DEFINITION TERMS

IN
GENERAL BIOLOGY II

ORO, RONIAN A.
STEM 12-A

MRS. SHERY BELLE F. HERNANDEZ

GENERAL BIOLOGY II TEACHER
 LESSON 1-2 : GENETIC ENGINEERING AND
APPLICATION OF RECOMBINANT DNA

Natural Selection – the process through which populations of living organisms adapt
and change.

Mitigation – follows avoidance, minimization, restoration and offsets in order to reduce

development impacts and control any negative effects on the environment.

Mutation – a permanent, heritable change in the nucleotide sequence or the process by

which such a change occurs in a gene or in a chromosome.

Genotype – the genetic makeup of an individual cell or organism that determines or

contributes to its phenotype.

Genetic Equilibrium – the condition where a gene pool is not changing in frequency
across generations.

Genetic Variation – the differences in DNA segments or genes between individuals

and each variation of a gene.

DNA Sequence – the process of determining the sequence of nucleotides within a DNA
molecule.

Genetic Drift – method of changing the population’s frequency of an allele by chance

where some individuals with specific allele reproduce more than the others.

Genetic Engineering – defined as the direct manipulation of an organism’s genes.

Recombinant DNA – an artificially made DNA strand that is formed by the combination
of two or more gene sequences.
Plasmids – small circular DNA molecule found in bacteria and some other microscopic
organisms.

Cloning – the process used to create an exact genetic replica of another cell, tissue or
organism.

Genome – the complete set of DNA (genetic material) in an organism.

Gene Mapping – refers to the process of determining the location of genes on

chromosomes.

Biotechnology – technology that utilizes biological systems, living organisms or parts

of this to develop or create different products.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) - a laboratory technique used to make multiple

copies of a segment of DNA.

Gene Therapy - a medical approach that treats or prevents disease by correcting the
underlying genetic problem.

Clone – cell or organism that is genetically identical to the original cell or organism from
which it is derived.

Plasmids – small circular DNA molecule found in bacteria and some other microscopic
organisms.

Biotechnology – technology that utilizes biological systems, living organisms or parts

of this to develop or create different products.
PCR Amplification – simple technique that amplifies a DNA template to produce
specific DNA fragments in vitro.

Detection – act of detecting, discovery, the laying open of what was concealed or
hidden or of what tends to elude observation.

Modified Trait – process of altering and cloning genes to produce a new trait in an
organism or to make a biological substance, such as a protein or hormone.

Human Genome – complete set of nucleic acid sequences for humans.

Genetic Modified Organisms (GMO) – an animal, plant, or microbe whose DNA has
been altered using genetic engineering techniques.
 LESSON 3: HISTORY OF LIFE ON EARTH

Precambrian Era – the earliest part of Earth’s history, set before the current
Phanerozoic Eon.

Paleozoic Era (541 to 251.9 million years ago) - means ancient life, fish diversified and
marine organisms were very abundant.

Mesozoic Era (252-66 million years ago) - means ‘middle life’ and this is the time of
the dinosaurs.

Cenozoic Era – spans only about 65 million years, from the end of the Cretaceous
Period and the extinction of non-avian dinosaurs to the present. The Cenozoic is
sometimes called the Age of Mammals

Epoch – also referred to as “series”, are the subdivisions of periods. Epochs tend to be
a several million years in length.

Cambrian Period – it is the time when many kinds of invertebrates and the first
vertebrates—fishes—appeared in the fossil record.

Ordovician Period – lasted almost 45 million years, beginning 488.3 million years ago
and ending 443.7 million years ago. * During this period, the area north of the tropics
was almost entirely ocean, and most of the world’s land was collected into the southern
supercontinent Gondwana.

Silurian Period (443.7 to 416.0 million years ago) - a time when the Earth underwent
considerable changes that had important repercussions for the environment and life
within it.
Devonian Period – sometimes called the “Age of Fishes” because of the diverse,
abundant, and, in some cases, bizarre types of these creatures that swam Devonian
seas.

Carboniferous Period – also known as the Age of Amphibians. It is the fifth of six
geologic periods that together make up the Paleozoic Era.

Permian Period – During the Permian Period, Earth’s crustal plates formed a single,
massive continent called Pangaea.

Triassic Period – This era is popularly known as the “Age of Reptiles” and for good
reason: reptiles, and particularly dinosaurs, were the dominant land-dwelling vertebrate
animals at the time.

Jurassic Period – golden time for dinosaurs, which flourished for 180 million years.

Cretaceous Period – the last period of the Mesozoic Era, following the Jurassic and
ending with the extinction of the dinosaurs (except birds).
 LESSON 4: EVOLUTION AND ORIGIN OF
BIODIVERSITY

Species – a group of organisms that can successfully interbreed and produce fertile
offspring.

Classification – the establishment of a hierarchical system of categories on the basis

of presumed natural relationships among organisms.

Interbreeding – the act of mixing different species or varieties of animals or plants and
thus to produce hybrids.

Isolating Mechanisms – intrinsic characteristics of species that reduce or prevent

successful reproduction with members of other species.

Zygote – first diploid cell that is formed by the fusion of male and female gametes
resulting in the formation of an embryo.

Allopatric – a population or species that is physically isolated from other similar groups
by an extrinsic barrier to dispersal.

Sympatric – occupying the same or overlapping geographic areas without

interbreeding.

Parapatric – occurs when a smaller population is isolated, usually at the periphery of a

larger group, and becomes differentiated to the point of becoming a new species.

Taxonomy – the scientific study of naming, defining and classifying groups of biological
organisms based on shared characteristics.
Kingdom - a taxonomic rank that is composed of smaller groups called phyla (or
divisions, in plants).
Phylum – a scientific term grouping together related organisms on the basis of their
fundamental characteristics.

Class – a taxonomic rank consisting of organisms that share a common attribute; it is

further divided into one or more orders.

Order – taxonomic rank used in classifying organisms, generally below the class, and
comprised of families sharing a set of similar nature or character.

Family – taxonomic group of one or more genera,especially sharing a common

attribute.

Genus – (plural: genera) is a taxonomic category in the biological classification,

composed of species that have been classified together based on phylogenetic
relatedness or common features.

Species – the lowest taxonomic rank and the most basic unit or category of biological
classification consisting of organisms that share common characteristics and generally
are capable of reproducing to produce fertile offspring.

Natural Selection – the process whereby organisms better adapted to their

environment tend to survive and produce more offspring.

Artificial Selection – the identification by humans of desirable traits in plants and

animals, and the steps taken to enhance and perpetuate those traits in future
generations.

Homologous structure – similar physical features in organisms that share a common

ancestor, but the features serve completely different functions.
Analogous structure – features of different species that are similar in function but not
necessarily in structure and which do not derive from a common ancestral feature and
which evolved in response to a similar environmental challenge.
Molecular Biology – the study of the biochemical and molecular processes within cells.

Transcription – the process of copying a segment of DNA into RNA.

Translation – process in which ribosomes in the cytoplasm or endoplasmic reticulum

synthesize proteins after the process of transcription of DNA to RNA in the cell’s
nucleus.

Genetic Code – the set of instructions in a gene that tell the cell how to make a specific
protein.

Biogeography – the branch of biology that deals with the geographical distribution of
plants and animals.

Evolution – provides information about how and when species may have evolved.

Modification – a change in a living organism acquired from its own activity or

environment and not transmitted to its descendants.

Phylogeny – the representation of the evolutionary history and relationships between

groups of organisms.

Phylogenetic Tree - a branching diagram or a tree showing the evolutionary

relationships among various biological species or other entities based upon similarities
and differences in their physical or genetic characteristics.

Branch Point – represent a split where a single lineage evolved into a distinct new one.

Basal Taxon – a lineage that evolved early from the root and remains unbranched.
Sister Taxa – any taxa derived from a common ancestral node.
Polytomy – an internal node of a cladogram that has more than two immediate
descendants.

Taxonomy - a broad sense the science of classification, but more strictly the
classification of living and extinct organisms

Binomial Nomenclature – the biological system of naming the organisms in which the
name is composed of two terms, where, the first term indicates the genus and the
second term indicates the species of the organism.

Homology – similarity due to common origin at all levels (organism, population and
species).

Molecular Clock – a figurative term for a technique that uses the mutation rate of
biomolecules to deduce the time in prehistory when two or more life forms diverged.

Phylogeny – the study of the evolutionary history and relationships among or within
groups of organisms.

Systematics – study of organism identification, classification, and nomenclature.

Tetrapods – means “four legs” in Greek. Amphibians, reptiles (including dinosaurs and
birds) and mammals are the major groups of the Tetrapoda. Tetrapods include all land-
living vertebrates, such as frogs, turtles, hawks, and lions.

Archaea – a group of micro-organisms that are similar to, but evolutionarily distinct from
bacteria.

Classification – the establishment of a hierarchical system of categories on the basis of

presumed natural relationships among organisms.
Hierarchy – the systemic organisation of organisms into levels.
Nomenclature – the set of rules and conventions which govern the names of taxa.

Linnaean Taxonomy – the set of rules and conventions which govern the names of taxa.

Dichotomous Key – an important scientific tool, used to identify different organisms,

based the organism’s observable traits.

Domain – refers to the largest of all groups in the classification of life.

Eukarya – one in the three-domain system of biological classification introduced by Carl

Woese in 1990.

Cladograms – diagrams which depict the relationships between different groups of taxa
called “clades”.

Cladistics - a biological classification system that involves the categorization of

organisms based on shared traits.

Holothuroid – this is one of the most distinctive and diverse phyla, ranging from starfish
to urchins to sea cucumbers and many other organisms.
 DNA RECOMBINANT OF SINOVAC

The Sinovac vaccine is a vaccine that uses an inactivated form

of the COVID-19 virus, instead of the mRNA technology that
Pfizer and Moderna use. Developed by Chinese
biopharmaceutical company Sinovac Biotech, this vaccine has
been approved for use and widely used in countries like China,
Indonesia and other South American countries. ( Raffles
Medical Group, 2023)

Various strategies for recombinant vaccine development. (a)

DNA-based vaccine developed by cloning SARS-CoV-2 S-
protein; (b) Development of vaccine using DNA plasmid
containing SARS-CoV-2 S gene; (c) Vaccine development by S
protein mRNA; (d) Use of recombinant S-protein mimicking
SARS-Cov-2 S protein as a vaccine; € Use of vector without
self-replicating machinery containing SARS-CoV-2 S protein
gene as vaccine; (f) Virus-Like Particle equivalent to SARS-
CoV-2 without genetic material as a vaccine. Most of the
vaccines target S protein that is expected to sensitize the host
cellular and humoral immune response leading to immunization.
( Yadav, 2020)