−1
Toy = Ty [1 + My2 ] (4.23)
2
γ
γ−1 γ−1
Pox = Px [1 + Mx2 ] (4.24)
2
γ
γ−1 γ−1
Poy = Py [1 + My2 ] (4.25)
2

Substitute from (4.22) to (4.25) in (4.21) get:

𝛾−1
Poy 𝛾
sy − sx = −𝐶𝑃 ln ( )
Pox

sy − sx Poy
= − ln ( )
𝑅 Pox

For Mx >1, 𝑃𝑜𝑦 < 𝑃𝑜𝑥 ∴ sy − sx > 0

For Mx <1, 𝑃𝑜𝑦 > 𝑃𝑜𝑥 ∴ sy − sx < 0 which is impossible that is expansion
shock is impossible.

130
4.6 Representation of normal shock wave on (T-s) chart:

Figure (4.7) Representation of normal shock wave on (T-s) chart

ṁ
At (x) , Fanno line ( To = const. , = ρx Vx )
Ax

ṁ
At (x), Raleigh line ( F/A = const. , = ρx Vx )
Ax

(x → y) N. shock wave with an increase in entropy

(y → e) isentropic flow after normal shock wave, 𝑃𝑜𝑦 < 𝑃𝑜𝑥, Tox= Toy= To

Py∗ = 0.528 Poy

𝑥 ∗ at M= 1.0 at nozzle throat.

𝑦 ∗ at M = 1.0 if flow after normal shock wave at (y) is brought to M = 1.0

131
4.7 Some practical problems:
Shock wave inside divergent part of convergent – divergent nozzle

4.7.1 Shock wave position is known, required to determine Pe or Pb.

As the flow is subsonic after normal shock wave, ∴ Pe = Pb.
𝐴𝑥
1. ( from isentropic table) → Mx , Tx , Px , Vx , ..
𝐴∗𝑥
2. 𝑀𝑥 (from N. Shock table) → My , Py , Ty , Vy , …
Now, find second throat concept.

Poy A∗y Pox A∗x

ṁ = 0.04042 = 0.04042 ∴ Pox A∗x = Poy A∗y
√To √To

Poy must be smaller than Pox

A∗y must be greater than 𝐴∗𝑥 such that Pox A∗x = Poy A∗y
Pox
A∗y = A∗x
Poy

Ae Pe Te
3. At (from isentropic table, M< 1.0) , Me , , ...
A∗y Poy Toy
4. Pe = P b

4.7.2 Back pressure is known and required to locate the shock position
i.e. 𝐴𝑥 ? at which the shock occurs.

1. First find if a shock will happen or not inside the nozzle according the given
Pb .
Ae
• (isentropic table) → (M > 1.0 ) get Md , Pd , Td
A∗
𝑃𝑦
Md (shock table) →
𝑃𝑥

132
 Fig (4.9)
• If Pd < Pb < Py
Nozzle is over expanded

Fig (4.10)
• If 0 < Pb < Pd
Nozzle is under expanded

Fig (4.11)

• If Pb > Py
Normal shock wave is inside the divergent part of the nozzle.
133
 Fig (4.12)

2. Second: To find (Ax), that is shock location. There are two

methods:
Trial and error:

Assume the shock location Ax .

Find Pb assumed as shown before.
If Pb assmed = Pb actual , then the assumed 𝐴𝑥 was true.
If not, assume another Ax and repeat until the correct answer.

Another method:

Pox A∗x = Poy A∗y

Pe Ae Pe Ae
= (Last column, isentropic table)
Poy A∗y Pox A∗x

𝑃𝑒 𝐴𝑒 𝑃𝑒 𝑇𝑒
, M < 1.0 get Me, ,
𝑃𝑜𝑦 𝐴∗𝑦 𝑃𝑜𝑦 𝑇𝑜𝑦

∴ Poy is obtained since Pe = Pb

Poy Ax
(Normal shock table) → Mx and at Mx (isentropic table) →
Pox A∗x
Get Ax where the shock location.

134
Example 1:

A convergent – divergent nozzle with an exit area two times the throat area. The
inlet stagnation pressure is 10 bar. It is noticed that a normal shock wave
stationed at section 60 % greater than the throat area. Find the exit pressure.

Fig (4.13)
Ae
At = 2 , 𝑃𝑜𝑥 = 10 bar
A∗x

Ae
= 1.6 (isentropic table) → Mx = 1.94
A∗x

Poy
From normal shock table at Mx = 1.94 → My = 0.588, = 0.748
Pox

∴ 𝑃𝑜𝑦 = 7.48 bar

𝑃𝑜𝑥 𝐴𝑥 = 𝑃𝑜𝑦 𝐴𝑦
A∗x Poy
= = 0.748
A∗y Pox

Ae Ae A∗x
= = 2 * 0.748 = 1.496
A∗y A∗x A∗y

𝐴𝑒 𝑃𝑒
∴ At (from isentropic table, M < 1.0 ) → Me = 0.43 , = 0.88
𝐴∗𝑦 𝑃𝑜𝑦

𝑃𝑒 = 𝑃 𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 = 𝑜. 88 ∗ 0.748 = 6.58 𝑏𝑎𝑟

135
Example 2:

The exit area of C-D nozzle is 3 times throat area. The stagnation pressure at
entry to the nozzle is 2.5 times the exit static pressure. Ignore losses except that
due to shock in the divergent part. Determine Mach no. and area at shock, exit
Mach and increase in entropy across the shock.

Fig (1.14)

𝐴𝑒 𝐴𝑒
= =3 𝑃𝑜𝑥 = 2.5𝑃𝑒 = 2.5 𝑃𝑏
𝐴𝑡ℎ 𝑨∗𝒙

Ae Pe Ae Pe 3
= = =1.2
𝐀∗𝐲 Poy 𝐀∗𝐱 Pox 2.5

Ae Pe Pe
→ (𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡. 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒) =0.8595
𝐀∗𝐲 Poy Poy

Poy e P
∴ = (0.8595)∗2.5 = 0.465
Pox Pe

Poy
→ (NSWT) 𝑀𝑥 =2.58
Pox

𝐴𝑒
𝑀𝑥 → (isent. table) =2.8419
𝑨𝒙∗

Pe
=0.8595 → (isent. table, M < 1) Me =0.47
Poy
Poy
sy - sx = - R ln = −287 ln 0.465 = 219.76 j/kgK
Pox

Example 3.

If the Mach number upstream of a normal shock wave in air flow is 2.0 .
Calculate algebraically:

a) Mach number downstream of the shock wave.

b) The ratio across the shock wave of static pressures, velocities, temperatures
and total pressures.
136
c) The ratio of critical cross-sectional areas across.
d) The ratio of total pressure after the shock to static pressure before the shock
2
M2x + γ−1
My2 = [ 2γ ] , My =0.5775
M2x −1
γ−1

Py 2γ γ−1
== Mx2 − = 4.503
Px γ+1 γ+1

γ−1 2γ
Ty [1+ 2 M2x ] [γ−1 M2x −1]
= (γ+1)2 2
Type equation here. = 1.685
Tx M
2( γ−1) x

γ
γ+1 2 (γ−1)
[ 2 ](Mx )
{ }
Poy [1+(γ−1)/2](M2x)
= 1 = 0.772
Pox 2γ (γ−1)
2
{[(γ+1)](Mx )−((γ−1)/(γ+1))}

A∗x Poy
= = 0.772
A∗y Pox

γ
γ+1 2 (γ−1)
Poy { 2 Mx }
= γ = 5.62
Px 2γ 2 (γ−1)
{[(γ+1)](Mx )−((γ−1)/(γ+1))}

Example 4:

A subsonic diffuser has an area ratio of 5, attached at exit of a wind tunnel test
section. The Mach number at diffuser inlet is 2.2 where a normal shock wave is
generated, and the static pressure and static temperature are 9.82 kPa and 146.81
o
K. Find the Mach number, the static pressure and static temperature at the
diffuser exit

Fig (4.15)

137
 𝑃𝑦
At Mx= 2.2, from NSW tables, My =0.547, = 5.48 , Py = 53.81 kPa
𝑃𝑥

𝑇𝑦
= 1.857, Ty= 272.63 oK
𝑇𝑥

𝑃𝑥
From Is. flow tables = 0.0935, Pox = 105.03 kPa
𝑃𝑜𝑥

𝑇𝑥
= 0.508, Tox =289 oK = Toy
𝑇𝑜𝑥

𝐴
At My = 0.547, Is tables, ( ∗)y=1.26
𝐴

𝐴𝑒 𝐴 𝑒 𝐴𝑦
= = 1.26 * 5 = 6.3
𝐴∗𝑦 𝐴𝑖 𝐴∗𝑦

𝑇 𝑃
∴ Me= 0.095 , ( ) = 0.998 and ( ) = 0.994
𝑇𝑜 𝑒 𝑃𝑜 𝑒

∴ Pe = 65.57 kPa and Te = 288.4 oK

4.8 Formation of normal shock wave and expansion fan:

When a piston in tube is given incremental velocity dV to the right, a weak pressure
wave travels to the right at velocity of sound. When the piston is given a second
increment of velocity, a second compression wave moves into the compressed gas
behind the first wave as shown in figure (4.16). Each wave travels at the velocity
of sound with respect to the gas into which it is moving. The next wave travel at
faster speed than the previous one and, tries to overtake it and finally counteracted
by internal heat conduction and viscous effects. The result is compression shock
wave as represented in figure (4.17).

Figure (4.16) Successive generation of pressure waves by a piston.

138
If the piston is given incremental velocity dV to the left, a weak expansion wave
travels to the right at velocity of sound. When the piston is given a second
increment of velocity, a second expansion wave moves into the expanded gas
behind the first wave as shown in figure (4.18). Each wave travels at sound velocity
relative to the gas into which it is moving. The next wave, then, travels at less speed
than the previous one and fall farther and farther behind the previous ones.
Therefore, expansion wave spread out and never form a discontinuity.

Figure (4.17) Successive pressure waves form a discontinuity.

139
\\\

Figure (4.18) Expansion wave fanning.

For a sizable change in velocity to the right direction, the different properties
shown in the time – distance plane given in figure (4.19)

140
 Figure (4.19) Physical (x-t) plane for piston motion to right.

For a sizable change in velocity to the left direction, the (x – t) plane is shown in
figure (4.20)

Figure (4.20) Physical plane for piston motion to the left

141
4.9 Moving Shock Waves:
In many practical applications, we are dealing with moving compression shock
waves such as:

1. In ballistics
2. In sudden valve closure in gas pipe lines
3. During return travel from outer space
4. Due to sudden piston motion.
The following notation is used for the moving shock wave:

Fig (4.21a)
By changing the coordinate system that is for the observer riding on the wave,
the wave is then stationary as:

-
Fig (4.21b)

The static properties are the same for both moving and stationary shocks
that is:
Pa Px
= but Toa ≠ Tox
Pb Py
For stationary shock wave:
2
((Vs −Vg ) −V2s ) V2g −2Vs Vg
Toy – Tox = 0 = (Ty – Tx) + [ ] = ( Ty – Tx) +
2CP 2CP

− Vg2 + 2Vs Vg
∴ ( Ty – Tx) =
2CP

For moving shock wave:

142
 V2g −0
Tob – Toa = (Tb – Ta) +
2CP
− V2g +2Vs Vg
( Tb – Ta) = ( Ty – Tx) =
2CP
Vs Vg
∴ Tob – Toa =
CP
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑡he energy level is raised as the moving shock exerts work on the gas.
𝑃
The destruction effect of the moving shock, ( 𝑜𝑏 )
𝑃𝑎
𝛾
𝛾−1 2 𝛾−1
𝑃𝑜𝑏 = 𝑃𝑎 (1 + 𝑀𝑏 )
𝛾
𝛾
𝑃𝑜𝑏 𝑃𝑏 𝛾 − 1 2 𝛾−1
= (1 + 𝑀𝑏 )
𝑃𝑎 𝑃𝑎 𝛾
𝑉𝑔
𝑀𝑏 =
√𝛾𝑅𝑇

Boundary conditions:
(1) Closed pipe end:

(a) Incident shock wave

(b) Reflected wave and change coordinate system

Fig (4.22) Incident and reflected wave at closed end

143
 (2) Open pipe end:

(b) Reflected expansion wave

(c) Physical (x-t) diagram

* Pressure across reflected wave decreases
* Therefore, reflected wave is expansion wave

Fig (4.23) Incident and reflected wave from open end

Example 5:

An explosion in air ( 𝛾 = 1.4 ) creates a spherical shock wave propagation

radially into still air at standard conditions (1.03 bar, 15 oC ), the pressure just
inside the shock is 13.61 bar abs., estimate:
a-The shock speed and
b-The air velocity just inside the shock
c- The destruction effect of the shock.

144
 Fig (4.24)

For stationary shock

Py 13.61
= = 13.21 → (𝑁𝑆𝑊𝑇) Mx= 3.386 , My= 0.455
Px 1.03

𝑇𝑦 ρy
= 3.157 , = 4.179
Tx ρx

𝑉𝑠
Mx =
√𝛾𝑅𝑇𝑎

Vx= Vs = 3.386 √1.4 ∗ 287 ∗ 288 = 1151.83 m/s

Ty = Tb =3.157 * 288 =909.22 oK

( Vs – Vg ) = Vy = 0.455 √1.4 ∗ 287 ∗ 909.22 =275 m/s

Vg = 1151.83 – 275 = 876.83 m/s

Or after finding Vs = 1151.83 = Vx

𝑉𝑦 𝜌𝑥 1
= =
𝑉𝑥 𝜌𝑦 4.179
1153.83
Vy= ( Vs – Vg ) = = 275.62
4.179

Vg = 1151.83 – 275.62 = 876.21 m/s

𝑃𝑜𝑏
= 47.1 bar
𝑃𝑎

145
4.9.1 Moving shock into stationary gas
If enough information is given (shock wave velocity or property ratio across shock), then
it is easy to obtain the upstream Mach number for the stationary shock and the normal
shock relations are applied.

In many problems of interest, the shock wave velocity is unknown and property ratio is
not known. Then either iterative procedure may be used or algebraic procedure is used as
follows.

As shown in the figure, when the shock is moving at seed Vs into stationary gas i.e. Va=0
. After the passage of the wave, the gas moves at velocity Vg For the observer moving
with the shock and the wave is stationary.

(a) Moving shock

(b) Stationary shock

Fig (4.25) Moving shock wave in stationary gas

ρy Vx (γ+1) M2x 𝑉𝑠
= = (γ−1) M2x +2
, 𝑀𝑥 =
ρx Vy 𝑎𝑥

(Vs − Vg )(γ + 1)Vs (γ − 1)Vs2

∴ = +2
a2x a2x
2𝑉𝑠2 (𝛾+1)𝑉𝑔 𝑉𝑠
− − 2 = 0 , solve the quadratic equation
𝑎𝑥2 𝑎𝑥2

(𝛾+1)𝑉𝑔 𝛾+1 2
𝑉𝑠 = ± √( ) 𝑉𝑔2 + 𝑎𝑥2 (4.26)
4 4

146
4.9.2 Moving shock into moving gas
When the shock wave is moving at speed Vs into gas moving at velocity Va. After
the passage of the wave, the gas moves at velocity Vg. The moving shock induces
a gas moving in the direction of the shock’s motion. Note Va , Vg are ( + ve) when
in same direction as Vs.

(a) Moving shock

(b) Stationary shock

Fig (4.26) Moving shock wave in moving gas

ρy Vx (γ+1) M2x 𝑉𝑠 −𝑉𝑎

= = (γ−1) M2x +2
, 𝑀𝑥 =
ρx Vy 𝑎𝑥

(𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑔 )(𝛾 + 1)(𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑎 ) (𝛾 − 1)(𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝑎 )2

= +2
𝑎𝑥2 𝑎𝑥2

after some algebraic manipulations and solution of the quadratic equation, get,

(γ+1)Vg −(γ−3)Va γ+1 2 2

Vs = ± √( ) (Vg − Va ) + a2x (4.27)
4 4

147
Example 6:

Air at 100 kPa and 290 oK flowing in constant area duct with velocity of 150 m/s,
suddenly the end of the duct is closed which causes a normal shock to propagate
through the air stream. Find the velocity of the shock and the pressure behind the
shock.

After reflection, the wave is moving into gas flowing at Va opposite to the shock
direction as shown in the sketch and with the coordinate system moving with the
wave.

(a) Moving shock

(b) Stationary shock

Fig (4.27)

ρy Vx (γ+1)Mx (Vs +Vg )

= = (γ−1)M , Mx =
ρx Vy x +2 √γRTa

Substitute and solve the quadratic equation in Vs or you can use the general case in
which the shock wave is moving into gas flowing at Va and gas velocity behind the
shock Vg as before:

(𝛾+1)𝑉𝑔 −(𝛾−3)𝑉𝑎 𝛾+1 2 2

𝑉𝑠 = ± √𝑎𝑎2 + ( ) (𝑉𝑔 − 𝑉𝑎 ) (4.27)
4 4

Substitute in the equation with Vg= 0 and Va = - 150 m/s , aa= ax=341.35 m/s

Vs = 292.1 m/s

148
𝜌𝑦 𝑉𝑥 𝑉𝑠 +𝑉𝑎 Pb
= = = 1.5 from N.S. wave table = 1.8, Pb= 180 kPa
𝜌𝑥 𝑉𝑦 𝑉𝑎 Pa

Ty Tb
= = 1.19 𝑇𝑏 = 345.4 oK
Tx Ta

4.10 Supersonic normal shock diffuser efficiency (Pitot

diffuser)
In this diffuser, the normal shock wave stationed in the lip at design flight speed.
This is shown in figure (4.28)) with the corresponding (T- s) chart of the process
when the subsonic diffusion is isentropic and when it is not.

Figure (4.28) Normal shock diffuser and (T –s) chart)

𝛾−1 𝛾−1
𝑃𝑜2 𝛾 𝑃𝑜2 𝛾
′ −𝑇
𝑇𝑜2 𝑇1 (( ) −1) ( ) −1
1 𝑃1 𝑃1
𝜂𝐷 = = 𝑉2
= 𝛾−1 2
𝑇𝑜2 − 𝑇1 1 𝑀1
2
2 𝐶𝑃

𝛾
𝛾−1
𝑃𝑜2 𝑃𝑜2 𝑃𝑜1 𝑃𝑜2 𝛾−1
Since = = ( ) (1+ 𝑀12 )
𝑃1 𝑃𝑜1 𝑃1 𝑃 𝑜1 𝛾

In which the diffuser efficiency related to stagnation pressure ratio and inlet to the
diffuser Mach number M1.

149
4.11 Pitot tube
The Pitot tube used extensively to measure the flow velocity. It depends on pressure
measurement. The static pressure measured with manometer or pressure gage that senses the
pressure through a small hole whose axis is normal to the surface of the wall. The pressure is
constant in a plane normal to the undisturbed flow in the boundary layer or potential flow. The
diameter of the hole is usually about one fifth of the laminar boundary layer thickness or
generally taken as 0.08 diameter of pipe. Refer to figure (3.14)

Figure (4.29) Static pressure measurement

Figure (4.30) shows a Prandtl tube used to measure static pressure in subsonic
flow.

Figure (4.30) Prandtl tube for static pressure.

150
In supersonic flow Ogival probes, figure (4.31) is usually used to reduce the
strength of the shock for a viable reading and the nose angle should be less than
the angle at which the shock becomes detached.

Fig (4.31) Ogival probe (M>1)

The total pressure measured by an impact Pitot tube placed parallel to the
direction of the flow as shown in figure (4.32).

Figure (4.32) Total pressure probe and its sensitivity to yaw angle

For incompressible flow: M<<1

Bernoulli equation applied between upstream-undisturbed flow point A and at

nose of the probe point B.

𝑃𝐴 𝑉𝐴2 𝑃𝐵
+ =
𝜌 𝜌 𝜌

151
 2 (𝑃𝐵 − 𝑃𝐴 )
𝑉𝐴 = √
𝜌

For compressible subsonic flow:

Application of energy equation:

𝑉𝐴2
ℎ𝐴 + = ℎ𝐵
2
𝑉𝐴2
𝐶𝑃 𝑇𝐴 + = 𝐶𝑃 𝑇𝐵
2
𝑃𝐵 𝛾−1 2 𝛾
=(1+ 𝑀𝐴 )𝛾−1
𝑃𝐴 2

If the static temperature known (measured), the velocity, then, is determined.

For supersonic flow:

When the Pitot tube used for M > 1, modifications must made.

If you photograph a Pitot tube in supersonic flow, you find a curved detached
shock wave stands ahead of the tube:

• Shock wave is normal to streamlines opposite the tube nose.

• Particles following the stagnation streamline brought to rest isentropic ally
in subsonic flow region after the shock.
𝑃𝑜𝑦 𝑃𝑜𝑦 𝑃𝑦
=
𝑃𝑥 𝑃𝑦 𝑃𝑥

𝑃𝑦 2𝛾 𝛾−1
= 𝑓𝑛 ( 𝑀𝑥 , 𝛾) = { 𝑀𝑥2 − }
𝑃𝑥 𝛾+1 𝛾+1
𝑃𝑜𝑦 𝛾−1 2 𝛾
= 𝑓𝑛 ( 𝑀𝑥 , 𝛾) = ( 1 + 𝑀𝑦 )𝛾−1
𝑃𝑦 2
2
M2x +
γ−1
Since 𝑀𝑦2 = [ 2γ ]
M2 −1
γ−1 x

γ 1
Poy γ+1 γ−1 2γ γ−1 γ−1
=( Mx2 ) ⁄( Mx2 − ) = 𝑓𝑛 ( 𝑀𝑥 , 𝛾) (4.29)
Px 2 γ+1 γ+1

152
This function tabulated in the shock wave table.
𝑃𝑜𝑦
∴ 𝐴𝑡 → Mx then determine Vx after measuring Tx
𝑃𝑥

4.12 Supersonic Diffusers

These are important members in many applications such as supersonic
wind tunnel and air breathing jet engines.
4.12.1 Supersonic Wind Tunnels:
A supersonic wind tunnel is a facility for producing conditions
simulating supersonic flow in a test section. There are two main types of
supersonic wind tunnels.

• High pressure gas storage tank for blowdown wind tunnels.

• Compressor and diffuser for continuous flow wind tunnels.
Blowdown Wind Tunnel consists of a pressurized tank feeding
convergent divergent nozzle as shown schematically in figure (4.33a).
If the tank pressure is sufficient to provide region (3) or region (4) flow
in figure (4.3), the test section operates at the required Mech number.
After starting, when the tank pressure lowered in relation to the back
pressure, the normal shock wave appears at the exit section, figure
(4.33b), and region (2) of figure (4.3) is initiated. The test section, then,
no longer operates supersonically.

To increase the test time under supersonic conditions, it may require

discharge the flow from the test section into a diffuser or into an initially
evacuated tank. The prediction of the test time in relation to the
pressurized tank volume for the blowdown wind tunnel is computed
under isothermal or isentropic process as explained in example (7) of
chapter (2). The isentropic solution for time is faster than that for
isothermal process. The conservative design of the tank volume for
specified conditions and test time is obtained using the isentropic
assumption.

153
 𝑉𝑡
𝐴∗
𝑃𝑜𝑖

𝑇𝑜𝑖
(𝑖) (𝑒)

(a) Schematic blowdown wind tunnel

𝑉𝑡 (𝑥)(𝑦)
𝐴∗
𝑃𝑜

(𝑖) (𝑒)

(b) Shock wave at wind tunnel exit section

Fig (4.33) Schematic drawing of blowdown wind tunnel

Continuous Flow Wind Tunnel

In continuous flow wind tunnel, the test section can be maintained for any test time
required. A compressor is, then, used to increase the pressure from the low value
after the test section to the inlet value at the nozzle. A supersonic diffuser is
required to reduce the power of the compressor. A difficulty must be overcome due
to the system must start from rest and accelerated to operating speed.

All the flow losses are neglected except those across the normal shock wave. The
system is shown in figure (4.34). As the pressure ratio (Pexh/Pox) is reduced from
the value (1.0), the situation for the convergent divergent nozzle explained before
in nozzle operation. After the shock appears at the nozzle throat and sweeps the
divergent part, it will position in the test section as shown in figure (4.34) as the
unfavorable starting condition figure (4.34a). Across the normal shock, no change
in mass flow rate and stagnation temperature. Therefore, 𝐴∗𝑥 𝑃𝑜𝑥 = 𝐴∗𝑦 𝑃𝑜𝑦 . It
follows that there is an increase in the minimum area of the diffuser through which
the flow can be made.

The minimum area required for the diffuser throat is:

154
Amin.diff.th. 𝐴∗𝑦 𝑃𝑜𝑥
= = (4.29)
Anozzle th. 𝐴∗𝑥 𝑃𝑜𝑦

𝐴𝑥
The limiting contraction ratio of the diffuser ( ) for the diffuser,
𝐴∗𝑦

Ax Ax Poy
= (4.30)
A∗y A∗x Pox

With this limiting value of diffuser throat, the diffuser is barely able to swallow the
flow at starting with the diffuser throat at sonic condition when the shock at test
section.

The worst starting condition of figure (4.34) is presented on the (T-S) diagram in
figure (4.34 a). The path of states for starting condition is from ox to x to 𝑦 ∗ to oy.

If the diffuser throat is little smaller than that of equation (4.29), a shock wave will
stand in the divergent part of the nozzle. If it is considerably smaller, the flow will
be subsonic throughout the system.

Operating conditions: as the ratio (Pexh/Pox) is further lowered by the exhauster, the
shock jumps to the diverging part of the diffuser. It is to be noted that the shock
swallowing process is the movement of the shock wave through the converging
section of the diffuser. This phenomenon will be explained later.

Usually, the shock is maintained slightly downstream of the diffuser throat during
operation where the stagnation pressure loss in the system matches the exhaust
pressure of the system. However, the best ideal operating condition is when the
shock swallowed and positioned at the diffuser throat where the Mach number is
minimum and hence the loss of stagnation pressure. The most favorable operating
condition is shown in figure (4.34b) and the (T-S) diagram representation in figure
(4.35) with the path states from ox to x to x’ to y’ to oy’. The operation under this
mode is unstable.

To explain the instability of the shock in the converging section of the diffuser,
consider as illustrated in figure (4.36) the normal shock wave in the converging
passage.

155
 Fig (4.34) Unfavorable starting and best operating conditions

Fig (4.35) (T-S) diagram of starting and best operation of supersonic diffuser

156
 (x) (y)
M>1

Fig (4.36) Shock in converging passage

If a fluctuation in the flow moves the shock farther into the passage, the upstream
Mach number of the shock is decreased. This causes an increase in stagnation
pressure after the shock over the original and the mass being depleted through the
given area at a faster rate between the shock and diffuser throat, and this would
allow swallowing the shock. If the disturbance moves the shock upstream the
passage, the accumulation of mass between the shock and the diffuser throat
disgorge the shock upstream. Thus, the normal shock will either swallowed or
disgorged, depending on the back pressure into which the diffuser exhausts.

Besides the compressor, nozzle and diffuser, a drier must be included to remove
water vapor from the air to prevent condensation at low static temperature in the
test section. The condensation of water lead to shock waves disturbing testing in
the tunnel. Figure (4.37) shows a schematic drawing of a continuous flow wind
tunnel. If the tunnel equipped with ability to change the diffuser throat area, then,
after swallowing the shock the throat area may be reduced with the shock weakened
to vanishing strength in the throat.

Fig (4.37) Schematic drawing of continuous wind tunnel

157
4.12.2 Supersonic Inlets (Convergent-Divergent):
Inlets (diffusers) are essential members of air-breathing jet propulsion engines.
Inlet controls the mass flow rate to the engine and the pressure ratio required from
the compressor.

These engines reach their operating speeds by being accelerated from rest and
from lower speeds. Operation of the inlet during starting, is, therefore essential
for design point of view.

It would be natural to expect that if the flow direction through a convergent-

divergent nozzle operating at its design point is reversed, the arrangement would
be a supersonic diffuser (inlet) at operating speed figure (4.38 a, b) .

M=1
A1
M<1 M>1

At

(a) Supersonic nozzle at design point

A1=Ac At=A2
Ao=A1

(b) Supersonic inlet as reversed nozzle.

158
 A2=At

M<1

M=1

(c) Inlet spillage

Fig (4.38) Supersonic convergent-divergent inlet

For the convergent-divergent diffuser with capture area A1 and throat area A2,
figure (4.38 b) which is reversed nozzle of figure (4.38 a). The flow approaching
the diffuser supersonically with no shocks ahead of it. The free stream
corresponding to the capture area Ao =A1 at free stream Mach number Mo enters
the engine. Note that the diffuser cannot signal the incoming supersonic flow of its
presence. The flow, then, that enters the diffuser with no distortion of the
streamlines is:

𝑚̇ =𝑚̇∗ =𝐴𝑜 𝜌𝑜 𝑉𝑜 = 𝐴1 𝑀𝑜 √𝛾𝜌𝑜 𝑃𝑜 (4.31)

𝛾𝑃𝑜
Suffix o refers to free stream flow and 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑀𝑜 √
𝜌𝑜

Now, if both A1 and Mo held constant and A2 reduced i.e. (A1/A2) becomes greater
than (A1/A*) for isentropic flow at the free stream Mach number. This reduction in
throat area A2 acts as a restriction to the flow. The incoming flow is more than the
throat can pass. The adjustment, then, is done through generation of pressure wave
from the throat that develop into a shock wave which cannot stand stationary in the
diverging passage. The shock wave quickly disgorged (expelled) from the diffuser
and becomes detached shock at certain distance from the inlet lip dependent on the
free stream Mach number as shown in figure (4.38 c). Behind the detached shock,
the flow is subsonic and the flow spills over to reduce the internal mass flow.

Consider now what happens when the throat area (At) is increased gradually with
the detached shock ahead of diffuser. Increasing the throat area (At) causes the
shock to move towards the diffuser lips reducing the spill overflow till it is
exactly at the lips. At this location the whole incoming flow now can pass

159
 𝐴∗∗ 𝐴∗ 𝑃𝑜𝑥
through this throat area with (𝐴 ) = ( ) (4.32)
1 𝑀𝑜 𝐴1 𝑃𝑜𝑦
𝑀𝑜
with M=1 at the throat as shown in figure (4.39). It is noted that such diffuser
changes have a hysteresis effect. Increasing the throat area at certain Mach
number with a detached shock, the shock will not be swallowed until the area
increased to 𝐴2 = 𝐴∗∗ as from equation (4.38). Once swallowed the shock will
not disgorged until A2 =A* (hysteresis effect).

Fig (4.39) Increased throat with no spill over

The shock wave also can be swallowed to downstream the throat at a location
dependent on the back pressure of the diffuser.
Repeating the same for different free stream Mach numbers, we obtain the
limiting contraction ratio against the free stream Mach number shown in figure
(4.40).

160
 Mo
𝐴2
𝐴1

Mo = 𝑀1

Moa

𝑀𝑜

Fig (4.40) Limiting contraction ratio against free stream Mach number

Fixed Geometry Inlet:

Figure (4.41) shows the stages during starting of a fixed geometry convergent-
divergent inlet. The supersonic inlet designed for free stream Mach number 𝑀𝑜𝑎
𝐴
and contraction ratio ( 2) shown in figure (4.40). The flow is assumed quasi-
𝐴1 𝑎
steady, and all losses ignored except that of the normal shock.

Figure (4.42) shows the stages during starting of a fixed geometry convergent-
divergent inlet with overspeed. The supersonic inlet designed for free stream
𝐴
Mach number 𝑀𝑜𝑎 and contraction ratio ( 2) shown in figure (4.40).
𝐴1 𝑐

As explained before in this subsection, when changing the throat area at the same
free stream Mach number, figure (4.43) shows the steps for starting a variable
geometry inlet, designed for free stream Mach number 𝑀𝑜𝑎 .In this design the
mechanical requirements for varying the internal geometry are considerable.
These inlets are used for free Mach numbers less than 2.

161
 𝑀𝑜 < 𝑀𝑜𝑎 𝑀𝑜 = 𝑀𝑜𝑎

(a) (b)

𝑀𝑜 = 𝑀𝑜𝑎 𝑀𝑜 = 𝑀𝑜𝑎

(c) (d)

𝐴
Fig (4.41) Starting fixed geometry inlet designed for 𝑀𝑜𝑎 and ( 2) of figure
𝐴1 𝑎
(40)

𝑀𝑜 < 𝑀𝑑 𝑀𝑜 = 𝑀𝑑
<<<
Type equation here.

𝑀𝑜 = 𝑀𝑑 𝑀𝑜 = 𝑀𝑐

𝐴
Fig (4.42) Starting with overspeed for 𝑀𝑜𝑎 and ( 2)
𝐴1 𝑐

162
 𝑀𝑜𝑎
𝑀𝑜𝑎

𝐴 𝐴
(a) ( 2) (b) ( 2)
𝐴1 𝐶 𝐴1 𝑎

𝑀𝑜𝑎

𝐴
(c) ( 2 )
𝐴1 𝐶

Fig (4.43) Starting of variable area inlet designed for free stream Mach number
𝐴
𝑀𝑜𝑎 and throat area ( 2)
𝐴1 𝐶

Example 7

A Pitot tube traverse in a supersonic wind tunnel stream gives values of 16.20
kPa and 69.09 kPa for the static pressure upstream the shock and the pressure at
the mouth of the tube, respectively. Find the Mach number in the tunnel.

There exists a curved shock wave standing in front of the tube. The shock wave is
local normal straight ahead of the impact tube. So, from equation (4.29)
γ 1
Poy γ+1 γ−1 2γ γ−1 γ−1
=( Mx2 ) ⁄( Mx2 − ) = 𝑓𝑛 ( 𝑀𝑥 , 𝛾)
Px 2 γ+1 γ+1

Poy 69.09
= = 4.265
Px 16.2

163
From normal shock wave table, M = 1.71

Example 8

A blow down wind tunnel exhausting to the atmospheric pressure of 101.3 kPa is
to be designed. The test section cross sectional area is specified to be 930 cm2 and
the desired test section Mach number is 2.0. The supply tank can be pressurized
to 1o.34 bar and heated to 65.5 oC. Determine the throat area and the supply tank
volume required for time of testing of 30 seconds. Assume constant air
temperature in the tank during blowdown.

Reference to figure (4.33 b), for the nozzle

𝐴 𝐴𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡
= 1.6875
𝐴∗ 𝐴𝑡ℎ

𝐴𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 = 0.055 𝑚2

The blowdown process of tank through a choked nozzle, based on isothermal

process in the tank has been already analyzed in example 7 of chapter 2 and
found,
𝛾+1
𝑉𝑣𝑜𝑙 𝛾+1 2(𝛾−1) 1 𝑃𝑜𝑓
T=− ( ) 𝑙𝑛
𝐴∗ 2 √𝛾 𝑅 𝑇𝑜𝑖 𝑃𝑜𝑖

The blow down proceeds from initial pressure of 1034 kPa to the final pressure
𝑃𝑜𝑓
when the normal shock wave stands at the exit of the test section. The final
pressure is 176.1 kPa. The time required is 30 seconds
𝑇𝐴∗ √𝛾 𝑅 𝑇𝑜𝑖
𝑉𝑣𝑜𝑙 = 𝛾+1 = 199.45 m3
𝛾+1 2(𝛾−1) 𝑃𝑜𝑖
( ) 𝑙𝑛
2 𝑃𝑜𝑓

Example 9
A continuous flow supersonic wind tunnel is designed to operate at test section
Mach number of 2, with static conditions like those at 20 km altitude. The test
section is circular, 25 cm diameter with fixed geometry convergent divergent
diffuser after the test section. Neglect friction and boundary layer, determine the
power required of the compressor at start up and at steady state operating
conditions. Assume isentropic compressor with the cooler after the compressor
before the nozzle.
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Reference to figure (4.34), the mass flow rate through the test section
𝑃
𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝐴𝑉 = 𝐴 𝑀 √𝛾𝑅𝑇
𝑅𝑇
At 20 km, P= 5.532 kPa, T= 216.7 oK
̇
5.532 𝜋
𝑚̇ = 0.252 ∗ 2.0 √1.4 ∗ 0.287 ∗ 216.7 ∗ 1000 = 2.575 kg/s
0.287∗216.7 4

During operation, the stagnation temperature in test section,

To = 216.5/ 0.5556 =390 oK
The diffuser minimum throat area = (0.04906/ 1.687*0.7209)= 0.0403 m2
During operation, the Mach number at diffuser throat, figure (4.34 b)
𝐴∗𝑦 𝑃𝑜𝑥
at = ( ) =1/0.7208 = 1.387 M = 1.75
𝐴∗𝑥 𝑃𝑜𝑦
𝑀=2
𝑃𝑜𝑦
at which ( ) = 0.8346
𝑃𝑜𝑥 𝑀=1.75

During start up, the shock in the test section and the loss in stagnation pressure,
figure 4.34 a)
𝑃𝑜𝑦
( ) = 0.7208
𝑃𝑜𝑥 𝑀=2

𝛾−1
𝑃𝑜𝑓 𝛾
The compressor work per kg = CP (Toe-Toi) = CP Toi[( ) − 1]
𝑃𝑜𝑖

1 0.2857
=1.005 ∗ 390 ∗ [( ) − 1]= 38.43 kJ/kg
0.7208

Power required = 2.575 * 38.43 = 98.96 kW

For operation, the compressor work/kg= 20.78 kJ/kg
Power required during operation = 53.5 kW
Example 10
For the previous example 9, find:
a) the best efficiency of the fixed geometry diffuser.
b) the best normal shock diffuser.
From equation (4.28)

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 γ−1
γ − 1 2 Po2 γ
(1+ M1 ) ( )
γ Po1
ηD =
γ−1 2
M1
2

For the best fixed geometry convergent -divergent diffuser:

ηD = 0.887
For the best normal shock diffuser:
ηD = 0.798
Example 11
A Fixed geometry convergent-divergent inlet operating in shock free mode is to
be used at free stream Mach number 1.75. Find the throat to entrance area ratio
required at the design Mach number. Determine the overspeed Mach number at
which the inlet can be started. Find also the throat to entrance area ratio necessary
for the inlet start up by area change.
a) Point (c) in figure (4.40) represents the required area ratio for the shock free
flow.
At M=1.75, A1/A*= 1.3865
The ratio required = A2/A1 = 0.72
b) By overseeding the inlet, the shock is moved to the lip of the inlet as
represented by point (d) in figure (4.40) . At this overspeed, the subsonic Mach
number is My = 0.48. From shock table MC = 1.92
c) For variable area inlet, going from point (c) of figure (4.40), increase the throat
area at constant Mach number gives, A2/A1= 0.72*(1/ 0.8346) = 0.86

166
4.13 Summary
The normal shock wave represents a sudden change in fluid properties in which the
finite variations occur over the thin shock thickness. The normal shock is special
case in which the shock is normal to the flow direction. In many situations the
shock is oblique or bow shock. The Mach number of the flow ahead of the normal
shock is supersonic and the flow behind the wave is subsonic. The expansion shock
is impossible since it violates the second law of thermodynamics. A series of
moving small amplitude pressure waves in gas, strengthen each other and form a
moving normal shock discontinuity. A series of moving weak expansion waves,
however spread out and never form discontinuity.

The presented stationary normal shock wave model solving the conservation
equations with Mx as independent variable results in obtaining the properties across
the shock. The moving shock wave can be solved by changing the coordinate
system which results into steady flow that can be handled with the stationary wave
model results. There are many engineering applications with normal shock waves
among which are the Pitot tube, the supersonic inlets of propulsion engines,
supersonic wind tunnels, etc.

Problems- Normal Shock Waves

(1) A supersonic nozzle has throat and exit diameter of 1 and 1.4 cm
respectively, the nozzle is supplied with air at 810 kPa and 150 C, find
a. The change in back pressure to move the shock wave from the throat to exit
section.
b. The back pressure which locates a shock at an area 20% greater than throat
area.

(2) A convergent divergent nozzle is designed for Mach number of 3. The

nozzle is supplied with air at 1.013 MPa and discharges into a space where the
pressure is 557.2 kPa.
Check if there is a shock or not. Find its location.
(3) The exit area of a convergent-divergent nozzle is three times the area of
the throat. The stagnation pressure of air at entry is 2.5 times the static pressure
at exit. Neglecting all losses except that due to shock in the divergent portion
of the nozzle, determine the Mach number and the area at the section where the
shock occurs, the exit Mach number and the increase in entropy across the
shock.
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(4) A supersonic Pitot tube is used for measuring the air velocity in a duct
having a 100 mm diameter. The static conditions upstream are 60 kPa and 250
K. The stagnation pressure measured by the tube is 250 kPa. Calculate the
velocity and the mass flow rate.

(5) A supersonic nozzle has a throat area of 300 mm2 and an area ratio (Ae/A*)
of 2. The supply temperature is 290 K, and the nozzle discharges into an
atmospheric pressure of 95 kPa.
Find the following:
a) The supply pressure required for a shock-free operation. b) The mass flow
rate.
c) The drop in the supply pressure that causes a shock at the nozzle exit. What
is the mass flow rate in this case?
(6) A supersonic nozzle has a throat area of 100 mm2 and a design Mach
Number of 3. The nozzle is supplied with air at constant stagnation conditions
of 1000 kPa and 300 K. The back pressure is varied by using an exhauster.
Calculate: a)
The maximum flow rate.
b) The back pressure required for shock-free operation.
c) The back pressure required for subsonic operation at the maximum flow rate.
d) The range of back pressure that causes over-expansion outside the nozzle. f)
The range of back pressure that causes under-expansion outside the nozzle.

(7) A supersonic nozzle has a throat area of 220 mm2 and an area ratio (Ae/A*)
of 4. The stagnation supply conditions are 700 kPa and 300 K. Calculate the
back pressure that causes a normal shock to stand at the section where the flow
area is 500 mm2. Find the exit velocity and the mass flow rate
(8) A rocket stage motor is designed to operate between two altitudes. The
atmospheric pressure at the low and high altitudes are 0.8 and 0.4 bar,
respectively. The rocket nozzle is designed to operate free from shocks at high
altitude where the nozzle exit static temperature and velocity are 960 oK and
1830 m/s. If the nozzle throat area is 80 cm2. Estimate:
a- Combustion chamber pressure and temperature.
b- Thrust produced
When the rocket operates at low altitude with the same combustion chamber
pressure and temperature, find:
a- Shock position if any
168
b- New value of the thrust.

(8) In a wind tunnel, the cross-sectional area of the throat of a supersonic

diffuser is 20 m2. The stagnation supply conditions of the nozzle are 800 kPa
and 300 K. The test section is designed for a Mach number of 1.5. Calculate
the nozzle throat area required for allowing a shock starting in the test section
to be swallowed by the diffuser. What is the power loss (kW) at starting due to
stagnation-pressure loss? Neglect frictional effects.

(10) A fixed geometry convergent divergent wind tunnel diffuser is to be

designed for Mach number 2.0. The area of test section is 100 cm2. Assuming
no friction, compare the maximum possible efficiency and the minimum % loss
in stagnation pressure during operation for the following cases:
a- The best possible design is employed.
b- The design is conservative with throat area 5% larger than the required for
starting and with the shock located during operation at an area 10 % greater
than the throat area.
c- The convergent portion is eliminated, and the process comprise a normal
shock followed by reversible subsonic compression.

(11) A ram jet airplane is to fly at high altitude where the temperature is -57
o
C and pressure is 0.2 bar with velocity 2140 km/h has a fixed geometry
convergent divergent diffuser with an entrance diameter of 30 cm . What would
be the diffuser throat diameter? Find the maximum efficiency and least
stagnation pressure drop.
If the craft is to be over speed to 3200 km/h for a short time. What would be,
then, the diffuser throat diameter, maximum efficiency and least stagnation
pressure drop. Assume shock is stabilized at 5% larger area than the throat area
in both cases.
(12) An explosion in air ( 𝛾 = 1.4 ) creates a spherical shock wave
propagation radially into still air at standard conditions ( 1.03 bar, 15 oC ), the
pressure just inside the shock is 13.61 bar abs., estimate:
a-The shock speed and
b-The air velocity just inside the shock

169
List of Symbols
A, A area, area vector
B, b extensive property, intensive property
Cp specific heat at constant volume
Cv specific heat at constant volume
Cprop work output coefficient of propeller
Ctot total work output coefficient
c.v. control volume, calorific value of fuel
c.s. control surface
E, e energy, energy per unit mass
F, F force, force vector
f fuel/ air ratio
g acceleration of gravity
h enthalpy per unit mass
I, Isp Impulse function, specific impulse
M mass, Mach number
𝑚̇ mass flow rate
P, 𝐏, Po pressure, momentum vector stagnation pressure
𝑄, 𝑄̇ heat interaction, rate of heat interaction
𝑅, 𝑅̅ gas constant, universal gas constant
s, so entropy pe runt mass, specific thrust, stagnation entropy
Ṡ time rat of change of entropy
T, To temperature, stagnation temperature
TSFC thrust specific fuel consumption
U, u internal energy, velocity, specific internal energy, velocity
V, V velocity, velocity vector
v volume, specific volume, velocity
x, y, z coordinate system
α bypass ratio
γ specific heat ratio
∂ partial differential
η efficiency
θ angle
ρ density (=1/v)
τ thrust, stagnation temperature ratio across component
π stagnation pressure ratio across component
ω mass flow parameter, (MFP)

170
References:
1. The dynamics and Thermodynamics of Compressible Fluid Flow, A. H.
Shapiro, Volume I., Ronald Press, New York, 1958
2. Gas Dynamics, 2nd ed., James. E. A. John, 2nd. ed., John Wiley, and sons.
Inc., 1997
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York,2004
4. Compressible Fluid Mechanics with Computer Applications, B. K. Hodge et
al., Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 1995
5. Gas Dynamics, M.J. Zu crow and J. D. Hoffman
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and T. H. Okishi, 4th edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., N.Y.,2002.
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Jersey,1993

9. Gas Turbine Theory, H. Cohen, G. Rogers, H. Sarvanamuttoo, Longman

Pub.Group,1996

10. Elements of Gas Turbine Propulsion, Jack D. Mattingly, McGraw Hill co.
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