ENVIRONMENTAL

AESTHETICS
MOIZ NAVEED
ROLL # CE 590950
 ASSIGNMENT 1
Q1. Write note on the following;
(A). historical events and phases in the development of
environmental aesthetics.
ANSWER:
Since the dawn of time, there have been certain interesting historical
events that have changed the world. The Revolutionary War, the Civil
War, the Apollo 11 landing, and the fall of the Berlin Wall are just a
small few of history's most defining and interesting historical events.
vents that changed the world
 Start of World War I – June 1914.
 Russian Revolution – October 1917.
 Start of World War II – September 1939.
 Pearl Harbour – and entry of the US into WWII – Dec. ...
 Atomic Bomb dropped on Hiroshima, Aug 1945.
 Indian Independence – Aug 1947.
 Establishment of Maoist China, 1949.
Environmental aesthetics is a relatively new sub-field of philosophical
aesthetics. It arose within analytic aesthetics in the last third of the
twentieth century. ... This area involves the aesthetics of not only more
common objects and environments, but also a range of everyday
activities.
Environmental aesthetics is one of the major new areas of aesthetics to
have emerged in the last part of the twentieth century. It focuses on
philosophical issues concerning appreciation of the world at large as it
is constituted not simply by particular objects but also by environments
themselves.
Environmental aesthetics is a relatively new sub-field of philosophical
aesthetics. It arose within analytic aesthetics in the last third of the
twentieth century. Prior to its emergence, aesthetics within the analytic
tradition was largely concerned with philosophy of art. Environmental
aesthetics originated as a reaction to this emphasis, pursuing instead
the investigation of the aesthetic appreciation of natural environments.
Since its early stages, the scope of environmental aesthetics has
broadened to include not simply natural environments but also human
and human-influenced ones. At the same time, the discipline has also
come to include the examination of that which falls within such
environments, giving rise to what is called the aesthetics of everyday
life. This area involves the aesthetics of not only more common objects
and environments, but also a range of everyday activities. Thus, early in
the twenty-first century, environmental aesthetics embraced the study
of the aesthetic significance of almost everything other than art.
Together with this broader scope of environmental aesthetics, the
twenty-first century has also given rise to renewed and more intense
investigations of the relationship between environmental aesthetics
and environmentalism as well as to several new interests and
directions.

(B). origin of aesthetic impulse.

ANSWER:
The aesthetic impulse as the taste-drive: the. urge to find, fashion, and
experience objects which would satisfy the judgment of. taste as to
their rightness or validity as. appearances.
What is the origin of aesthetic?
Etymology. The word aesthetic is derived from the Greek aisthetikos,
meaning "aesthetic, sensitive, sentient, pertaining to sense
perception", which in turn was derived from aisthanomai, meaning "I
perceive, feel, sense" and related to aisthēsis, "sensation".
Webster's Definition: "The conscious use of skill and creative
imagination, esp. in the production of aesthetic objects."
Humans are aesthetic animals. We adorn ourselves. We decorate our
things. We embellish our homes. This is a curious aesthetic behavioral
pattern on which we spend vast amounts of time, energy, and
resources and which manifests itself in virtually everything we do from
 mindless and meaningless ways of passing time to silliness, festivity,
and vanity and to what is central to being human. The aesthetic
impulse appears to be an innate disposition of human nature.
An impulse is a natural, internal behavioral incentive, which does not
need external rewards to exist, and a number of observations indicate
that the aesthetic impulse is an inherent part of human nature and
hence a primary impulse in its own right.

(C). value of senses in the interpretation of environment.

ANSWER:
Four human values are considered to underlie individuals'
environmental beliefs and behaviors:
 biospheric (i.e., concern for environment): self-transcendence.
 altruistic (i.e., concern for others): self-transcendence.
 egoistic (i.e., concern for personal resources): self-enhancement.
Sensation refers to our ability to detect and sense the internal and
external physical qualities of our environment. Our senses include both
exteroception (stimuli that occur outside of our body) and
interoception (stimuli occurring inside of our bodies).
Values play an important role within environmental education. All
human values are linked to satisfying our biological needs. These basic
needs of survival (food, water, shelter, clothing) all place demands on
the environment. ... Values we develop as youngsters and carry to
adulthood are shaped from a variety of sources.
Human and ecological “values” have become powerful concepts in
environmental management. References to values can be found in
contexts ranging from environmental research to management plans
and policies. At the global scale, The Economics of Ecosystems and
Biodiversity project has three core principles of recognizing,
demonstrating, and capturing the value of nature in decision-making
(see Kumar 2010). Similarly, the International Science-Policy Platform
on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services has built its conceptual
framework on values and the valuation of nature (Diaz et al. 2015). At
the national level, the first objective of the United Kingdom’s recent
National Ecosystem Assessment was to assess “the state and value of
the UK’s natural environment” (UK National Ecosystem Assessment
2011:3). Across the world in New Zealand, a recent national policy
directs local councils to specify freshwater limits based on “local and
national values” (New Zealand Government 2014:4). While this
language may reflect an emerging consensus that formalizing “values”
should become a cornerstone of environmental policy and
management, there is no corresponding consensus about what values
are or which approaches to understanding values are useful and
legitimate in particular settings. There is now a huge array of
approaches to documenting and analyzing human and ecological
values, and these approaches come with their own concepts,
assumptions, and limitations. While we may be witnessing a turn
toward governing through environmental values, it is not yet clear
which concepts of value should do the governing. We synthesize critical
academic insights about environmental values concepts to help
practitioners and researchers reflect upon what kinds of environmental
values assessments might be appropriate in particular settings, and
why. We present a typology of values concepts that helps make sense
of the diversity of approaches used in the applied environmental values
and valuation literature. Rather than generating a typology based on
theories, disciplines, or methods, we distinguish four distinct
“conceptual approaches” that may include combinations of disciplinary
theories and methodologies. Since environmental values assessments
in practice tend to contain a mix-and-match of theoretical and
methodological inspirations, we contend that conceptual approaches
provide a more meaningful and practical way into these debates. We
begin with a brief overview of the literature on environmental values,
noting that important critical insights have become buried in
theoretical polemics. We then present a typology of four conceptual
approaches to documenting and analyzing human and ecological values
to support environmental decision-making. We interrogate these
concepts and the participatory mechanisms underpinning these
approaches in order to support researchers and practitioners to be
more transparent about the strengths, limitations, and utility of
different kinds of values assessments. We contend that while there are
situations in which each conceptual approach may be useful, this does
not mean that “anything goes.” Specific values concepts and their use
have implications for the degree and form of participation by local
community members, experts, and environmental managers. We
suggest that applied environmental values research can be understood
as “technologies of participation,” to emphasize how values research
acts to structure and frame the participation of community and expert
actors in the decision-making process. Value-based environmental
decision-making should thus be built on a normative commitment to
fostering diverse (or at least distinctly plural) forms of participation by
experts and community. 1Department of Geography, University of
British Columbia, 2Cawthron Institute, New Zealand

Q2. Discuss the following with focus on theoretical framework

of environment aesthetic:
(A). significance of landscape.
ANSWER:
Landscapes and features are important because they contribute
significantly to our well-being and quality of life. They provide the
broader context within which we live our lives. Living within
aesthetically pleasing and culturally meaningful landscapes enhances
our sense of wellbeing.
Landscaping improves quality of life in cities with several physical and
psychological benefits. For example, just looking at plants is shown to
reduce blood pressure. Walking through a natural environment, even in
the middle of a city, improves attention and memory.
A landscape is the visible features of an area of land, its landforms,
and how they integrate with natural or man-made features. ... The
character of a landscape helps define the self-image of the people who
inhabit it and a sense of place that differentiates one region from other
regions.
A good landscape design plan will work to prevent erosion, especially in
steep areas, with the use of retaining walls. These retaining walls can
be both attractive and functional, keeping the soil where it belongs,
while also providing a nice framework for plants and sculptures.
Landscaping provides excellent means to create pocket parks, roof
gardens, etc. to utilize the small open spaces in urban areas. The crisis
of space can be easily dealt with by creating a cost-effective and
sustainable development of green plants and natural landforms.
isiting largely undeveloped landscapes enables people to re-connect
with nature, to refresh their minds and bodies and to gain a greater
appreciation of New Zealand's natural heritage. Accessible natural
landscapes within close proximity of urban areas, such as the Waitakere
Ranges in Auckland and Banks Peninsula in Christchurch, play an
important role in increasing the quality of life within those cities. Iconic
features such as the volcanic cones in Auckland also contribute to the
visual identities of New Zealand's cities and settled areas. For tangata
whenua, the ongoing ability to associate with valued cultural
landscapes and to access natural resources within these landscapes for
cultural harvest are important elements of cultural well-being.
IMPORTANCE OF LANDSCAPES
Economic Social/Cultural Ecological

Tourism Quality of Life

Branding Spiritual Renewal Indigenous
Attracting Sense of Place and Habitats
Investment Identity Regeneration
Attracting Residents Cultural Values Conservation
Productive Capacity Historical Linkages
Landscapes play an important economic role in directly supporting the
tourism and film industries and adding value to exports by enhancing
New Zealand’s ‘clean and green’ image. High quality landscapes can
strengthen local economies by attracting residents and investment to
an area, as well as tourists. Rural landscapes support a range of primary
production activities such as farming, forestry and horticulture.
People value different landscapes for different reasons. Some
landscapes are appreciated for their high aesthetic natural values.
These include such internationally renowned landscapes such as
Milford Sounds, Lake Wakatipu, the Southern Alps and the Central
Volcanic Plateau, as well as areas of wild and relatively undeveloped
coastline, mountains, high country, lakes and rivers. Other landscapes
are appreciated for their unique or special character which has arisen
from the interaction of natural and human influences over time. Such
landscapes can become an integral part of the identity of local
communities. They provide a strong sense of belonging to ‘our place’
for residents and regular visitors alike.

(B). evolution pf landscape typology.

ANSWER:
Central notions in evolutionary biology are intrinsically topological.
This claim is perhaps most obvious for the discontinuities associated
with punctuated equilibrium. Recently, a mathematical framework has
been developed that derives the concepts of phenotypic characters
and homology from the topological structure of the phenotype space.
This structure in turn is determined by the genetic operators and their
interplay with the properties of the genotype-phenotype map.
a randomized landscape generator with an active search for problems
that differentiate between algorithms. More specifically, an existing
generator was extended to incorporate global ridge dependency
structure. This was used to investigate the relationship between
problem variables and dependency modeling in simple continuous
EDAs. Initial experiments across a single landscape parameter showed
no significant trend with respect to mean algorithm performance
difference. However, individual landscape instances exhibited clear
topological features characterizing algorithm performance. Further
analysis of the results was carried out to show the behavior of the
algorithm leading to the performance differences observed. For a given
set of parameter values, we show how heat maps can be used to
provide a clear, visual comparison of the performance of two
algorithms over a large number of landscape instances and algorithm
trials. Experiments were also conducted performing a metasearch in
the landscape parameter space to find a parameterization maximizing
the mean performance difference between two algorithms. The
landscape parameters found produce landscapes with a consistently
larger mean performance difference. The heat map generated from the
results confirmed the effectiveness of the metasearch. Overall, the
methodology of this paper provides novel ways to gain insight into the
relationship between algorithm performance and landscape structure.
Although the methodology presented is general, the experiments
described above were limited to 2D problems and the algorithmic
parameter settings used. The ridge landscape generator could readily
be extended to generate n-dimensional problems by defining the ridge
as lying along a vector in the space with arbitrary orientation (using n −
1 rotations). Examining higher-dimensional problems and integrating
the variation of algorithm parameters are avenues for future work. A
longer-term goal of this type of exploratory work is to be able to more
precisely categorize or quantify the relationship between landscape
structure and algorithm behavior. One avenue that may further this
goal is the use of different performance measures.

(C). evaluation of continental and regional landscape in

history.
ANSWER:
The aim of landscape ecosystem classification and mapping is to
distinguish appropriately sized ecosystems—useful and functional land
units that differ significantly from one another in abiotic characteristics
as well as in their related biotic components. The subdivision of a large
area into distinctive landscape ecosystems provides a much-needed
framework for integrated resource management and planning; for
biological conservation; and for comparison of differences in
composition, occurrence, interactions, and productivity of plants and
animals among ecosystems.
These ecosystem classifications share a conceptual and methodological
approach that can be characterized as multifactor and multilevel in
orientation. A key aspect of the multifactor approach is the delineation
of map units based on the evaluation of multiple abiotic factors
(including bedrock geology, glacial landform, soils, hydrology, and
regional climatic regimes). Because these abiotic factors represent the
more constant and enduring features of the natural landscape, the
mapping of ecosystems based on abiotic characteristics establishes a
relatively stable framework for understanding and managing biological
diversity. The three State map and classification, by identifying
significant environmental differences among areas along multiple
abiotic dimensions, provides a basis for understanding patterns of
species distribution, natural disturbance regimes, and human land use,
as well as the natural processes responsible for these patterns.
environmental values and valuation are perplexing, in part because
these terms are used in vastly different ways in a variety of contexts.
For some, quantifying human and ecological values is promoted as a
useful technical exercise that can support decision-making. Others
spurn environmental valuation, equating it with reducing ethics to
numbers or “putting a price tag on nature.” We make sense of these
complexities by distilling four fundamental concepts of value (and
valuation) from across the literature. These four concepts value as a
magnitude of preference, value as contribution to a goal, values as
individual priorities, and values as relations entail fundamentally
different approaches to environmental valuation. Two notions of values
(as magnitudes of preference or contributions to a goal) are often
operationalized in technical tools, including monetary valuation, in
which experts tightly structure (and thus limit) citizen participation in
decision-making. This kind of valuation, while useful in some contexts,
can mask important societal choices as technical judgments. The
concept of values as priorities provides a way of describing individuals’
priorities and considering how these priorities differ across a wider
population. Finally, the concept of values as relations is generally used
to foster deliberative forms of civic participation, but this tends to leave
unresolved the final translation of civic meanings for decision makers.
We argue that all forms of valuation even those that are technical tools
constitute technologies of participation, and that values practitioners
should consider themselves more as reflexive facilitators than objective
experts who represent the public interest. We thus encourage debate
about environmental values to pivot away from theoretical gridlock and
toward a concern with citizen empowerment and environmental
democracy
Different concepts of environmental values structure citizen
participation in decision-making in different ways. Some exercises invite
citizens to indicate a magnitude of preference for a particular outcome,
and others ask how much a series of generic value items matter to
them personally. Some applications ask participants how ecosystems
matter to their livelihood and wellbeing, whereas others involve
experts rather than citizens in order to quantify scientifically the value
of ecological processes. Attempts to draw together this diversity of
approaches under a single banner such as ecosystem services have
tended to obscure more than enlighten. We developed this typology as
a way to make meaningful distinctions between concepts and to
consider their practical effects. At the very least, we hope this can help
practitioners identify different values concepts as they appear in
multiple guises. Whether we encounter values concepts through
disciplinary paradigms (e.g., psychology, economics), interdisciplinary
frameworks (such as ecosystem services), or methods such as
participatory mapping, practitioners can now move to identify the
relevant concepts in use and consider what these might mean in the
wider context of the environmental politics of a place. The differences
between these concepts are not merely theoretical. They produce
different effects in the real world. Values applications create channels
for local actors to have a say about their priorities or express their
preferences for different pathways of development. Values applications
create platforms for experts to make claims about the value of the
environment, and can thus give experts a privileged role, as well as
significant responsibility. Environmental values applications can be
fruitfully understood as technologies of participation. By thinking about
how environmental values applications facilitate different forms of
participation (for different social groups), perhaps new concepts,
frameworks, and hybridizations might become thinkable. Whose
participation should be sought for a particular environmental decision,
through which technology, and why? It is not sufficient to answer these
questions through reference to a theoretical construct or paradigm. We
do not just need to account for the content of our theories; we must
also account for the effects of our practices.
Q3. Which emphasis on the experimental approach to environmental
aesthetic, discuss the following:
(A). value of experiment.
The environment affects moral behavior found that a beautiful
environment leads to pro-social behavior, which is related to behavioral
intention. However, the effect of environmental aesthetic value on
immoral and moral behavior remains unclear. Therefore, in the present
study, we explored the effect of environmental aesthetic value on
behavioral intention and its possible mechanisms. We conducted four
experiments. Experiment 1 adopted the priming paradigm and IAT
paradigm to explore the relationship between environmental aesthetic
value and behavioral intention. It used photographs of the environment
as priming stimuli and scene drawings of behavior as target stimuli. The
results showed that participants had a higher intention to engage in
moral behavior in an environment with a high aesthetic value, and a
lower intention to engage in immoral behavior, compared to in an
environment with a low aesthetic value. Similarly, an environment with
a low aesthetic value was related to immoral behavior. Experiment 2
further explored the possible mechanism for the above results: changes
in moral judgment. The results showed that moral judgment in
different environments may lead to different behavioral intentions. The
current study extends prior research by demonstrating the effect of
environmental aesthetic value on behavioral intention and moral
judgment, and good knowledge about the relationship between
environmental aesthetic value and moral behavior. In addition, it
provides a new hypothesis for the relationship between environment
and behavior according to the results of the environment–behavior
matching hypothesis, which can provide a new perspective on moral
education.
In summary, the results of this study reveal that participants’ moral
judgment can be influenced by environments with different aesthetic
values, which in turn influence behavioral intentions. The current
research also provides a new viewpoint for understanding the
relationship between the environment and behavior. The results of this
study can help society positively influence people’s social behavior
through the environment as an objective setting. Whether it is in the
family, school, or other public places, by shaping this beautiful
environment, people’s esthetic and moral education can be influenced.
Although ecologists want to conduct research in urban systems, cultural
constraints, spatial complexity, and institutional agendas limit the
establishment of ecological experiments. Recent approaches using
household landscaping have begun to tackle these obstacles; others,
including adaptive management, restoration, reclamation, and wetland
construction, reveal overlaps between ecological experiments and urban
design. "Designed experiments" propose going beyond current strategies
to partner with urban designers, landscape architects, and architects to
insert architecturally designed experiments into the urban mosaic. The
interdisciplinary approach of designed experiments exploits the aesthetics
and functions of urban design, balancing ecological goals with important
design factors such as context, public amenities, and safety. Designed
experiments represent a novel way for ecologists to help improve urban
environments by providing a means with which to work with urban
designers in creating attractive, practical, and replicated experimental
designs that generate quality ecological data from metropolitan sites.
an improvement of the environmental situation in agricultural areas
with a specific focus on landscape aesthetics. We used the contingent
valuation method to measure the discrete value of landscape aesthetics
externalities produced by different beneficial management practices
implementation scenarios. The choice experiment method was also
used to measure the economic value of other ecosystem services in
order to situate landscape in consumers’ preferences among other non-
market benefits produced by agri-environmental practices. We found
important WTP for landscape aesthetics improvement, as well as for
other ecosystem services, such as water quality and fish diversity.

(B). psychologists role in environment appreciation.

ANSWER:
Environmental psychology is an interdisciplinary field that focuses on
the interplay between individuals and their surroundings. The field
defines the term environment broadly, encompassing natural
environments, social settings, built environments, learning
environments, and informational environments.
Psychologists working on issues affecting
our climate use psychological science to help promote human
behaviors that can protect and restore our environment. They work to
reverse pollution, climate change and biodiversity loss.
Climate and environmental psychologists work in nonprofit
organizations, government agencies, businesses and nongovernmental
organizations. They often apply their expertise to fields such as urban
planning, environmental and interior design, and climate change.

Climate and environmental psychologists seek to improve the

interactions of people with the world around us. They work in areas as
varied as human responses to natural and technological hazards,
conservation, environmental perception and cognition to loneliness,
stress and design.
The environment can influence peoples' behavior and motivation to
act. The environment can influence mood. For example, the results of
several research studies reveal that rooms with bright light, both
natural and artificial, can improve health outcomes such as depression,
agitation, and sleep.
The knowledge of environmental psychology is helpful to promote
environment-friendly behavior because: It studies the interaction of
physical factors such as temperature, humidity, pollution, and natural
disaster on human behaviour are related to behaviour of human beings
as well as its consequence.
The basic objective of this study was to investigate possible
relationships between aesthetic judgements and other affective
responses supposedly related to subjects’ psychological well-being. It
has been possible, from the data obtained, to identify such a
relationship. Thus, the results support the basic hypothesis underlying
Kaplan and Kaplan’s informational model of environmental preference,
previously defended by Berlyne when suggesting the possibility that
aesthetic activities (such as the appraisal behaviour analysed here)
“promote certain biological functions, and that human beings are
healthier with them than without them” (1971, p. 9). Aesthetic
judgements appear, indeed, to be associated with the two basic
dimensions characterizing the affective appraisals manifested by
individuals in relation to their physical environments, the dimensions of
pleasure and arousal. It has also been the intention of this study to
improve knowledge of the relationships between different experiences
considered as affective: appraisal responses, manifested in this study in
general preference judgements (aesthetic judgements) and the so-
called states of mood. In this way we attempted to respond to the
question posed, in the first place, in the context of experimental
aesthetics studies, by Berlyne when he stated: “it is often assumed that
when subjects evaluate a stimulus they are informing us of the affective
reactions it evokes in them. The establishment of correlations between
evaluative scales and scales of internal states moods may show us to
what extent this assumption is justified” (1974, p. 16). The data
presented provide empirical justification for this assumption. In the
same line as Berlyne though in another context and in a different way–
Russell and Snodgrass (1987) stressed the need to increase knowledge
of these appraisal responses (which they call affective appraisals),
pointing out that “there remains the empirical question as to the
possibility that they always accompany states of mood, and vice-versa”
(op. cit., p. 253). Our data allow us, provisionally, to state that, in the
case of aesthetic (appraisal) behaviour they would seem to be
inseparable. Likewise, the results suggest the possibility that both
responses form part of a pluriaffective construct that incorporates
variables related to the two basic dimensions of the global meaning
that physical environments hold for individuals (pleasure and arousal).
On the basis of the above, the aesthetic response a given environment
may evoke would appear to be an important index of measurement of
this construct that reflects the level of fit between physical contexts
and some of the principal affective needs of individuals in relation to
them. The differential role, within the context of this construct, that
may be played by the two measures of aesthetic response used in this
study is less clear, and constitutes one of the aspects to considered in
future studies on environmental aesthetics. Likewise, it is necessary to
gain more profound knowledge of the relationship between them
established in the present work.
(C). urban and rural environment comparison.
ANSWER:
This information is important to understanding how environments
contribute to the accumulation of stress and how this information can
be used to positively affect health status in individuals and populations.
Though this study was not able to validate the hypothesis that natural
urban environments have a greater ability to positively affect
unprovoked de novo levels of stress than built urban environments, the
presence of multiple extraneous variables cannot rule-out the
possibility that such an effect occur. Future studies looking to utilize an
experimental field study design should control for these variables (e.g.,
noise, past exposures, non-study personnel, etc.). Consideration of
environmental self-identity, perceived restrictiveness and pre-existing
levels of stress should be included as co-variates, and data should be
analyzed by gender. Further studies are needed to determine what the
effects on chronic or repeat exposures to environments might be, and if
measuring the effect of these repeat exposure visits supports the
epidemiological evidence.
Children from both urban and rural places of residence show a high
sense of connection to nature, being higher for those living in rural
areas (t = 360.76, p < 0.00). However, they report a low frequency of
conducting PEB, with urban children reporting a lower frequency than
rural children (t = 395.13, p < 0.00). Girls reported more connection to
nature (t = 358.60, p < 0.00) than boys, while PEB is very similar for
both genders. We found a moderate positive correlation (Cohen, 1988)
between children’s place of residence and PEB, as well as between
connection to nature
Children from both urban and rural places of residence show a high
sense of connection to nature, being higher for those living in rural
areas (t = 360.76, p < 0.00). However, they report a low frequency of
conducting PEB, with urban children reporting a lower frequency than
rural children (t = 395.13, p < 0.00). Girls reported more connection to
nature (t = 358.60, p < 0.00) than boys, while PEB is very similar for
both genders. We found a moderate positive correlation (Cohen, 1988)
between children’s place of residence and PEB, as well as between
connection to nature
What is the relationship between rural and urban areas?
RURAL–URBAN LINKAGES include flows of agricultural and other
commodities from rural- based producers to urban markets, both for
local consumers and for forwarding to regional, national and
international markets; and, in the opposite direction, flows of
manufactured and imported goods from urban centers to rural
Similarities ;
1)Both the Rural and Urban Societies have an education system.
2)Both the Rural and Urban Societies have jobless and poor people.
3)Both the Rural and Urban Societies have cheaters.
4)Both the Rural and Urban Societies have rich people.
5)Both the Rural and Urban Societies have tough jobs.
6)Both the Rural and Urban Societies have kind people.
7)Both the Rural and Urban Societies have people who pick on others.
8)Both the Rural and Urban Societies have sources of income.
9)Both the Rural and Urban Societies have harsh living conditions.
10)Both the Rural and Urban Societies have recreational activities.
Differences Between Urban and Rural
☆ The fundamental differences between urban and rural are discussed
in the following points:
☆ A settlement where the population is very high and has the features
of a built environment (an environment that provides basic facilities for
human activity), is known as urban. Rural is the geographical region
located in the outer parts of the cities or towns.
☆ The life in urban areas is fast and complicated, whereas rural life is
simple and relaxed.
☆ The Urban settlement includes cities and towns. On the other hand,
 the rural settlement includes villages and hamlets.
☆ There is greater isolation from nature in urban areas, due to the
existence of the built environment. Conversely, rural areas are in direct
contact with nature, as natural elements influence them.
☆ Urban people are engaged in non-agricultural work, i.e. trade,
commerce or service industry. In contrast, the primary occupation of
rural people is agriculture and animal husbandry.
☆ Population wise, urban areas are densely populated, which is based
on the urbanisation, i.e. the higher the urbanisation, the higher is the
population. On the contrary, the rural population is sparse, which has
an inverse relationship with agriculturism.
☆ Urban areas are developed in a planned and systematic way,
according to the process of urbanisation and industrialisation.
Development in rural areas is seldom, based on the availability of
natural vegetation and fauna in the region.
☆ When it comes to social mobilisation, urban people are highly
intensive as they change their occupation or residence frequently in
search of better opportunities. However, in rural areas occupational or
territorial mobility of the people is relatively less intensive.
☆ Division of labour and specialisation is always present in the urban
settlement at the time of job allotment. As opposed to rural areas,
there is no division of labour.

Q4. Write notes on the following with appropriate examples:

(A) conservation of natural landscape.
ANSWER:
Landscape conservation is an approach that brings people together
across geographies, sectors, and cultures to collaborate on conserving
our important landscapes and the myriad ecological, cultural, and
economic benefits they provide.
4 easy ways to conserve and protect plants
1. Grow your own.
2. Use natural pesticides.
3. Support rewilding from your back garden.
4. Stay on the path.
5. To protect wildlife
And we can maintain a healthy and functional ecosystem. Some species
cannot survive outside of their own natural habitat without human
intervention such as in zoos and aquariums. Preservation of these
habitats helps to prevent the entire ecosystem being harmed.
Preservation of open space, trails, parks and greenways creates jobs,
enhances property values, expands local businesses, attracts new or
relocating businesses, increases local tax revenues, decreases local
government expenditures through the natural provision of ecosystem
services, decreases the cost of recreation
This essential, new conservation paradigm represents a fundamental
shift in traditional conservation thinking on three levels:

 A shift in geographic scale: Decades of scientific research have

built an emerging systems-level understanding of the natural
world and have underscored the importance of habitat
connectivity across scales. To sustain biodiversity, ecological
function, and climate resilience, conservation must transcend
arbitrary boundaries and move beyond a site-specific, parcel-by-
parcel approach.
 A shift in perspective: Wildlands, farmlands, timberlands, tribal
lands, places of cultural and historical significance, rural
communities, urban areas, and other private and public lands are
all part of a fully integrated whole — a landscape — and do not
exist independent of one another. The landscape conservation
perspective is that the entire landscape, private or public,
developed to wild, must be considered in a thoughtful and
integrated manner.
 A shift in process: Landscape conservation crosses jurisdictional
and topical boundaries, transcending traditional decision-making
 processes and top-down hierarchies. The landscape conservation
approach is generally characterized by a horizontal process and
collaborative governance structure with long-term participation
by a meaningful diversity of stakeholders.
Landscape conservation is also called “large landscape conservation” or
“landscape scale conservation.”
Conservation helps to ensure we not only save species from
destruction. but help preserve the environment we ourselves live in.
The cons are that we have limited resources. Also it can be hard to
choose where to focus our efforts.

1. Large scale: It plans land uses at the landscape scale. Wildlife

population dynamics and watershed functions can only be
understood at the landscape scale. Assuming short-term trade-
offs may lead to long-term synergies, conducting analyses over
long time periods is advocated.
2. Emphasis on synergies: It tries to exploit "synergies" among
conservation, agricultural production, and rural livelihoods.
3. Emphasis on collaboration: It can not be achieved by individuals.
The management of landscapes require different land managers
with different environmental and socio-economic goals to
achieve conservation, production, and livelihood goals at a
landscape scale.
4. Importance of both conservation and agricultural production:
bringing conservation into the agricultural and rural development
discourse by highlighting the importance of ecosystem services in
supporting agricultural production. It supports conservationists to
more effectively conserve nature within and outside protected
areas by working with the agricultural community by developing
conservation-friendly livelihoods for rural land users.
 (B). strategies to scope with technological invasion in the
environmental landscape arena to conserve the natural
environment.
ANSWER:
Five ways that tech can help us protect natural resources
 The fight to protect ecosystems. ...
 Collecting real-time data on wildlife. ...
 Promoting sustainable fishing. ...
 Using mobile Big Data to fight air pollution. ...
 Livestreaming the rainfore
 One of the most significant ways to contribute to saving the
environment is to sustainably generate and use the available energy
resources.Some examples of technology-efficient energy solutions are
fuel cells, lithium-air batteries, hydrogen energy storage, and thermal
energy collectors.
 Technology is fundamentally changing the way we live, work, relate to
one another and to the external world. The speed, breadth and depth
of current breakthroughs has no historical precedent and is disrupting
almost every sector in every country. Now more than ever, the advent
of new technology has the potential to transform environmental
protection.
 The hunt for new smarter ways to support our development has always
been a key driver of technological advancement. Today as our
civilisation faces a new unprecedented challenge, technology can play a
crucial role in decoupling development and environmental degradation.
 Let’s be clear. No human technology can fully replace ‘nature’s
technology’ perfected over hundreds of millions of years in delivering
key services to sustain life on Earth. A productive, diverse natural
world, and a stable climate have been the foundation of the success of
our civilization, and will continue to be so in future. A fundamental
issue in previous technological revolutions has been the lightness with
which we have taken for granted healthy natural systems like forests,
oceans, river basins (all underpinned and maintained by biodiversity)
rather than valuing these as a necessary condition to development.
We consume more natural resources than the planet can regenerate.
 On 1 August, the world hit Earth Overshoot Day, the point in our
calendars when we tip into consuming more natural resources
than the planet can regenerate in a year.
 Global Footprint Network, an international non-profit
that calculates how we are managing or failing to manage the
world’s resources, says that in the first seven months of 2018 we
devoured a year’s worth of resources, such as water, to produce
everything from the food on our plates to the clothes we’re
wearing a new unwanted record.
 At present, we are using resources and ecosystem services as
though we had 1.7 Earths and such an ecological overshoot is
possible only for a limited time before ecosystems begin to
degrade and, ultimately, collapse.
 As global biodiversity continues to decline steeply, the health and
functioning of crucial ecosystems like forests, the ocean, rivers
and wetlands will be affected. Coupled with climate change
impacts which are evident in warnings from scientists and the
increasing frequency and intensity of extreme weather events
worldwide; this is going to be disastrous for the ecological balance
of the planet and for our survival. Earth Overshoot Day is a stark
reminder of the urgent actions individuals, countries and the
global community must take to protect forests, oceans, wildlife
and freshwater resources and help achieve resilience and
sustainable development for all.
 We have a critical window of opportunity between now and 2020
to put in place commitments and actions to reverse the trend of
nature loss by 2030 and help ensure the health and well-being of
people and our planet.
 This is not just doom and gloom, the risk is real
 The failing of natural systems is not without consequences for us.
  Every day new evidence of our unsustainable impact on the
environment is emerging. The last five years have been the
warmest five-year period on record, the Arctic warmed much
faster than predicted and the UN estimates that in the last 10
years, climate-related disasters have caused $1.4 trillion worth of
damage worldwide.
 In just over 40 years, the world has witnessed 60% decline in
wildlife across land, sea and freshwater and is heading towards a
shocking decline of two-thirds by 2020 if current trends continue.
This has happened in less than a generation. A blink of the eye,
compared to the hundreds of millions of years some of these
species have lived on our planet.
 Forests are under pressure like never before with unabated
deforestation and at sea, 90% of the world’s fish stocks are
overfished.

Q5. Explain the following with reference to the developing

countries.
(A). environmental education
ANSWER:
The incorporation of environmental education strategies also made
many contributions towards sustainable development such as an
increased youth and adult understanding of environmental issues and
participation in decisions pertaining to natural and social
resources according to Ritchie, countries like India, Brazil, Kenya,
Philippines, China, Japan, Tanzania, Colombia and Finland have had
environmental education formally mandated in their national
curriculum for years, some even decades.
This international agreement developed a strategy for addressing
sustainable development throughout the world by calling for increase
community participation in addressing environmental, social, and
economic concerns that affect their community. Although there was
much debate about approaches for sustainable development, there
was near universal support for the need to provide improved
educational opportunities for students that allows them to develop
valuable life skills such as communication and critical thinking. The
importance of providing students with opportunities to develop these
skills is seen as a valuable component in educational reform. By
developing a curriculum that stresses interaction and inquiry with the
human and natural resources of a community, it is possible to develop
the skills students will need to address future concerns. Environmental
education that focuses on these community resources can contribute
to the essential variables of increased student ownership and
empowerment in the learning process, which are important to student
skills achievement. Environmental education programs that contribute
to educational reform and sustainability have many different variables
depending on location, cultural contexts, or community concerns.
However, some program variables are generalizable and can be applied
in a variety of settings and programs. An identified need, a strong
emphasis on natural and human resources located within the
community, program structure, and long-term commitment to
developing student’s skills are four variables necessary for educational
reform and program success.
Education has been identified as an essential component for
sustainable development worldwide. The role of education can also
positively influence the management of the world’s increasingly
stressed natural resources through the incorporation of successful
techniques of environmental education. Environmental education
provides students with the knowledge, skills, and experiences essential
to become successful community leaders, as well as making intelligent
decisions pertaining to the management of their natural resources.
The impact of pollution is more severe in developing countries, leading
to ill health, death and disabilities of millions of people annually.
Developed countries have the resources and technologies to combat
 pollution. This may lead to environmental pollution and degradation.
Environmental education is a process that allows individuals to explore
environmental issues, engage in problem solving, and take action to
improve the environment. As a result, individuals develop a deeper
understanding of environmental issues and have the skills to make
informed and responsible decisions.
They include:
 air and water pollution.
 climate change.
 soil degradation.
 over-exploitation of natural resources.
 biodiversity loss.
 deforestation.
 desertification, and.
 ocean acidification.
Environmental education teaches the public about current and past
environmental issues and provides citizens with unbiased facts.
Environmental education engages citizen's critical thinking skills and
empowers them to make sound decisions to change behavior and
cultural processes.
Providing aid stimulates the growth of the world economy along with
promoting economic development within the region. It can help with
market expansion. Providing aid to a country could mean the expansion
of goods and resources that can be shared between the two countries.
Providing aid stimulates the growth of the world economy along with
promoting economic development within the region. It can help with
market expansion. Providing aid to a country could mean the expansion
of goods and resources that can be shared between the two countries.

(B) Aesthetic urban planning

ANSWER:
 The reactions given at the end of a perception process by citizens who
perceive the city as a whole. Learn more in: Advertisement as Part of
Entertainment Culture and its Effects on City Culture.
Urban design and urban planning are related but different in
fundamental ways. Urban planning is the act of planning the structures
of a city, including its policies, infrastructure, neighborhoods, building
codes, and regulations. On the other hand, urban design is the creation
of city features based on plans.
Is Urban Planning a Good Career Choice? The urban planning career
outlook is promising in terms of growth. Reports by the Bureau of Labor
Statistics indicate 11% job growth between 2018-2028. Urban planners
have the opportunity to address these concerns in city design and
revitalization projects.
Best countries to study urban planning
 New Zealand.
 Lebanon.
The report, Inclusive and Sustainable Urban Development by Design,
makes the case that tackling urban poverty and attending to its spatial
manifestations is vitally important to national economic and social
development. From a low of an estimated 28 percent of the population
in Latin America to a high of 76 percent in South Asia, the urban poor
constitute both an enormous challenge and an opportunity: relieving
the immense human suffering the urban poor experience and
supporting them can unleash their entrepreneurial drive and their
significant contribution to labor markets. The speed with which many
regions of the world are urbanizing, the haphazard spatial development
of urban areas, and the deplorable conditions under which more than
800 million slum dwellers live make the need to address urban poverty
more urgent than ever.
The study outlines key deficiencies in how developing countries
conduct their urban planning. Often, national governments establish
regional authorities or public-private partnerships to plan major
investments in urban infrastructure. These authorities and
partnerships, however, often do not adequately consider broader
regional land use planning goals, community input, or the needs of
poor communities. Local land use regulations and plans, to the extent
that they exist at all, are not widely followed. Plans for slums seldom
situate them in the context of broader plans for the urban region. And
the nongovernmental organizations that do much of the work to
improve slums rarely coordinate their efforts. Community-based
organizations often are weak and not incorporated into the
government’s urban planning process. In addition, these governments,
authorities, and partnerships generally fail to formulate specific
strategies to improve or redevelop slums with minimum disruption to
existing homes and economic activities. The result of these deficiencies
is largely unplanned and uncoordinated urban growth.
Yet, the report notes, many examples of better planning practices exist
around the world. These include efforts to develop national strategies
for urban development and poverty alleviation, regional planning and
governance, anticipatory planning for urban growth and climate
change, spatial planning and coordination of land uses and
investments, participatory planning and community engagement, asset
building for the poor, and institutional transparency and accountability
through initiatives such as participatory municipal budgeting.
The study explores key obstacles to addressing urban poverty in
developing countries, including the limited public resources available to
deal with such an enormous challenge, how political motivations
complicate planning for slums, and the weak capacity for planning and
investment at the regional level.
Drawing on planning advances and examples of best practices, the
report contains a list of recommendations on how better urban
planning and investment can spur inclusive and sustainable urban
development:

 Support the formation of national urban development

commissions spurred by intergovernmental, international bodies
 that are charged with developing plans for inclusive and
sustainable urban development.
 Create regional planning funds to support participatory, multi-
stakeholder spatial planning initiatives at the regional level.
 Pursue improved and transparent planning practices through
large-scale, public-private partnerships.
 Build government capacity to maximize public benefits from
public land sales, granting real estate development rights to
private landowners and public-private partnerships.
 Develop a diagnostic tool to assess and improve urban planning
and governance for inclusive and sustainable urban development.
 Identify and invest in best practices and processes for urban
planning.
 Invest in community-based organizations and their intermediary
support organizations.
 Invest in training and nurturing local entrepreneurs who are
dedicated to meeting the market demands of the poor and who
will employ them in local businesses.
 Set up innovation and social venture capital funds to test the risks
and returns of “mezzo-level” (as opposed to microcredit) lending
to organizations focused on housing, community infrastructure,
and small business expansion in slums.
Taken together, these actions would greatly improve planning for
inclusive and sustainable urban development and create an
international movement to focus on these issues. Despite the severity
of urban poverty, the rapid urbanization of many parts of the world,
and the compelling reasons to combat urban poverty and slums, many
feel that these issues remain too low on international and national
agendas. With a growing list of examples of best practices to address
urban poverty in effective ways, the Millennium Development Goals
established by the United Nations still before us, and a chorus of
globally branded businesses (including McKinsey and JP Morgan Chase)
calling for better urban planning and poverty amelioration strategies,
 there is a chance that these issues will gain the international attention
they deserve.

(C) Aesthetic landscape planning.

ANSWER:
An aesthetic landscape is pleasing to the eye and evokes feelings of joy
when viewing the scenery. Landscape design is concerned both with
aesthetic and functional elements of landscaping. A landscape design is
like a floor plan for an outdoor area. Like a floor plan, a landscape
design creates a visual representation of a site using scaled dimensions.
Landscape plans include natural elements like flowers, trees, and grass
as well as man-made elements such as lawn furniture, fountains, and
sheds.
The aesthetic value of a landscape is closely linked to its beauty and
uniqueness. An individual might be drawn to a particular landform
because of its overwhelming majesty, creating a personal connection to
the place.
The Seven Principles of Design
 simplicity. elements that do not provide improvement or impact on the
design can be omitted.
 variety. shape, size and form selections should be diverse in order to
create visual interest.
 balance.
 emphasis.
 sequence. ...
 scale / proportion.
 unity.
Landscape planning ultimately considers the connectivity of human
habitats and living spaces and nature. It deals with the design and use
of outdoor, public spaces and can involve environmental, social and
political concerns an international journal of landscape ecology,
planning and design, landscape planning “is concerned with conceptual,
scientific, and design approaches to land use. It emphasizes ecological
understanding and a multi-disciplinary approach to analysis, planning
and design.” Landscape planning is very important to consider in
developing land or restoring a city.

As one of the founding members of the American Society of Landscape

Architects in 1899, Frederick Law Olmsted was a pioneer in the field of
landscape planning. The term “landscape architect” became used after
his prominent work designing such landmarks as Central Park in New
York City, Prospect Park in Brooklyn, the campus of Stanford University
and government buildings such as the U.S. Capitol grounds. His work
encompassed a strong foundation of social and political values that
defined his career and the unique purpose of landscape planning.

 Landscape planning ultimately considers the connectivity of

human habitats and living spaces and nature.
 According to Elsevier, an international journal of landscape
ecology, planning and design, landscape planning “is concerned
with conceptual, scientific, and design approaches to land use.
Landscape planners are responsible for designing traditional outdoor
spaces such as parks and gardens, educational campuses, and
residential and commercial developments. A more recent role in
landscape planning has been the restoration of natural environments
damaged by human disregard. According to the American Society of
Landscape Architects, “appreciation for historic landscapes and cultural
resources enables landscape architects to undertake preservation
planning projects for national, regional and local historic sites and
areas.”

The career of landscape planning is important to many other job fields.

Landscape architects work with governmental offices, architects, city
planners and civil engineers to design livable structures for human and
environmental sustainability. Landscape architects are responsible for
providing for human needs in partnership with making wise use of our
environmental resources.

 Landscape planners are responsible for designing traditional

outdoor spaces such as parks and gardens, educational campuses,
and residential and commercial developments.
 A more recent role in landscape planning has been the restoration
of natural environments damaged by human disregard.
Landscape architects also play a huge role in creating public awareness
and understanding of the limited natural resources we enjoy.
Organizations such as the American Society of Landscape Architects
help to promote the appreciation and integration of human living
within a precious natural environment.
Most people are unaware of the fact that a majority of the products
used at home like the furniture, upholstery, building materials, fixtures,
etc., emit toxic pollutants in the environment around them. While the
reasons can vary from the oxidization of heavy metals to toxic gases,
the impact is the same. Of these, air pollution is the primary area of
concern.
With landscape architecture, you get a sustainable and efficient option
to clear the environment of such toxins. With green plants in and
around your home, carbon dioxide levels are always under control.
Also, plants absorb toxic materials helping you maintain a healthy living
space.
There are various tools that can help you balance the ecosystem in your
vicinity and find indoor plants like Aloe Vera, Cacti, Ferns, etc. to clean
the environment around your home. Many landscape architects also
use phytoremediation techniques to remove contaminants in the soil
and groundwater and revitalize them.

Q7. Explain the role of one NON-GOVERNMENT

ORGANIZATION in Pakistan that has played its role to
 conserve the “Natural Environment”. Prepare 10 power point
slides to present in the workshop.
ANSWER:
NGOs create awareness among the public on current environmental
issues and solutions. Also protecting, the natural resources and
entrusting the equitable use of resources. They help villages
administrative officials in preparation, application and execution of
projects on environmental protection.
Greenpeace is an environment-friendly international organization,
which aims at promoting environmental awareness. It is an
independent, campaigning organization, addressing the environmental
abuse through direct, non-violent confrontations with governments
and companies.
An Act to provide for the protection, conservation, rehabilitation and
improvement of environment, for the prevention and control of
pollution, and promotion of sustainable development. Pakistan
Environmental Protection Agency also provides all kind of technical
assistance to the Ministry of Climate Change.
Environmental NGOs can play a crucial role in helping to plug gaps by
conducting research to facilitate policy development, building
institutional capacity, and facilitating independent dialogue with civil
society to help people live more sustainable lifestyles.
Ten Simple Things You Can Do to Help Protect the Earth
1. Reduce, reuse, and recycle. Cut down on what you throw away.
2. Volunteer. Volunteer for cleanups in your community.
3. Educate.
4. Conserve water.
5. Choose sustainable.
6. Shop wisely.
7. Use long-lasting light bulbs.
8. Plant a tree.
The Ontario Electricity Coalition is a two-year-old labour-environmental
coalition, including the Toronto Environmental Alliance, the Canadian
Union of Public Employees (CUPE), the Communication Energy and
Paper workers Union of Canada (CEP), the United Steelworkers of
America (USWA) and the Canadian Auto Workers (CAW).
Under the guise of protecting nature, they collect donations and file
frivolous lawsuits at taxpayer expense to eliminate the utilization of
natural resources through grazing, logging, and mining on federal and
state lands. Not only does this undermine true conservation and
scientifically sound, balanced resource management, it decimates
private property rights and devastates vital, long-established,
sustainable industries upon which rural economies are based. It is
highly important to be aware of these groups and their tactics as they
work to line their pockets and gut our rural communities.
Financial governance:
NGOs exist for the benefit of their beneficiaries. The NGO’s governing
body is entrusted with responsibility for overseeing the organization on
behalf of the beneficiaries. For this reason, governing body members
are often called ‘trustees’. They act as stewards, representing and
protecting the beneficiaries’ interests. The board has ultimate legal,
moral, and financial responsibility for the organization.
The governing body:
The governing body may have different names, such as board of
trustees, board of directors, executive council, executive committee,
etc. The board is often organized with a series of permanent or
temporary sub-committees for Finance and Personnel
matters. Advisory committees are also frequently set up to provide
support to a country programmed or new project.
Financial governance:
NGOs exist for the benefit of their beneficiaries. The NGO’s governing
body is entrusted with responsibility for overseeing the organization on
behalf of the beneficiaries. For this reason, governing body members
are often called ‘trustees’. They act as stewards, representing and
protecting the beneficiaries’ interests. The board has ultimate legal,
moral, and financial responsibility for the organization.
The governing body:
The governing body may have different names, such as board of
trustees, board of directors, executive council, executive committee,
etc. The board is often organized with a series of permanent or
temporary sub-committees for Finance and Personnel
matters. Advisory committees are also frequently set up to provide
support to a country programme or new project.
The five roles of board members
 Board members should avoid getting too involved in day to day
management of the organisation, although they do need to be
aware of what is happening.
 Making sure that funds are used to help beneficiaries effectively
  Making sure that the organisation has enough funding
 Making sure that the organisation has effective senior
management
 Making sure that the organisation operates within the law
 Making sure that the board can handle its responsibilities
effectively
Making sure funds are used to help beneficiaries effectively
 Ensuring the organisation has practical strategies for analysing
and responding to social problems
 Monitoring if the organisation is actually doing a good job, putting
its strategy into practice and achieving value for money
 Approving an annual budget for expenditure, based on the cost of
relevant activities
 Making sure that the organisation has appropriate internal
controls and accounting systems to ensure that funds are used
properly
 Regularly checking that internal controls are followed in practice
( carrying out or engaging internal audits)
 Taking an active role in internal controls as necessary (eg
authorising large payments)
 Regularly monitoring financial reports, including the income and
expenditure statement and the balance sheet
 Monitoring whether the organisation is being accountable to its
beneficiaries
Making sure the organisation has enough funding
 Approving the income section of the annual budget
 Monitoring the amount of income received
 Actively working out how to ensure the organisation will be
sustainable, including approving a financing strategy
 Monitoring relationships with donors (eg if reports are submitted
on time)
 Monitoring fund balances including general reserves
If any fund balances are in negative, this could have serious implications
for your credibility
Making sure the organisation has effective senior management
 Recruiting a chief executive with financial management skills for
their role (or supporting the Chief Executive to develop these
skills)
 Supporting the Chief Executive to develop a culture of good
financial management ( leading by example and
encouraging finance and programme staff to work together)
 Making sure that the most senior finance manager is a member of
the most senior management team
 Encouraging an open culture that recognises problems and aims
to learn from them
 Holding senior managers to account for the results of the
decisions that they take and the initiatives they launch. Everything
you want to achieve depends on the people employed to do it.
Senior managers have to inspire and support other staff.
Making sure the organisation operates within the law
 Understanding the NGO's legal requirements, including Labour
laws, Tax laws and Health & Safety legislation.
 Making sure that the management team meets legal
requirements (e.g. paying taxes, filing annual reports).
 Appointing external auditors and overseeing the audit.
 Approving the audited accounts and annual reports.
 Filing reports with government departments.
Making sure the board can handle its responsibilities effectively
 Appointing a treasurer, with specific responsibilities for financial
management and the skills to carry them out.
 Making sure that all board members understand their financial
management responsibilities and supporting them to develop
appropriate skills.
  Making sure there are no conflicts of interest between the
organisation’s operations and board members' work or business
interests
 Making time at board meetings to discuss the financial
management aspect of all major decisions.
The Strategy has three overriding objectives: conservation of natural
resources, sustainable development, and improved efficiency in the use
and management of resources. Reaching these goals depends in turn
on three operating principles: ■ Achieving greater public partnership in
development and management; ■ Merging environment and
economics in decision making; ■ Focusing on durable improvements in
the quality of life of Pakistanis. Part I of the report surveys the state of
Pakistan's environment in the broadest sense by examining the quality
of its land, water and air, its energy use, the health of its people, and
the institutions and policies that deal with these concerns. The report
points out that less than 20% of the country's 88 million hectares have
the potential for intensive agricultural use — an amount nearly
matched by the current cultivated acreage. In addition, at 4%, Pakistan
has one of the smallest percentages of land surface covered by forest in
the world.
Pakistan relies on irrigation for more than 90% of its agricultural
production. Although the amount of water available per acre has
increased by more than a third over the last 30 years, the efficiency
with which it has been used has not. Even by the standards of the rest
of Asia, Pakistan's irrigation efficiency record is poor. Only about 30% of
the water diverted from the river system actually reaches the crops.
The rest is lost in poorly maintained, largely unlined, often weed-
infested, canals and watercourses and through poor farming practices.
The arid and semi-arid rangelands which cover much of the country are
in bad shape with chronic overgrazing and poor maintenance practices
responsible for productivity losses of up to 40%. In a dry country like
Pakistan, this is often a prelude to desertification . Pakistan's
considerable marine resources are also under threat. Untreated urban
sewage, mangrove cutting, siltation and unplanned urban development
affect particularly the coastal areas around Karachi. Fresh water
resources are also becoming increasingly polluted.