Introduction to Cells (1.

1)
IB Diploma Biology
 C come
only
E from
L existing
cells.
L
S
4-cell stage of a sea biscuit by Bruno Vellutini on Flickr (CC) http://flic.kr/p/daWnnS
 Hooke names “cells” in his book

1665 “Micrographia” after observing

cork under a lense.

are made of cells.

All living things

Hooke’s Micrographia in full! http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/nat_hist/id/0

1676
All living things are
made of cells.
van Leeuwenhoek, a master microscope maker identifies
“animalcules” and becomes the father of microbiology.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonie_van_Leeuwenhoek
1833 Robert Brown names the cell nucleus.
Cells are the smallest units of life.

He also discovered Brownian motion:

Robert Brown: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Brown_(botanist) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brownian_motion

1837 German Botanist
Mathias Schleiden posits
that all plants are made of
cells

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Matthias_Jacob_Schleiden.jpg
 1839 German physiologist
Theodor Schwann, after a
lovely dinner with his mate
Schleiden and a chat about
nuclei, realised that animals
were comprised of cells too
and stated: “All living things
are composed of cells and
cell products”

He was also responsible for the discovery of Schwann cells in the PNS, pepsin in
the gut, the fact that yeast is organic… and he made up the word ‘metabolism’.
What a legend! Or, as they say in German, legende!

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Schwann_Theodore.jpg
1855 Robert Remak discovers cell division and confirms the existence
of the plasma membrane. Cells come only from pre-existing cells.

German doctor, pathologist and biologist Rudolf Virchow

plagiarized Remak’s work and got most of the credit…
(A.K.A. the father of modern pathology)

Robert Remak: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Remak

 Pasteur disproves the prevailing theory of “spontaneous

1864 generation” with his swan-neck flask experiments.

Populations need to be seeded by existing populations: cells come
only from pre-existing cells.

Image from Amoeba Mike’s Blog (go read the original post):
http://amoebamike.wordpress.com/2009/10/06/spontaneous-generation-a-brief-history-of-disproving-it
1.1.1 According to the cell theory, living organisms are composed of cells

Cells vary in many ways within and

between organisms, but some things
are common to all cells…

• Surrounded by a membrane

• Contain genetic material (DNA)

• Contain enzymes to catalyze

chemical reactions within the cell

• Have an energy-release system (or

metabolism)
1.1.2 Organisms consisting of only one cell carry out all functions of life in that cell

All cellular organisms carry out the following

functions of life:
• Metabolism (chemical reactions that release energy for cellular use)
• Reproduction (either asexual or sexual)

• Homeostasis (maintain stable internal conditions)

• Growth
• Response to the environment
• Excretion (removal of waste)
• Nutrition (Obtaining food needed for energy & growth)
1.1.2 Organisms consisting of only one cell carry out all functions of life in that cell
 Which dissolves faster: sugar
cubes or sugar crystals? Why?
Sugar Cubes by Uwe Hermann on Flickr (CC) http://flic.kr/p/cFMMc
 What will go cold faster: French
fries or a baked potato? Why?

French Fries by Ian Britton on Flickr (CC) http://flic.kr/p/6RLQ8j

1.1.3 Surface are to volume ratio is important in the limitation of cell size
1.1.3 Surface are to volume ratio is important in the limitation of cell size
 As the cell gets larger, it requires
more resources to be imported and
produces more products (and waste)
to be exported.

Therefore, a larger volume requires

more exchange across the membrane.

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Sphere
As the cell gets larger…

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Sphere
As the cell gets larger…
…the surface area to
volume ratio
actually gets
smaller…

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Sphere
As the cell gets larger…
…the surface area to
volume ratio
actually gets
smaller…
…so the
exchange
processes
become less
efficient with
increasing size. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Sphere
 Diffusion Pathways

are shorter (and

more efficient)
in smaller cells
with a larger
surface are to
volume ratio.

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Sphere
Cells can get around this problem by
growing projections, having a flattened
form, or being long and thin.

Multicellular organisms have developed

circulatory systems to deliver nutrients
and oxygen and remove wastes.
Exchange structures with large surface
areas, such as the lungs and the gut,
have evolved.
 Big Cell Exceptions

Caulerpa species of algae are

one giant cell with many
nuclei distributed throughout.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caulerpa
 Emergent Properties
the whole is
more than the sum
of its parts

Photo by Stephen Taylor: http://www.flickr.com/photos/gurustip/9668701965/in/photostream

1.1.4 Multicellular organisms have properties that emerge from the interaction of their cellular
components
1.1.5 Specialized tissues can develop by cell differentiation in multicellular organisms

• 220 recognized, different

highly-specialized cells
types in humans

• EX: Rod cells in retina of

the eye are light-sensitive

• EX: Red blood cells carrying

oxygen and nutrients

• Groups of similar cells form

tissues (epithelial, muscle,
connective, and nervous)
1.1.6 Differentiation involves the expression of some genes and not others in the cell’s genome

Differentiation (specialization) of cells:

All diploid (body) cells have the same chromosomes.
So they carry all the same genes and alleles.
BUT
Not all genes are expressed (activated) in all cells.
The cell receives a signal.
This signal activates or deactivates genes.
Genes are expressed accordingly and the cell is committed.
Eventually the cell has become specialized to a function.

Key Concept: Structure v. Function

How do the structures of specialized cells reflect their
functions?
Screenshot from this excellent tutorial: How does differentiation lead to this?
http://www.ns.umich.edu/stemcells/022706_Intro.html
1.1.8 Question the cell theory using atypical examples, including striated muscle,
giant algae and aseptate fungal hyphae
• Exception #1: Muscle Fiber
• Muscle fibers are much larger
than normal animal cells and
may have as many as several
hundred nuclei per “cell”
• Exception #2: Fungal Hyphae
• In some fungi, each hypha is a single, long tube structure with
many nuclei
• Exception #3: Giant Algae
• Can grow as large as 100mm (!)
yet only has one nucleus
• An organism this size would be
expected to be made up of
many cells…
1.1.9 Investigate functions of life in Paramecium and one named photosynthetic
unicellular organism

• Nucleus replicates for asexual reproduction once cell

grows large enough
• Membrane maintain homeostasis, takes in nutrients,
and excretes wastes
• Metabolic reactions occur in the cytoplasm where
enzymes are
• Contractile vacuoles maintain stable water levels in cell
• Flagella and cilia allow for movement in response to
environment
1.1.9 Investigate functions of life in Paramecium and one named photosynthetic
unicellular organism

Excretion – the plasma Homeostasis – contractile vacuole fill up Response – the

membrane control the entry with water and expel I through the plasma wave action of
and exit of substances membrane to manage the water content the cilia moves
including expulsion of the
metabolic waste paramecium in
response to
Metabolism – changes in the
most environment,
metabolic e.g. towards
pathways food.
happen in the
cytoplasm

Source: http://umanitoba.ca/Biology/BIOL1030/Lab1/biolab1_3.html#Ciliophora

Nutrition – food vacuoles Growth – after consuming Reproduction – The

contain organisms the and assimilating biomass nucleus can divide to
parameium has from food the paramecium support cell division by
consumed will get larger until it divides. mitosis, reproduction is
often asexual
1.1.9 Investigate functions of life in Paramecium and one named photosynthetic
unicellular organism

Excretion – the plasma Reproduction – The nucleus can divide to

Response – the
membrane control the support cell division, by mitosis (these
wave action of
entry and exit of cells are undergoing cytokinesis)
the cilia moves
substances including the
the algae in
difussion out of waste
response to
oxygen
changes in the
Metabolism – environment,
most e.g. towards
metabolic light.
pathways
happen in the
cytoplasm Homeostasis –
contractile
vacuole fill up
Nutrition –
with water and
photosynthes
expel I through
is happens
the plasma
inside the
Source: http://www.algae.info/Algaecomplete.aspx membrane to
chloroplasts
manage the
to provide the Growth – after consuming and assimilating
water content
algae with biomass from food the algae will get larger until
food it divides.
1.1.12 Use a light microscope to investigate the structure of cells and tissues.
Modern Microscopy
As we develop more and
more sophisticated and
precise imaging tools, we can
see more detail of the cells
and molecules that make us.

Scanning electron
microscopes deliver
high-resolution, 3D surface
images of structures,
whereas transmission
electron microscopes give us
a view inside cells and
organelles.

Image: d2540-6 by USDA on Flickr (CC): http://flic.kr/p/dPqvvY

Transmission electron micrograph of HIV particles.

120nm

HIV-1. Transmission electron micrograph, via wikimedia commons:

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AHIV-1_Transmission_electron_micrograph_AIDS02bbb_lores.jpg
Scanning electron micrograph of HIV particles
budding on a human lymphocyte.

1μm

False-coloured scanning electron micrograph of HIV (green) budding on a lymphicoyte (blue)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HIV-budding-Color.jpg OR http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/details.asp?pid=10000
1.1.13 Draw cell structures as seen with the light microscope.

• Draw in pencil
• Make the drawing at least 1/3 page large
• Label with straight lines with a ruler
• Lines must exactly touch the structure which is named
• Include a title
• Size of parts must be correct in relation to the larger drawing
• Print all labels horizontally on the drawing
1.1.14 Calculate the magnification of drawings and the actual size of structures
shown in drawings or micrographs.
1.1.14 Calculate the magnification of drawings and the actual size of structures
shown in drawings or micrographs.
 Scanning electron micrograph of
human sperm and egg cells.

sm
alle

ell
st h

anc
hum
um

e st
an

larg
cel
l

5μm

Image from wikimedia commons http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spermatozoon

2.1.4 Compare the relative size of molecules, cell membrane thickness, viruses,
bacteria, organelles and cells, using appropriate SI units

Use the

10x
rule

of

thumb

http://www.flickr.com/photos/sanna_nixi/799023133/
Molecules ≈ 1nm
Cell Membrane ≈ 10nm thick
Virus ≈ 100nm
Bacteria ≈ 1μm (1000nm)
Eukaryotic animal cell ≈ 10μm
Eukaryotic plant cell ≈ 100μm

Of course, there are

numerous egg-ceptions.
For example,
the yolk of an
egg is a single
animal cell

http://www.flickr.com/photos/rogerss1/3520043134/
http://click4biology.info/c4b/2/cell2.1.htm#size
Bibliography / Acknowledgments

Jason de Nys

Chris Paine