TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEY

The configuration or shape and roughness of the ground is referred to as

topography or hypsography. This type of information is shown by topographic maps,
which also includes the location of natural and artificial features. Many studies of
natural resources and designs of engineering projects require a representation of the
character and relief of the earth’s surface. A detail topographic map provides mush
definite and exact information which can be used as a basis for various purposes.
Significant contours can be extracted; outlines can be traced as a basis for plotting
field information; gradients, slopes and relative relief can be calculated and profiles
can be drawn.

Since the earliest days of map making, the depiction of relief has been one of
the major problems of cartographers, for it involves the representation of three
dimensions upon a plane surface. This has been done by different methods and the
most widely used include: spot heights, hachures, form lines, contour lines, layer
tinting, shading, relief models, ridge and stream lining and subaqueous contour.

SPOT HEIGHTS

The elevation of important features and critical points such as road junctions,
peaks, summits, sags, and highway crossings are indicated on the map and are
known as spot heights or spot elevations. Hills and road junctions are often identified
by these numbers such as Hill 255, road Junction 129, etc. However, not all features
are marked with their elevations and other means for determining their heights must
be employed.

At various points on the map, heights are marked singly at discrete points
which have been carefully computed relative to a chosen datum. Spot heights
provide definite and precise information regarding elevation, such as that shown in
the figure below where the precise elevation of a plotted point is given. Spot
elevations may be estimated with reasonable accuracy on even surfaces with fairly
close contouring, assuming the slope is uniform between adjoining contours. Their
defect is that being distributed over the map they give little or no visual impression of
the general pattern of the relief. When used in conjunction with other methods they
provide exactness which is otherwise often lacking.

Figure 61: Spot elevation

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HACHURES

During the earlier days of map making it was common practice to represent
topography by means of hachures, but their use today is more infrequent. Hachures
(refer to the figure below) are a series of short lines drawn in the direction of the
slope. For a steep slope the lines are heavy and closely spaced. For a gentle slope
they are fine and widely spaced. Hachures only give a general impression of the
configuration of the ground, but they do not provide numerical values such as the
actual elevations of the ground surface. By their spacing and widths, these lines
produce an effect similar to shading, but are a little more effective. In effect, these
lines show the direction of water flow or drainage patterns.

The disadvantages of hachuring are the chief lack of absolute information,

and the problem of distinguishing directions of slope. Also, hachures are difficult to
draw. The drawing of hachure lines is a slow and tedious process and does not
provide the elevations required for engineering applications. On the other hand, its
chief advantage is that it enables minor but important details, lost on a contour map
within the contour interval, to be brought out. Hachures sometimes can show terrain
of striking relief in a very dramatic manner.

In modern topographic maps hachures are not often used except when the
scale of the map is too small to permit contouring of such features as borrow or
gravel pits, highway and railroad cuts and fills, and mine dumps. They are sometimes
used when relief data are inadequate to draw contours. If properly drawn, hachures
convey a good conception of the terrain but their value is largely pictorial.
Hachuring is now done also in color, usually brown, purple or gray. This removes the
obliterating effect of black hachures in hilly or rugged terrain.

Figure 62: Hachure map

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FORM LINES

Form lines as shown in the figure are drawn when not enough vertical control
is available or when the surface is too irregular or intricate to contour. Such lines
resemble contours, but are not drawn with the same degree of accuracy. All points
on a form lines are supposed to have the same elevation, but not enough points are
actually located to conform to the standard of accuracy required for contour lines.

Form lines are usually represented as dashed lines and do not portray any
actual elevations. These lines are sketched from visual observation or from
inadequate or unreliable map sources. Collectively, they are only used to show
shapes of the terrain rather than relief.

Figure 63: Form lines

CONTOUR LINES

The most widely used method of quantitatively representing hills, mountains,

depressions, and ground surface undulations on a two-dimensional sheet of paper is
by contour lines or isohypses (refer to the figure). These lines give maximum amount
of information without obscuring other essential details portrayed on the map.
Contours are shown on the maps as the traces of level surfaces of different
elevations. It is formed by the intersection of a level surface with the surface of the
ground. The elevations of the contours are known definitely such that the elevation
of any point on the ground may be derived from the map.

A topographic map containing contour lines shows not only the elevations of
points on the ground, but also the shape of the various topographic features.

If it were possible to take a large knife and slice off the top of a hill with level
slices at uniform elevation intervals, the edges of the cut lines around the hill would
be contour lines. A contour is represented in nature by the shoreline of a body of still
water. If the water in that lake is lowered or raised, the edge of its new position
would represent another contour line.

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 To a non-technical person, this method of showing relief is not as legible or
plain as others, but it permits the portrayal of the ground surface with greater
accuracy and ease than when compared to other methods.

Figure 64: Contour map

LAYER TINTING

Parts of a map lying between two particular contours may be colored in

order that the distribution of high and low land can be seen at a glance. A color tint
system is in common use for aerial navigation charts and on small scale maps of the
world. A scale of graded color tints or a system of different colors is used to show
different zones of elevations. Each hypsometric zone is bounded by contours which
are usually shown on the map. A color scale is shown in the margins of the map
matching each color with its elevation interval. For example, all land lying between
sea level and 100 meters elevation is shown in yellow, between 100 meters and 200
meters in light green, between 200 meters and 300 meters in dark green, and so
forth.

Color tints when used in conjunction with contour lines give pictorial effect by
accentuating the areas of different elevation. However, the principle of layer tinting
is in a sense misleading since a single shade between the 100 and 200 meter
contours indicates a uniform level, instead of a progressive change in height.

SHADING

Shading is an old method used to show relative elevations on maps. It is

dependent upon shadows cast by the elevated portions of the land. This method is
accomplished by the correct placement on the map of different shades of gray
tints. The map can be regarded as a picture of a relief model illuminated by a light
source directly overhead or from the north-west. In vertical illumination, less light will
fall upon the slopes than on level land. In the case of oblique illumination (refer to
the figure below), the illusion of solid, three-dimensional topography is especially
striking. This is particularly so in mountainous terrain. With oblique lighting, north-

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western and western slopes are unshaded, while the eastern and south-eastern
slopes are in shadow.

Figure 65: Relationship between illumination and shading

RELIEF OR TERRAIN MODELS

Relief or terrain models provide the most striking and realistic expression of
topography. The model is a representation of the terrain done in three dimensions to
suitable horizontal and vertical scales. It is in fact a miniature of the terrain it
represents. They are made from wax, clay, plastic, cardboard, or other materials
and shaded to agree with the actual terrain.

Most commercially sold relief models are made by printing on vinyl plastic
sheets the color plates of standard topographic maps. The printed sheet is then
registered over a positive mold of the model. Heat and vacuum are applied so that
the sheet is formed over the surface of the mold.

Such terrain models are widely used as teaching aids in geography and
geology courses, as well as in courses in map and chart reading. They are also used
in public exhibits.

RIDGE AND STREAM LINING

Ridge and stream lining is mainly used to emphasize the location of low and
high ground. This method is especially useful on aerial photographs. When applied
to a topographic map, the ridge and stream lines are usually placed on a sheet of
overlay paper in order not to deface the map.

When streams are lined, the main streams and their tributaries are first
selected and are drawn in blue solid lines. This is done to show the location of low
ground. Between the streams is higher ground. To emphasize this, brown dashed
lines are drawn along the main ridges. The number of minor ridges to be included
depends upon the emphasize desired. The ridge lines are joined in a systematic
branching structure.

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SUBAQUEOUS CONTOURS

Topographic maps often include areas of navigable waters such as the

seashore and large inland lakes. The portrayal of relief of the ground underwater is
done by using depth curves or subaqueous contours. They are not depression
contours because they are numbered as the water depths grow deeper, and they
are based on the low-water datum rather than the mean sea level datum of
contours. The unit of measure is the foot or meter, except in very deep water, where
depth curves are in fathoms (1 fathom = 6 feet).

The importance of the distinction between land and water is so dominant

that subaqueous contours, if included, are usually shown by blue lines. Depth zones
(equivalent to hypsometric zones) are represented by variations in blue. A darker tint
is used for portraying deeper areas. A bathymetric map (refer to the figure below) is
one which is primarily used to show bottom contours of lakes, seas, oceans, and
other bodies of water.

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TYPES OF CONTOURS

Five different types of contours have been designed by cartographers to

portray the relief of the ground surface and to make map reading easier. Most
contours are shown in brown which can be taken in a general way to be
representative of soil. It is, however, also possible to include contours in other colors,
such as black and blue, depending on the nature of the surface. To denote rock,
black is sometimes used, and blue is used for ice or permanent snow.

In general, all the types used conform to the characteristics of contours, but
their symbolization has been varied to make the relief picture more readily
apparent. These contours are classified into the following types:

1. Index contours
2. Intermediate contours
3. Supplemental contours
4. Depression contours
5. Approximate contours

INDEX CONTOURS

As a convenience in scaling elevations, and to provide ease and speed in

reading contours, a contour is shown by a heavier line at regular intervals on a
topographic map. These heavier lines which are normally twice the guage of the
standard contours are called the index contours. They are usually drawn every fifth
contour and carry the contour number or elevation designation. Index contours also
serve as a visual reinforcement in the contour image. By presenting the information
at two visual levels, it makes it easier to identify the major forms from the detail.

When the interval is 5 meters, contours whose elevations are multiples of 25

meters are shown heavy. When the interval is 20 meters, the index contours have
elevations that are multiples of 100 meters.

The index contour is broken along portions of the line and the contour
number indicated accordingly. Contour numbers specify the actual elevation along
a particular contour line. They are lettered and spread on every index contour in
such a manner that will enable the value of other lines or points to be easily
interpolated or identified, and to prevent any uncertainty regarding the elevation of
a particular contour.

The index contours are numbered on the upper side of each line, which
indicates at first sight uphill and downhill directions, placing the figures in arrow
above one another. Alternatively, the figures may be placed within breaks in each
line, but the top of each must still be on the uphill side. The contour number may
have to be portrayed several times for long contour lines winding in an intricate
pattern over the map. Also, contour numbers should be drawn sufficiently large
when the map is to be reduced.

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INTERMEDIATE CONTOURS

In the figure below, the four lighter weight contours found between the index
contours are the intermediate contours. These lines are not usually labelled except
where the terrain is relatively flat and their elevations are not readily obvious. They
conform to the contour interval specified for the map.

In certain portions of the map where the intermediate contours are so closely
spaced as to nearly unite or merge into a single line, it is standard practice for
readability not to portray the lines for short distances. The technique is called
feathering.

Figure 66: Elevation or section thru line AB

Figure 67: Plan or outline of the hill represented by contour

lines

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 Figure 68: Feathering of contours

DEPRESSION CONTOURS

Depression contours are drawn to show low spots such as excavations around
which contours close. The symbol used is the index or intermediate contour to which
ticks are drawn perpendicular to the contour line on the downhill side. An example
of depression contours is given in the figure below.

Figure 69: Depression contours

SUPPLEMENTAL CONTOURS

Certain portions of the map area sometimes are so flat or level that the
contours are too far apart to show properly important breaks in the terrain. To better
depict the relief and remedy such situations, supplemental or auxiliary contours are
used. They are drawn as dashed lines (refer to the figure below) or lines of dots that
begin and end when they approach the areas where the regular contours close in
on each other. Supplemental contours are usually drawn at one-half the specified
contour interval of the map. The conformation of the flatter ground as well as the rise
and fall of the more rugged areas can be more easily assessed by using this
technique.

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 Figure 70: Supplemental contours

APPROXIMATE CONTOURS

In some instances contour accuracy cannot be definitely determined. The

area may be inaccessible on the ground or it may be difficult to interpret contours
from aerial photographs when heavy cloud or shadows occur. To portray a
reasonable idea of relative elevations, the map maker has to make an educated
guess rather than have a blank area in the map. In these cases, the approximate
contour (refer to the figure below) is used.

Figure 71: Approximate contours

THE CONTOUR INTERVAL

The constant vertical distance between two adjacent contour lines is termed
the contour interval. It must always be consistent within the limits of the map but may
be varied between map sheets to better portray the terrain. Neighboring contour
lines are drawn either close together or far apart to show changes in slope and relief
variations. Whatever the contour interval, areas which change rapidly in elevation
will have more contour lines within a given plan distance than areas which change
slowly in elevation.

The contour interval will affect the degree of detail for portraying information
related to slope and relief. A small contour interval will allow slight changes in slope

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and small features like hills and depressions to be drawn whereas, the use of large
intervals tend to mask out such features. A large interval may be desirable in areas
with steep slopes where the contours will still be relatively close together. It is
apparent that much of the utility of contours largely depends upon their spacing.

In the design of topographic maps, the contour interval is commonly fixed at

multiples of 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 meters. It is always stated within the
margins of the map. For general types of terrain, the contour interval used may be
as follows: Flat to gently rolling, 1 to 5 m; hilly, 5 to 20m; and mountainous, 25 to 100
m. According to map scale, the following contour intervals are used.

SCALE INTERVAL SCALE INTERVAL

(m) (m)
1/500 0.5 1/25,000 10.0
1/2,000 1.0 1/50,000 20.0
1/5,000 2.0 1/100,000 25.0
1/10,000 5.0 or 10.0 1/250,000 50.0

The contour interval and map scale are interrelated. In general, the smaller
the scale, the larger the contour interval.

SELECTION OF CONTOUR INTERVAL

In planning and designing the contour interval to be used for a topographic

map, the following factors should be considered:

1. Relative Costs

The time and expense of field and office work is given important
consideration. The contour interval is a matter of economy with the smallest
interval that can be afforded desired. The smaller the interval, the greater is
the amount of field work, reduction, and plotting required in the preparation
of the map. The cost of the amp will be higher as the contour interval is
reduced.

2. Purpose of the Map

When the map is to be utilized for the detailed design of engineering

constructions or for the measurement of earthwork quantities, close
contouring will be required. In general, the area included in such a map will
be comparatively small, so that it may be quite practicable to locate
contours with an interval as small as ½ meter. A wider interval will be required
for surveys of reservoirs, drainage areas, and lines of communication.

3. Nature of the Terrain

The type of terrain and map scale will invariably define the contour interval
needed to produce a suitable density of contours. An interval which would
be sufficient to show the configuration of mountainous terrain would be

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 inadequate to portray the undulations of comparatively flat ground. Rugged
terrain will require a larger interval than gentle and rolling country. To portray
adequately flat ground a relatively small interval must be specified.

4. Scale of the Map

The contour interval should be in inverse ratio to the scale of the map. If the
map scale is reduced, the interval must be increased; otherwise lines are
crowded, confuse the map user, and may possibly obscure some important
map details. It should also be noted that when the map scale is refined, the
more refined should be the measurements of the elevations of chosen points
since a smaller interval would be used.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS

The following are some of the common characteristics of contours:

1. All points on any contour have the same elevation.

2. Every contour closes on itself, either within or beyond the limits of the amp.
The closer may occur within the mapped area, but often happens outside
the area and hence will not appear on the map sheet.
3. A contour which closes within the limits of the map indicates either a summit
or a depression. Contours which increase in elevation represent hills; those
which decrease in elevation portray valleys or excavations.
4. Contours on the ground cannot cross one another except where an
overhanging cliff, a vertical ledge or wall is represented on a map.
5. Contours are spaced evenly on a uniform slope.
6. Contours are straight and parallel to each other on a plane surface.
7. Irregular contours signify rough, rugged terrain.
8. The horizontal distance between adjacent contours indicates the steepness
of the slope of the ground. Where the contours are relatively close together,
the slope is comparatively steep; where the contours are far apart, the slope
is gentle.
9. Contours cross curbs and a crowned sloping street in typical U-shaped curves.
10. As a contour approaches a stream, the contour turns upstream until it
intersects the shore line. It then crosses the stream at right angles to the center
of the bed, and turns back along the opposite bank of the stream. If the
stream has an appreciable width, the contours are not drawn across the
stream but are discontinued at the shore, with which it merges.

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LOCATING CONTOUR LINES BY INTERPOLATION

The location and plotting of contour lines is one of the major steps involved in
the construction of a topographic map. The ground points are employed as
reference in the proper location of the contour lines. The process of locating contour
lines proportionally on the map between plotted points is termed interpolation. There
are a variety of methods which could be used. Some of these methods include:

1. By estimation
2. Rubber band method
3. Analytical method
4. Triangle and scale method
5. Template method

BY ESTIMATION

Contour lines may be located between points of known elevation by

estimation. This method is suitable on small-scale maps where the ground form is not
too irregular. The first step is to make a careful study of the positions of the contour
points and to try to visualize the changes in slope of the terrain. Then the contours
which appear to be most definitely located by the plotted points are drawn. Usually
the index contours are drawn first and are used as guides in drawing the
intermediate contours. It will be noted that each plotted contour helps to locate the
next contour.

The process of interpolating contours by estimation is fast and can produce

results which are reasonable if extreme care is exercised, and also if supplemented
by approximate mental computations.

RUBBER BAND METHOD

The use of a rubber band is another convenient method of interpolating

contour lines. The rubber band selected should be sufficiently wide such that
graduations at equal intervals can be marked on it to form some kind of an elastic
scale. It is stretched between two plotted points so that theses points fall at scale
divisions corresponding to their elevations. The intermediate contour points are then
marked on the map. This procedure will require at least two persons to undertake
the plotting of the contour lines.

In place of a rubber band, another device called “variable scales” may also
be used in a similar manner. The device has a graduated spring which when
stretched, also allows convenient marks to fall on the known elevations.

ANALYTICAL METHOD

Arithmetical computations are employed where high accuracy is desired in

locating contour lines. This method is well suited for drawing large-scale maps.
Distances between points of known elevations are measured and the locations of
contour points are determined by proportion.

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 In this method it is assumed that the slop e between two adjacent established
points is uniform. The analytical method is based on the principle that the ratio of the
horizontal length of a line to the difference in elevation between its extremities is the
same ratio of the horizontal distances between either extremity and any
intermediate point on the line to the difference in elevation between the selected
extremity and the intermediate point.

Where:

& = Established points on the ground of known

= elevation
= A point on a contour crossing the line between
A and B
= Horizontal map distance from A to M (cm)
= Difference in elevation between M and A (m)
= Difference in elevation between A and B (m)
= Horizontal map distance between A and B (cm)

Figure 72: Interpolating by analytical method

Note: Any other contour crossing the line between points A and B may be
interpolated and located by using the above formula. Also, for a specified contour
interval the horizontal spacing between interpolated contour lines on the map
should be uniform. The disadvantage of interpolating contour lines by arithmetical
computations is that it becomes laborious especially when many interpolations are
to be made.

TRIANGLE AND SCALE METHOD

The method of interpolating points by using an engineer’s scale and a

triangle is an application of the geometric method of dividing a line into a
convenient number of equal parts. The method provides an accurate and rapid
procedure for interpolating contour lines in which mathematical computation are
eliminated.

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 Any edge of the engineer’s scale may be used. It must be seen to it,
however, that the length on the scale corresponding to the difference in elevation
between the two reference terminal points should be shorter than the length of the
line connecting the two points on the map. When the difference in elevation is
considerable and the map distance is short, it may be necessary to let one division
on the scale represent several meters in elevation.

Figure 73: Interpolating by triangle and scale

TEMPLATE METHOD

There are graphical devices which are used for interpolating contour lines
between plotted positions. These devices allow many interpolations to be made
quickly and accurately. One such device is the contour template (see the figure
below). It consists of a series of equally spaced parallel lines that are drawn on
transparent film or paper using any specified scale. Usually, each fifth or tenth line in
the template is drawn heavier than the rest and correspondingly numbered. The
indicated graduations of the lines are labelled according to the contour interval of
the map or different values may be assigned to these spaces to suit a variety of
conditions.

A series of converging lines may also be graduated and used for interpolating
contour lines between plotted elevations. Any number of converging and horizontal
lines having equal spacing may be drawn. With a little practice, the student will find
that plotting contour by means of a template proceeds quite rapidly and works out
very conveniently. One obvious disadvantage is that the template becomes
extensively perforated after so many points are plotted since there is a need to
constantly prick the template with a needle or divider when marking out the
interpolated points.

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METHODS OF OBTAINING CONTOURS

Both horizontal and vertical measurements are involved in the location and
plotting of contours. Since different instruments may be used, the field work is
executed in various ways. However, whatever method is employed, the main
objective is always to locate details with minimum time and effort. The accuracy of
the resulting map will greatly depend upon the number and deposition of the
selected points.

There are several methods employed in determining the location and

elevation of ground points for purposes of plotting a contour map. The most
common methods used are, however, divided only into the following two major
classifications:

1. Direct Methods

These are those in which the contours to be plotted are actually traced out in
the field. The procedure involves the location and marking of a series of points
on each contour line. These points are surveyed and plotted in the field, and
the appropriate contours are drawn through them. The trace-contour
method is one such example that is used.

The direct method of contouring is executed rather slow and on this account
it is seldom adopted on large surveys. It has, however, the advantage of
superior accuracy, and is suitable for the close contouring of small areas
where considerable precision is required. In this method, the field work
basically consists of two steps: the location of points on the contours, and the
survey of these points. These operations may be conducted simultaneously
when two survey parties are employed

2. Indirect Method

These comprise those in which the points located as regards position and
elevation are not necessarily situated on the contours to be shown, but serve,
on being plotted, as a basis for the interpolation of the required contours. The
following field methods for obtaining topographic detail fall under this
classification: coordinate method, controlling-point method, cross-profile
method, and the photogrammetric method.

By the indirect method, the points to be located may be either situated along
a series of straight lines set out over the area, or are scattered spot heights at
representative points.

TRACE-CONTOUR METHOD

One of the most accurate and direct procedure of locating contours is by the
trace-contour method. Although this method is quite accurate, it tends to be slow
and costly to undertake. This procedure is thus only used when it is absolutely
necessary to meet rigid accuracy requirements. The method is used advantageously
in rolling country where the slopes are h=generally gentle.

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COORDINATE METHOD

One way of locating and plotting the contours o f a given area is to utilize a
grid or coordinate system. The general procedure is summarized as follows: (1) on a
grid system lay out the area by establishing corner and perimeter stakes; (2) at the
intersections of the grid lines determine the elevations; (3) plot the points of known
elevation to the desired scale in plan; and (4) draw the contour lines by
interpolation.

Just as in the case of the trace-contour method, the coordinate method is

also used where a relatively high degree of accuracy is desired, and hence the
map is usually drawn to a large scale. These surveys are required for the location
and design of engineering structures such as dams, reservoirs, bridges and buildings;
and for the earthwork estimates for projects as roadways, levees, canals, and
landscape grading. It is also useful where the tract is wooden, where the
topography is smooth, and on urban surveys where lots and blocks are of regular
geometric shapes.

CONTROLLING-POINT METHOD

The controlling-point method of obtaining contours is considered to be one

with the most universal application. This method is applicable to practically every
type of terrain and condition encountered in topographic mapping. Its basic
principle is that the readily visible and well defined points on the area surveyed will
form a framework on which other map details may be indicated or upon which the
interpolation of contours may be made much easier and faster.

CROSS-PROFILE METHOD

The cross-profile method is principally used in locating contours along a route

or other narrow area of terrain. It is a modification of the method of cross-sectioning
as used in route surveys. The method is particularly appropriate for surveys required
in the construction of roadways, railways, canals, irrigation ditches, and in the
installation of pipelines or sewer lines. The cross-profile method of locating contours
dies not fall far short of the direct method in terms of accuracy, provided that
additional sections are run where required, and that the ground is fairly uniform in
slope between the points located.

PHOTOGRAMMETRIC METHOD

The availability of aerial photographs and the development of

photogrammetric methods have expanded rapidly our know-how in the
construction of topographic maps. Using photogrammetric methods, contours may
be plotted from aerial photographs of the terrain with a minimum of ground survey
for control. ss

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