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Module 2 - OCN
Module 2 - OCN
Module 2
Transmission characteristics of optical fiber: Attenuation, Material absorption losses, Linear scattering
losses, Nonlinear scattering losses, Fiber bend loss, Dispersion, Chromatic dispersion, Intermodal dispersion:
Multimode step index fiber.
Optical fiber Connectors: Fiber alignment and joint loss, Fiber splices: Fusion Splices, Mechanical splices,
Fiber connectors: cylindrical ferrule connectors, Duplex and Multiple fiber connectors, Fiber couplers: three
and four port couplers, star couplers, optical isolators and circulators.
The attenuation spectra for the intrinsic loss mechanisms in pure 𝐺𝑒𝑂2 −𝑆𝑖𝑂2 glass is shown in the figure.
Extrinsic Absorption
Extrinsic absorption occurs due to electronic transitions between the energy level and because of
charge transitions from one ion to another.
A major source of attenuation is from transition of metal impurity ions such as iron, chromium, cobalt
and copper.
These loses can be up to 1 to 10 dB/km. The effect of metallic impurities can be reduced by glass
refining techniques.
Another major extrinsic loss is caused by absorption due to OH(Hydroxil) ions impurities dissolved in
glass.
Vibrations occur at wavelengths between 2.7 and 4.2µm.
The absorption peaks occur at 1400, 950 and 750nm. These are the first, second and third overtones
respectively.
Scattering Loss
Scattering losses are caused by interaction of light with density fluctuations within a fiber.
Density changes are produced when optical fibers are manufactured.
During manufacturing, regions of higher and lower molecular density areas, relative to the average
density of the fiber, are created.
Light travelling through the fiber interacts with the density areas then partially scattered in all
directions.
There are two types of scattering losses.
As this is not possible, the energy associated with this part of the mode is lost through radiation.
Radiation attenuation coefficient can be written in the form;
𝛼𝜏 = 𝑐1 exp(−𝑐2 𝑅)
Where R is the radius of curvature of the fiber bend and 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 are constants which are independent of R
Large bending losses tend to occur in multimode fibers at a critical radius of curvature is given by;
3𝑛12 𝜆
𝑅𝑐 =
4𝜋(𝑛12 − 𝑛22 )
This equation suggests that macro bending loss can be reduced by;
a) Designing fibers with large relative refractive index differences.
b) Operating at the shortest wavelength possible.
Similarly, the critical radius of curvature for the single mode fibers can be given as;
20𝜆 𝜆 −3
𝑅𝑐𝑠 = 1 (2.748 − 0.996 )
𝜆𝑐
(𝑛1 − 𝑛2 )2
where 𝜆𝑐 is the cut-off wavelength for the single mode fibers.
Dispersion
Dispersion of the transmitted optical signal causes distortion for both digital and analog transmission along
optical fibers.
Optical fiber transmission which involves some form of digital modulation, then dispersion mechanisms
within the fiber cause broadening of the transmitted light pulses as they travel along the channel.
Each pulse broadens and overlaps with its neighbours, eventually becoming indistinguishable at the receiver
input. This effect is known as Intersymbol interference (ISI).
For no overlapping of light pulses down on an optical fiber link the digital bit rate 𝐵𝑇 must be less than the
reciprocal of the broadened (through dispersion) pulse duration (2𝜏).
1
𝐵𝑇 ≤
2𝜏
Another way by considering the light pulses at the output to have a Gaussian shape with an rms width of 𝜎
0.2
𝐵𝑇(𝑚𝑎𝑥) ≅ 𝑏𝑖𝑡 𝑠 −1
𝜎
Chromatic Dispersion
Chromatic or intramodal dispersion may occur in all types of optical fibers and results from the finite spectral
linewidth of the optical source.
Since optical sources do not emit just a single frequency but a band of frequencies there may be propagation
delay differences between the different spectral components of the transmitted signal.
This causes broadening of each transmitted mode and hence intramodal dispersion.
The delay differences may be caused by the dispersive properties of the waveguide material (material
dispersion) and also the guidance effects within the fiber structure (waveguide dispersion).
Material Dispersion
Pulse broadening due to material dispersion results from the different group velocities of the various
spectral components launched into the fiber from an optical source.
It occurs when the phase velocity of a plane wave propagating in the dielectric medium varies non
linearly with wavelength.
As material is said to exhibit material dispersion when the second differential of the refractive index
with respect to the wavelength is not zero (i.e., 𝑑 2 𝑛⁄𝑑𝜆2 )
Expression for pulse broadening
The pulse spread due to material dispersion may be obtained by considering the group delay in the optical
fiber which in the reciprocal of the group velocity.
The group delay is given by;
𝑑𝛽 1 𝑑𝑛1
𝜏𝑔 = = (𝑛1 − 𝜆 )
𝑑𝜔 𝑐 𝑑𝜆
The pulse delay 𝜏𝑚 due to material dispersion in a fiber of length L is
𝐿 𝑑𝑛1
𝜏𝑚 = (𝑛1 − 𝜆 )
𝑐 𝑑𝜆
For a source with rms spectral width 𝜎𝜆 and a mean wavelength 𝜆, the rms pulse broadening due to material
dispersion 𝜎𝑚 may be obtained from the expansion of above equation in a Taylor series about 𝜆 where;
𝑑𝜏𝑚 2𝑑 2 𝜏𝑚
𝜎𝑚 = 𝜎𝜆 + 𝜎𝜆 +⋯
𝑑𝜆 𝑑𝜆2
As the first term usually dominates, especially for sources operating over the 0.8 to 0.9µm wavelength range,
then;
𝑑𝜏𝑚
𝜎𝑚 = 𝜎𝜆 ……𝐴
𝑑𝜆
Hence the pulse spread may be evaluated by considering the dependence of 𝜏𝑚 on 𝜆.
𝑑𝜏𝑚 𝐿𝜆 𝑑𝑛1 𝑑 2 𝑛1 𝑑𝑛1
= [ − − ]
𝑑𝜆 𝑐 𝑑𝜆 𝑑𝜆2 𝑑𝜆
𝐿𝜆 𝑑 2 𝑛1
=− . ……𝐵
𝑐 𝑑𝜆2
Substituting the expression obtained in Eq.(B) into Eq.(A), the rms pulse broadening due to material dispersion
is given by,
𝜎𝜆 𝐿 𝑑 2 𝑛1
𝜎𝑚 ≅ |𝜆 |
𝑐 𝑑𝜆2
Material dispersion parameter M which is defined as;
1 𝑑𝜏𝑚 𝜆 𝑑 2 𝑛1
𝑀= = | 2|
𝐿 𝑑𝜆 𝑐 𝑑𝜆
The delay difference between the two rays when traveling in the fiber core allows estimation of the pulse
broadening resulting from intermodal dispersion within the fiber.
As both the rays are traveling at the same velocity within the constant refractive index fiber core, then the
delay difference is directly related to their respective path lengths within the fiber.
The time taken by the axial ray to travel along a fiber of length L gives the minimum delay time;
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐿 𝐿𝑛1
𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = =
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐 ⁄𝑛1 𝑐
The meridional ray exhibits the maximum delay time
𝐿⁄cos 𝜃 𝐿𝑛1
𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = =
𝑐 ⁄𝑛1 𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Using the Snell’s law at core-cladding interface,
𝑛2
sin ∅𝑐 = = cos 𝜃
𝑛1
𝐿𝑛12
𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑐𝑛2
The delay difference between the extreme meridional ray and the axial ray may be obtained as;
𝐿𝑛12 𝐿𝑛1
𝛿𝑇𝑠 = 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛 = −
𝑐𝑛2 𝑐
𝐿𝑛12 𝑛1 − 𝑛2
= ( )……A
𝑐𝑛2 𝑛1
𝐿𝑛12
= ∆
𝑐𝑛2
After rearranging Eq. A,
𝐿𝑛1 ∆ 𝐿𝑁𝐴2
𝛿𝑇𝑠 ≈ ≈
𝑐 2𝑛1 𝑐
When the optical input to the fiber is a pulse 𝑃𝑖 (𝑡) of a unit area as shown in the figure
𝜎𝑠2 = 𝑀2 − 𝑀1
Where 𝑀1 is the first temporal moment which is equivalent to the mean value of the pulse and 𝑀2 is the second
temporal moment which is it equivalent to the mean square value of the pulse.
∞ ∞
𝑀1 = ∫−∞ 𝑡𝑃𝑖 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 and 𝑀2 = ∫−∞ 𝑡 2 𝑃𝑖 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡
The mean value 𝑀1 for the unit input pulse is zero and assuming thus is maintained for the output pulse,
∞
𝜎𝑠2 = 𝑀2 = ∫−∞ 𝑡 2 𝑃𝑖 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡
The losses caused by the above factors together with those of Fresnel reflection are usually referred to
as intrinsic joint losses.
2 𝑦 𝛼+2
𝐿𝑡 = ( )( ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 0.2𝑎
𝜋 𝑎 𝛼+1
Lateral coupling efficiency is given by,
𝜂𝑙𝑎𝑡 = 1 − 𝐿𝑡
The above equation can be utilized to obtain the lateral misalignment loss in decibels, with a parabolic
refractive index profile where 𝛼=2,
8 𝑦 𝑦
𝐿𝑡 = ( ) = 0.85 ( ) 𝑑𝐵
3𝜋 𝑎 𝑎
Fiber Splices
A permanent joint formed between two individual optical fibers is known as fiber splice.
There are two methods to achieve fiber splicing. They are:
Fusion Splicing or Welding
Mechanical Splicing
Fusion Splicing
Fusion splicing is accomplished by applying localized heat at the interface between fiber ends.
Fusion splicing of single fiber involves the heating of two prepared ends to their fusing point with the
application of sufficient axial pressure between two optical fibers.
It is essential that fiber ends are adequately positioned and aligned in order to achieve good continuity
of the transmission medium at the junction point.
Flame heating sources such as microplasma torches (argon and hydrogen) and oxhydric microburners
(oxygen, hydrogen and alcohol vapor) have been utilized with some success.
However, the most widely used heating source is an electric arc. This technique offers advantages of
consistent, easily controlled heat with adaptability for use under field conditions.
Schematic illustration of the prefusion method for accurately splicing optical fibers
Figure shows a development of the basic arc fusion process which involves the rounding of the fiber ends with
a low-energy discharge before pressing the fibers together and fusing with a stronger arc. This technique,
known as prefusion, removes the requirement for fiber end preparation which has a distinct advantage in the
field environment.
Most common technique involves the use of Grooves to secure the fibers to be joined
V-Groove Splice
Springroove Splice
V-Groove Splice
This method utilizes a V-groove into which the two prepared fiber ends are pressed.
The splice is made permanent by securing the fibers in the V-groove with epoxy resin.
Joint insertion losses of around 0.1 dB is obtained
V-groove splices formed by sandwiching the butted fiber ends between a V-groove glass substrate and
a flat glass retainer plate.
This is proved in lab environment to have insertion loss as less as 0.01 dB.
Springroove splice
It uses two cylindrical pins as alignment guide for the two prepared fiber ends.
An elastic element (a spring) is used to press the fibers into a groove and maintain the fiber end alignment.
The complete assembly was secured using a drop of epoxy resin.
Mean splice insertion losses of 0.05 dB.
Fiber Connectors
These are removable joints which allow easy, fast, manual coupling and uncoupling of fibers.
Fiber connectors have to,
Provide optimum performance
Avoid fiber ends from damaging due to moisture, dust.
Must not get damaged due to connecting and disconnecting.
Optical fiber connectors may be considered in three major areas,
The fiber termination, which protects and locates the fiber ends
The fiber end alignment to provide optimum optical coupling
The outer shell, which maintains the connection and the fiber alignment, protects the fiber ends
from the environment and provides adequate strength at the joint.
The fiber connectors can be divided into two main categories
Butt-joined connectors: it relays upon alignment of two prepared fiber ends in close proximity
(butted) to each other so that their core axis is aligned.
Expanded beam connectors: it uses lenses in order to expand/contract to match the fiber ends.
The two types of Butt-joined connectors are,
Cylindrical ferrule connectors
Duplex and Multi-fiber connectors
Cylindrical ferrule connectors
This is the simplest type of connector.
The two fibers to be connected are permanently bonded (with epoxy resin) in metal plugs known as
ferrules. These ferrules have an accurately drilled central hole in their end faces where the stripped (of
buffer coating) fiber is located.
The two ferrules are placed in aligned sleeve using a retaining mechanism.
The straight ceramic ferrule may be observed in Figure which contrasts with the stepped ferrule (i.e., a ferrule
with a single step which reduces the diameter midway along its length) provided in the SMA connector design.
The average loss obtained using this connector with multimode graded index fiber (i.e., core/cladding:
62.5/125 μm) was 0.22 dB with less than 0.1 dB change in loss after 1000 reconnections.
Silicon chip arrays were suggested for the jointing of fiber ribbon cable for many years. However, difficulties
were experienced in the design of an appropriate coupler for the two arrays.
These problems were then largely overcome by the multiple-connector design shown in Figure (a) which
utilizes V grooved silicon chips.
In this connector, ribbon fibers were mounted and bonded into the V-grooves in order to form a plug together
with precision metal guiding rods and coil springs.
The fiber connections were then accomplished by butt jointing the two pairs of guiding rods in the slitted
sleeves located in the adaptor.
The structure of a small plastic moulded single-mode 10-fifiber connector is shown in Figure (b).
It comprised two moulded ferrules with 10-fifiber ribbon cables which are accurately aligned by guide pins,
then held stable with a rectangular guide sleeve and a cramp spring.
90° bent fiber connector
The coupling of signals into optical fiber with a 90° bend is important when fiber is required to be housed in
a small space.
Figure (a) displays the structure for optical interconnection using a 90° bent fiber connector which comprises
two parts: namely, a lower body and an upper body to provide U- shaped grooves which support the optical
fibers.
The connector facilitates four fiber connections using a single-layer structure. To achieve more
interconnections, it is possible to produce a multilayer connector employing a similar approach.
A multi-layered structure providing eight interconnections is illustrated in Figure (b).
Such single-layered or multi-layered fiber connectors oriented at 90° can also be very useful for implementing
optical printed circuit boards and in this function, they enable surface- or bottom-emitting/receiving devices
to be interfaced with the circuit board.
Expanded beam connectors
An alternative to connection via direct butt joints between optical fibers is offered by the principle of the
expanded beam.
Fiber connection utilizing this principle is illustrated in Figure, which shows a connector consisting of two
lenses for collimating and refocusing the light from one fiber into the other. The use of these interposed optics
makes the achievement of lateral alignment much less critical than with a butt-jointed fiber connector.
The connector shown in Figure (a) utilized spherical micro lenses for beam expansion and reduction.
It exhibited average losses of 1 dB which were reduced to 0.7 dB with the application of an antireflection
coating on the lenses and the use of graded index fiber of 50 μm core diameter.
A similar configuration has been used for single-mode fiber connection in which the lenses have a 2.5 mm
diameter.
Figure (b) shows an expanded beam connector which employs a moulded spherical lens.
The fiber is positioned approximately at the focal length of the lens in order to obtain a collimated beam and
hence minimize lens-to-lens longitudinal misalignment effects.
A lens alignment sleeve is used to minimize the effects of angular misalignment which, together with a ferrule,
grommet, spring and external housing, provides the complete connector structure.
The repeatability of this relatively straightforward lens design was found to be good, incurring losses of around
0.7 dB.
Fiber Couplers
An optical fiber coupler is a device that distributes light from a main fiber into one or more branch fibers.
These devices are either used to divide or combine optical signals for application within optical fiber
information distribution systems including data buses, LANs, computer networks and telecommunication
access networks.
Optical fiber couplers are often passive devices in which the power transfer takes place either:
Through the fiber core cross-section by butt jointing the fibers or by using some form of imaging optics
between the fibers (core interaction type); or
Through the fiber surface and normal to its axis by converting the guided core modes to both cladding
and refracted modes which then enable the power-sharing mechanism (surface interaction type).
Multiport optical fiber couplers can also be subdivided into the following three main groups.
Three- and four-port couplers: which are used for signal splitting, distribution and combining.
Star couplers: which are generally used for distributing a single input signal to multiple outputs.
Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) devices: WDM couplers either combine the different
wavelength optical signal onto the fiber (i.e., multiplex) or separate the different wavelength optical
signals output from the fiber (i.e., demultiplex).
Optical fiber coupler types and functions: (a) three-port couplers; (b) four-port coupler; (c) star coupler; (d)
wavelength division multiplexing and demultiplexing couplers
Three- and Four-port couplers
Several methods are employed to fabricate three- and four-port optical fiber couplers
Lateral offset method
Semi-transparent mirror method
Using graded index (GRIN) –rod lens
Fused biconical taper (FBT) technique.
Lateral offset method
It involves the overlapping of the fiber end faces.
Light from the input fiber is coupled to the output fibers according to the degree of overlap.
The input power is distributed by appropriately controlling the lateral offset between the fibers.
This method provides bidirectional capability.
This method is much suitable for multimode step index fibers and incur higher losses.
The higher order modes, however, leave the fiber core because of its reduced size in the tapered-down region
and are therefore guided as cladding modes.
These modes transfer back to guided core modes in the tapered-up region of the output fiber with an
approximately even distribution between the two fibers.
Often only a portion of the total power is coupled between the two fibers because only the higher order modes
take part in the process, the lower order modes generally remaining within the main fiber.
The various loss parameters associated with four-port couplers may be written down with reference to figure,
𝑃1
𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 (𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑟 − 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑟) = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( ) 𝑑𝐵
𝑃3 + 𝑃4
𝑃1
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠(𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑠 1 𝑡𝑜 4) = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( ) 𝑑𝐵
𝑃4
The crosstalk which provides a measure of the directional isolation achieved by the device is the ratio of the
backscattered power received at the second input port to the input power. It is given by,
𝑃2
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑘(𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑟 − 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑟) = ( ) 𝑑𝐵
𝑃1
The splitting or coupling ratio indicates the percentage division of optical power between the output ports,
𝑃3 𝑃3
𝑆𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = [ ] 𝑋 100% = [1 + ] 𝑋 100%
𝑃3 + 𝑃4 𝑃4
Star Coupler
Star couplers distribute an optical signal from a single-input fiber to multiple-output fibers.
The two principal manufacturing techniques for producing multimode fiber star couplers
Mixed- rod
Fused biconical taper (FBT) star coupler
Mixed-rod
In mixed-rod method, a thin platelet of glass is employed, which effectively mixes the light from one fiber,
dividing it among the outgoing fibers.
This method is used to produce a transmissive star coupler or a reflective star coupler.
The typical insertion loss for an 8×8 mixed-rod transmissive star coupler with fiber pigtails is 1.25 dB with
port-t-port uniformity of ±0.7 𝑑𝐵.
The total associated with the star coupler comprises its theoretical splitting loss and excess loss.
The splitting loss is related to the number of output ports N following,
𝑆𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑟) = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑁 (𝑑𝐵)
For a single input port and multiple output ports where j=1,N then excess loss is given by,
𝑃𝑖
𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 (𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑟) = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( ) (𝑑𝐵)
∑𝑁
𝑗=1 𝑃𝑗
Optical isolators can be implemented by using FBGs. These devices permit the optical signal to pass
through the isolator and propagate to the output terminal, or, alternatively, they reflect it backwards.
Since FBGs are wavelength dependent then optical isolators can be designed to allow or block the
optical signal at a particular (or a range of) wavelength(s).
The wavelength blocking feature makes the optical isolator a very attractive device for use with optical
amplifiers in order to protect them from backward reflections. The magneto-optic devices can be used
to function as isolators.
Magneto-optic devices utilize the principle of Faraday rotation which relates the TM mode
characteristic and polarization state of an optical signal with its direction of propagation, according to
which the rotation of the plane of polarization is proportional to the intensity of the component of the
magnetic field in the direction of the optical signal.
Thus, it is possible to block or divert an optical signal as desired using the magneto-optic properties of
the material. Magnetic oxide materials can be used in the fabrication of optical waveguides to construct
optical isolators, in particular by using photonic crystal waveguides.
Isolators can also be connected together to form multiport devices where, depending upon their isolation
characteristics, an optical signal can leave the device at an end terminal or it can continue to flow towards the
next connected isolator.
The resulting device is generally known as a circulator, taking its name from the path of the optical signal
which follows a closed loop or a circle.
Such a device is shown in Figure 5.46(b) where three isolators are interconnected to form a three-port device
which does not discard the backward reflections but directs them to another isolator.
Thus, the signal continues to travel from isolator 1 to isolator 2 and finally it terminates at the end terminal of
isolator 3.
In order to prevent the signal going back to the input port 1, no connection is usually permitted between port
3 and port 1.
When a signal is transmitted from port 1 to port 2, however, the device simultaneously allows another optical
signal to travel from port 2 to port 3.
A four-port optical circulator which operates in a similar manner to the three-port device but incorporates an
additional isolator is displayed in Figure 5.46(c).
Although it is also possible to produce a circulator with a larger number of ports, the device complexity
increases with increasing number of ports and therefore in practice only three- or four-port circulators have
proved useful for optical interconnection.
Commercially available optical circulators exhibit insertion losses around 1 dB and high isolation in the range
of 40 to 50 dB centered at signal wavelengths of 1.3 and 1.5 μm.
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