Oil and Gas Wells Production operation and Well Testing

Oil and Gas Wells Production operation and Well Testing

Dr:- Abozied Ahmed

Eng:- Mohamed Dawood
NAME:- Hisham Mohamed Zaki

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Contents
Task No.01............................................................................................................................................................................... 6
P1: Explain oil and gas well site production operations:- ....................................................................................................... 6
Any oil production well goes through several stages during its lifetime, and these stages are considered constant in most
production wells, which are: ................................................................................................................................................... 6
1) Exploration operations................................................................................................................................................ 6
2) Exploration drilling operations.................................................................................................................................... 6
3) Well completion process............................................................................................................................................. 6
4) The first production process (testing) ......................................................................................................................... 6
5) Field development process ......................................................................................................................................... 6
6) Basic production process ............................................................................................................................................ 6
)7 Close the well .............................................................................................................................................................. 6
 Separations in oil fields :- .............................................................................................................................................. 14
P2: Describe the well production operation problems:- ...................................................................................................... 18
 Problems facing production operations from oil wells:............................................................................................ 18
 High water cut ........................................................................................................................................................... 18
 Low productivity ....................................................................................................................................................... 18
 Low injectivity ........................................................................................................................................................... 18
 Sand production ........................................................................................................................................................ 18
 Cement quality problem ........................................................................................................................................... 18
 Sustained casing pressure ......................................................................................................................................... 18
 Casing, tubing, packer leaks ...................................................................................................................................... 18
 Scale, emulsions, and paraffin .................................................................................................................................. 18
 Plugging due to injection, completion fluids ............................................................................................................ 18
 Water blocks (emulsion problems) ........................................................................................................................... 18
When the production processes continue from the wells for the production of oil and gas, we notice that with time
changes occur in the characteristics and productivity of the well for petroleum materials, as with the passage of time
it decreases and the production of the well is affected, and we note that the oil production decreases and the
percentage of production of each of (gases or water) increases Or the occurrence of a drought in the reservoir or the
production of wells has become uneconomical and unprofitable) all of these are problems facing the wells during oil
production operations ...................................................................................................................................................... 18
.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 18
 Scale problems :- ....................................................................................................................................................... 19
 Causes of Scale Formation:- ...................................................................................................................................... 19

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  Paraffins and Asphaltene Problems: ......................................................................................................................... 21
Paraffins are high molecular weight alkanes (C20 +) that can accumulate as deposits in the well bore, in feed lines and
crude paraffin deposits are mixtures of these alkanes and consist of very small crystals that usually agglomerate to
form granular particles and are deposited mainly on pipes and surface facilities and inside the wellbore, which leads
to a gradual decrease in production over time as the sediment thickness increases. ..................................................... 21
The deposits are usually more solid and harder with increasing molecular weight of the paraffin deposits. Sometimes
paraffin and asphaltene co-exist in the organic deposits and the wax separates from the oil at a lower temperature. 21
 Crude oils contain three main groups of compounds:.............................................................................................. 22
 Removal of paraffin deposits:-.................................................................................................................................. 22
 What Problems Caused When Wax is formed: ......................................................................................................... 23
 They deposit and accumulate on the inside surfaces of the casing, tubing, production lines. ................................ 23
 Pipeline blockage, the pressure required to restart flow are greater than the available pumps can, generate or
exceeds the pipeline test pressure. .................................................................................................................................. 23
 Wax & formation solids present greater difficulties to some forms of artificial lift than others, ex: pump wear with
solid production in rod pumps. ......................................................................................................................................... 23
 Asphaltenes:.............................................................................................................................................................. 24
 Emulsions Problems:- ................................................................................................................................................ 25
 Hydrates Problems :-................................................................................................................................................. 26
 Hydrate: .................................................................................................................................................................... 26
 Corrosion Problems :- ............................................................................................................................................... 28
 Bacteria problem :- ................................................................................................................................................... 29
 Sand Production Problem :- ...................................................................................................................................... 30
 There are three types of sand production: ................................................................................................................... 30
M1: Apply the main Terminologies related to oil, gas and water well site production and gas injection operations:- ...... 32
Task No.02............................................................................................................................................................................. 37
P3: Describe in details coil tubing and wire line equipment used for well intervention:- ................................................... 37
 Coiled Tubing (CT) :- .................................................................................................................................................. 37
 Coiled pipe: ............................................................................................................................................................... 38
 Control Cabin :- ......................................................................................................................................................... 39
 Different Types of CT Units:- ..................................................................................................................................... 42
 Well bore Cleanout :- ................................................................................................................................................ 44
 Fishing :- .................................................................................................................................................................... 46
 Advantages to CTD :- ..................................................................................................................................................... 47
 Disadvantages to CTD :- ................................................................................................................................................ 48
 Slick line:- ...................................................................................................................................................................... 50

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 Slick line Unit................................................................................................................................................................. 51
 Surface Pressure Control Equipment ............................................................................................................................ 51
 Manual Wire line Valve :- ......................................................................................................................................... 52
 Stuffing Box:-............................................................................................................................................................. 53
M2: Identify the trouble shootings of coil tubing and wire line:- ......................................................................................... 57
 Wire breaks:-............................................................................................................................................................. 57
 Fatigue (work hardening failure) .............................................................................................................................. 57
 Corrosion (H2S, CO2, acids) ...................................................................................................................................... 58
 wrong collection process:- ........................................................................................................................................ 59
 Coiled Tubing (CT) :- .................................................................................................................................................. 59
 Main Failures Causes:- .............................................................................................................................................. 60
 Microbiological Influenced Corrosion (MIC( ................................................................................................................. 62

Figure 2 production operations .............................................................................................................................................. 6

Figure 3 Earthquake truck....................................................................................................................................................... 7
Figure 4 Exploration drilling .................................................................................................................................................... 7
Figure 5 Exploration drilling .................................................................................................................................................... 7
Figure 6 Casing ........................................................................................................................................................................ 8
Figure 7 Casing ........................................................................................................................................................................ 8
Figure 8 Gravel Pack .............................................................................................................................................................. 10
Figure 9 Christmas tree ........................................................................................................................................................ 10
Figure 10 The first production process ................................................................................................................................. 11
Figure 11 Field development process ................................................................................................................................... 11
Figure 12 production process ............................................................................................................................................... 12
Figure 13 production process ............................................................................................................................................... 12
Figure 14 Close the well ........................................................................................................................................................ 13
Figure 15 Separations in oil fields ......................................................................................................................................... 14
Figure 16 Separator 2ph ....................................................................................................................................................... 15
Figure 17 Separator 3ph ....................................................................................................................................................... 15
Figure 18 Heater ................................................................................................................................................................... 16
Figure 19 pipe line................................................................................................................................................................. 18
Figure 20 Production process problems ............................................................................................................................... 18
Figure 21 Scale problems ...................................................................................................................................................... 19
Figure 22 Scale problems ...................................................................................................................................................... 19
Figure 23 scale ...................................................................................................................................................................... 20
Figure 24 scale ...................................................................................................................................................................... 21
Figure 25 paraffin .................................................................................................................................................................. 23
Figure 26 paraffin .................................................................................................................................................................. 23
Figure 27 Asphaltenes ........................................................................................................................................................... 24

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Figure 28 Emulsions .............................................................................................................................................................. 25
Figure 29 Hydrates Problems ................................................................................................................................................ 26
Figure 30 Hydrates Problems ................................................................................................................................................ 26
Figure 31 Hydrates Problems ................................................................................................................................................ 27
Figure 32 Types of Corrosion ................................................................................................................................................ 28
Figure 33 sand production .................................................................................................................................................... 30
Figure 34 Coiled Tubing (CT) ................................................................................................................................................. 37
Figure 35 Coiled pipe............................................................................................................................................................ 38
Figure 36 Control Cabin ........................................................................................................................................................ 39
Figure 37 Stripper................................................................................................................................................................. 40
Figure 38 Stripper................................................................................................................................................................. 40
Figure 39 BOP Features (COMBI BOP) .................................................................................................................................. 41
Figure 40 CT Express ............................................................................................................................................................. 42
Figure 41 CTU – Paved Road ................................................................................................................................................. 42
Figure 42 CTU – Mobile Mast................................................................................................................................................ 43
Figure 43 CTU – Skid Mounted ............................................................................................................................................. 43
Figure 44 CT Applications...................................................................................................................................................... 44
Figure 45 Well bore Cleanout .............................................................................................................................................. 44
Figure 46 Jet Blaster .............................................................................................................................................................. 45
Figure 47 Fishing ................................................................................................................................................................... 46
Figure 48 Coiled Tubing Logging ........................................................................................................................................... 46
Figure 49 Slick line................................................................................................................................................................. 50
Figure 50 Slick line Unit ......................................................................................................................................................... 51
Figure 51 Sand Bailer ............................................................................................................................................................ 55
Figure 52 Fishing Operations ............................................................................................................................................... 56
Figure 53 Fishing Operations ............................................................................................................................................... 56
Figure 54 Wire breaks ........................................................................................................................................................... 57
Figure 55 Fatigue................................................................................................................................................................... 57
Figure 56 Corrosion ............................................................................................................................................................... 58
Figure 57 wrong collection process ...................................................................................................................................... 59
Figure 58 CT .......................................................................................................................................................................... 61
Figure 59 Remedies ............................................................................................................................................................... 62

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 Task No.01

P1: Explain oil and gas well site production operations:-

Any oil production well goes through several stages during its lifetime,
and these stages are considered constant in most production wells,
which are:
1) Exploration operations

2) Exploration drilling operations

3) Well completion process

4) The first production process (testing)

Figure 1 production operations
5) Field development process

6) Basic production process

7) Close the well

In some cases, the life of the well is classified into five sections, as shown in the
picture, but they will be divided into 7 steps to facilitate their understanding.

1) Exploration operations :-

The search and exploration operations include many disciplines, as they

combine experts in reservoirs and geologists to study the layers of the earth
and search for the best environment that allows the presence of oil, for
example, types of rocks that have high porosity and permeability that allow the
passage of liquids through them and a cap of rocks in order to contain oil inside
it and prevents it from leaking or moving to any other place
Exploration operations are carried out by surveying the layers of the earth by making
strong earthquakes that cause the sending of vibrations and return them to the sensors to
read the results and know the whereabouts of the oil.

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 Figure 2 Earthquake truck Figure 3Earthquake truck

2( Exploration drilling operations

Figure 4 Exploration drilling Figure 3 Exploration drilling

After the exploration operations, orders are given to the rig crew to start
exploratory drilling operations, and that drilling is the main purpose of it is to
ensure the existence of oil reservoirs and to confirm the validity of the initial
exploration operations, and this is the best way to ensure the existence of oil
reservoirs below the ground upon reaching them

3( Well completion process

Once a well has been drilled, the decision must be made: Will this well
become a producer or will it be capped and left as a dry-drill? If the operator
decides to proceed with well development, completions must take place.

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 Well completion includes the steps taken to convert a drilled well into a
producing well. These steps include packaging, cementing, perforating,
gravel packing, and installation of the production tree.

 Casing :-
The first step in completing a well is drilling the
borehole. After a well has been drilled, if the drilling
fluids are removed, the well will eventually seal on
itself. The casing ensures that this will not happen
while protecting the well stream from external post
holders, such as water or sand.
It consists of a steel tube joined together to make a
continuous hollow tube, the casing being run into the Figure 5 Casing

well. The different levels of the well determine the diameter of the casing to be
installed. Referred to as a casing software, the different levels include the
production casing, the intermediate casing, the surface casing, and the conductor
casing.
In addition, there are two types of casing that can be
run on the well. One type of casing consists of a rigid
series of steel tubes. A hard casing is run on a well if
the formation is stable and will remain that way
during the life of the well. In the event that the well
contains loose sand that may seep into the well
stream, the casing is fixed with a wire sieve liner
that helps prevent sand from entering the wellbore. Figure 6 Casing

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Cementing :-
The next step in well completion involves cementing the well. This includes
pumping cement slurry into the well to displace the existing drilling fluids and fill in
the space between the casing and the actual sides of the drilled well.
Consisting of a special mixture of additives and cement, the slurry is left to
harden, sealing the well from non-hydrocarbons that might try to enter the well
stream, as well as permanently setting the casing in place.

 Open-Hole Completions
At the reservoir level, there are two types of completion methods used in wells:
open-hole completion or covered-hole completion. The completion of the open
hole indicates a well that has been drilled at the top of the hydrocarbon
reservoir. The well is then capped at this level, and left open at the bottom. Also
known as top sets and barefoot completions, open hole completions are used
to reduce casing cost where the tank is solid and well known.

 Perforation

Cased-hole completions require casing to be run into the reservoir. In order to

achieve production, the casing and cement are perforated to allow the
hydrocarbons to enter the well stream.
This process involves running a perforation gun and a reservoir locating device
into the wellbore, many times via a wire line, slick line or coiled tubing. Once the
reservoir level has been reached, the gun then shoots holes in the sides of the
well to allow the hydrocarbons to enter the well stream. The perforations can
either be accomplished via firing bullets into the sides of the casing or by
discharging jets, or shaped charges, into the casing.
While the perforation locations have been previously defined by drilling logs, those intervals
cannot be easily located through the casing and cement. To overcome this challenge, a
gamma ray-collar correlation log is typically implemented to correlate with the initial log run
on the well and define the locations where perforation is required.

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 Gravel Pack
Some wells require filtration systems in order to keep the well stream clear of
sand. In addition to running a casing with a liner, gravel packing is used to
prevent sand from entering the well stream.

Figure 7 Gravel Pack

More complicated than cementing a well, gravel packing requires a slurry of

appropriately sized pieces of coarse sand or gravel to be pumped into the well
between the slotted liner of the casing and the sides of the wellbore. The wire
screens of the liner and the gravel pack work together to filter out the sand that
might have otherwise entered the well stream with the hydrocarbons.

 Christmas tree
The last step in completing a well, a wellhead is installed at the surface of the
well. Many times called a production tree or Christmas tree, the wellhead device
includes casing heads and a tubing head combined to provide surface control of
the subsurface conditions of the well.
While both onshore and offshore wells are

completed by production trees, offshore wells

can be completed by two different types of

trees: dry and wet trees. Similar to onshore production

trees, dry trees are installed above the water’s surface

on the deck of a platform or facility and are attached Figure 8 Christmas tree

to the well below the water. Wet trees, on the other hand, are installed on the seabed
and encased in a solid steel box to protect the valves and gages from the elements.
The subsea wet tree is then connected via electronic or hydraulic settings that can

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4) The first production process (testing)
This process is a preliminary production process for the well, in which the
characteristics of the well are studied and the characteristics of the oil, viscosity,
density and other tests that determine the quality of the crude oil are studied
and whether the production process will become economical and profitable or
not, and this stage is characterized by the size of the field from which it is
produced is small

Figure 9 The first production process

5( Field development process
The field development process means the process of expanding and increasing
the number of wells, installing and specifying the necessary separation
equipment in the treatment and separation operations, and this includes
offshore platforms and onshore oil fields as well. When determining the field
development plan, several points should be known as follows:

1. The number of wells to be drilled to reach production targets

2. Recovery techniques used to extract fluids within the reservoir
3. Type and cost of installations such as platforms, depending on the marine
environment (tides, storms, waves, winds, erosion, ...)
4. Gas and liquid separation systems,> treatment systems necessary to
preserve the environment.

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Figure 10 Field development process
6) Basic production process
It is certain that the primary goal of all of the above is the process of
production, profit, and covering the costs that have been paid. This is done
through the continuous production of oil and gas throughout the life of the
well, but it is known that with the continuous production of the well, the
pressure gradually decreases until it may reach a point Production may stop
permanently, due to the inability of the oil to rise to the surface naturally

The natural production process by pressing the well without the need for any
external assistant is called (primary recovery).

The production by resorting to water injection is called (secondary recovery).

Production by resorting to the injection of gases and chemicals is called (tertiary

recovery).

Most of the wells start in this order :

1. (Primary recovery)
2. (Secondary recovery)
3. (Tertiary recovery)

Figure 11 production process

12 Figure 12 production process

1) Close the well
The temporary shutting in of wells is the one thing that oil companies are trying
to avoid at all costs. That's because restarting production is expensive and wells
are not guaranteed to return to their flow rate. The doubts are so great that
some experts wonder whether the current round of shut downs, far from
preserving the resource, won't accelerate oil depletion instead. Some Russian
engineers are even considering burning excess oil, rather than downsizing
production.

Figure 13 Close the well

The process of closing wells is the last process that is applied to oil and gas
wells, as the production pipeline for oil extraction is closed by placing a cement
layer that clogs the tube and stops production, and the well is closed for several
reasons, such as that it is not economical or that Its production is weak, and the
cost of using methods to extract it is costly for profits or political or other
reasons. The step of closing the well is a step that no investor likes to reach, as
he desires the permanent production of the well and that the production be in
large quantities.

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Separations in oil fields :-
In the beginning, when the oil comes out of the wellhead and passes over the
Christmas tree, it becomes a market, and the properties and chemical
composition of the oil have been studied. On this basis, the appropriate
equipment is installed and placed after the oil exits the production wells and
passes over the wellhead, after which the Christmas tree runs in the
transmission lines that transport the crude oil from the well to the processing
and separation fields.

The box graph illustrates crude oil processing operations :

Figure 14 Separations in oil fields

 Header :

The first thing that the crude oil encounters in the processing field is the
header, which consists of several wells that are collected on one line and divide
them into production wells with high pressure and production wells with low
pressure.

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 Separator 2ph :-

It is a separator that is designed in a way that withstands high efforts and

pressures, and separates the gas from the liquid, and in most oil and gas fields,
it is installed first in order to reduce pressure and facilitate the separation
process for hydrocarbon compounds such as oil and gases

 Separator 3ph:

It is a separator that separates many compounds from each other, and

separates the gas from the oil from the water, and it is used in the theory of its
work to cause a disturbance of the oil molecules to separate the compounds
from each other, and the time when the oil is left for a certain period to
complete the separation operations, and it will be clarified Types in the
following pictures

Figure 16 Separator 3ph

Heater:  Figure 15 Separator 2ph

It is known that the heating processes help in separating the compounds from
each other, and this is the basic theory in the work of the heater, as it extends a
tube from the furnace and its temperature is high, and the temperature is
transferred from the tube to the oil, and it separates the gas and oil from the
water molecules and forms This process is to prepare for the entry of crude oil
into a desalter
15
 Figure 17 Heater

 Test Separator:

It is a separator that takes samples from it and works on it to study the

characteristics of each well individually, and the liquid delivery to it is controlled
by the header by opening and closing valves on wells and operating other wells,
and it is very important in any site to study the characteristics of the well and
Knowing the chemical and physical composition of the compounds that are
produced and identifying the proportions of gas, water, salts and pressure in
each well, and often the absorption capacity of this separator is relatively small
compared to other separators on the site, and that is because it is not relied
upon mainly in operations Production and separation, but it is designed to take
samples only and make analyzes and studies on them

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  Desalter :

He contacts the salts in the water, so he performs a process of separating the

salts, but that process is preceded by several important operations, which is the
use of heat to heat the oil and bring it to a temperature of 140c. After that,
some chemicals are added that help the processes The separation is inside the
separator, after that we add (demulsifre) and through the (mix valve) clean
water is mixed with the oil in order to reduce the salinity of the oil and work on
the process of desalination of the oil and a level controller is installed to
measure the level of the oil and when the specified level is reached The oil is
taken through the treated oil outlet after performing a process of separating it
from the salts. There is a pump for pumping water and washing the salts from
the oil. There is another part for draining the excess water to control the level.
There is a part for generating electricity and separating the salts through the
resulting magnetic flux.

 Dehydration :

It is a device that separates the water molecules from the oil and makes a drying
process for it from any water that may be present with the oil this process is done
by shocking the oil molecules to break the bonds between them and the water this
process is also done by adding chemicals that help in the separation processes.
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P2: Describe the well production operation problems:-
 Problems facing production operations from oil wells:

 High water cut

 Low productivity
 Low injectivity
 Sand production
 Cement quality problem
 Sustained casing pressure Figure 18 pipe line

 Casing, tubing, packer leaks

 Scale, emulsions, and paraffin
 Plugging due to injection, completion fluids
 Water blocks (emulsion problems)
When the production processes continue from the wells for the production of
oil and gas, we notice that with time changes occur in the characteristics and
productivity of the well for petroleum materials, as with the passage of time it
decreases and the production of the well is affected, and we note that the oil
production decreases and the percentage of production of each of (gases or
water) increases Or the occurrence of a drought in the reservoir or the
production of wells has become uneconomical and unprofitable) all of these are
problems facing the wells during oil production operations

FTP
BOPD, BWPD Flowing pressure
BOPD
BWPD

Year
18 Figure 19 Production process problems
 Scale problems :-
It is a collection of excess salts due to the increase in the salinity of the water
produced with the oil, which leads to the creation of very strong deposits of
salts, which are similar in strength to concrete and are deposited on the wall of
the inner tube and work to close the line with the passage of time

Figure 21 Scale problems Figure 20 Scale problems

 What’s The Main Cause of Scale Buildup?

Natural water contains minerals such as calcium, potassium and magnesium.

Float in it. Some water sources contain high levels of the minerals present.
These minerals are the main reason for the formation of crusts in wells.
And if the crust is not removed, it will form in large numbers and cause a
complete blockage of the reservoir
Scale problem affects the well productivity. The effect varies between reduction
in the tubular cross-sectional area causing well choking to complete plugging
causing loss of production.
Scale deposits can be found everywhere, in the tubing, in the crossovers, in the
packers and in the landing nipples and most of the scale deposits are likely to be
in the most bottom 2000 ft of the well.

 Causes of Scale Formation:-

 Temperature change
 Pressure drop during the reservoir depletion or flow up in tubing

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  Mixing of two incompatible waters e.g., injection water or water from a
different reservoir
 Produced water composition
 Changes in pH (Solubility change)
 Contact time increase (long exposure time = crystal growth)
 Agitation or Turbulence increase
 Evaporation (change in concentration).
 Anhydrite formations

 What’s The Best Method for Removing Scale Buildup?

 The method used to remove scale depends on how advanced the buildup is.
Flushing the pipe can remove minor deposits. However, at some point, too
much pressure of water will not do the trick.

 Water soluble (sodium chloride NaCl): Pump fresh water in the wells or
production facilities to dissolve the water-soluble scale

 When the scale is removed mechanically. We insert a pig's head down into the
tube and scrape the scale away. It leaves the sides of the tube free of scale. A
flush of water or oil helps remove scale debris.

 Acid soluble (calcium chloride CaCo3): Pump acid in the wells or production
facilities to dissolve the acid soluble scale.

 When you're experiencing slow flow issues, call our team of pipe repair
specialists to take a look. A quick scan with a camera can determine the cause
of the slowdown and determine the best solution to fix it.

Figure 22 scale
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 Scale Mechanical Removal Methods:-

 Re-perforating plugged perforations

 Drilling and reaming methods
 Scale may be removed from surface lines with scrapers or by reaming out
 Running of scrapper or wire line gauge cutters
 By using the force of jetting action using coiled tubing.

 Scale-inhibiting treatments (preventing scaling)

A treatment program can be implemented to reduce or prevent lime scale

Scale inhibitors are injected into the bottom of the well or within the formation
to avoid scale precipitation
 Inorganic polyphosphates
• Multiple organic acids
• Polymers
Pressure maintenance (water or gas injection) also reduces volume
Figure 23 scale
 Paraffins and Asphaltene Problems:

Paraffins are high molecular weight alkanes (C20 +) that can accumulate as
deposits in the well bore, in feed lines and crude paraffin deposits are mixtures
of these alkanes and consist of very small crystals that usually agglomerate to
form granular particles and are deposited mainly on pipes and surface facilities
and inside the wellbore, which leads to a gradual decrease in production over
time as the sediment thickness increases.

The deposits are usually more solid and harder with increasing molecular
weight of the paraffin deposits. Sometimes paraffin and asphaltene co-exist in
the organic deposits and the wax separates from the oil at a lower
temperature.

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 Crude oils contain three main groups of compounds:
 Saturated hydrocarbons or paraffins
 Aromatic hydrocarbons
 Resins and asphaltenes

The most common cause of loss of solubility of the paraffin in the crude oil is a
decrease in temperature, which may occur for a variety of reasons :

 Cooling produced by the crude oil and associated gas expanding through the
perforations
 Gas expansion while lifting fluids to the surface
 Radiation of heat from the tubing to the surrounding formation induced by
intrusion of water into or around the wellbore
 Loss of lighter constituents in the crude oil because of vaporization

 Removal of paraffin deposits :-

Paraffin accumulations are removed by methods that can be broadly placed
into three categories:

 Mechanical removal of paraffin deposits

 Use of solvents to remove paraffin deposits
 Use of heat to melt and remove the wax

Mechanical methods such as scrapers, knives, and other tools are commonly
used to remove paraffin deposits in a wellbore. It can be very effective and
relatively inexpensive.

The most common solvent used to remove paraffin from tubing and the area
near the wellbore is crude oil. Hot oiling is the least expensive method,
commonly used in removing paraffin deposits from wells. The crude oil taken
from the bottoms of the tanks is heated to a temperature of 300 degrees
Fahrenheit or more. This heated oil is then injected or gravity introduced into the
tube or (more commonly) annulus. The high temperature causes the paraffin
22
deposits to melt into the injected crude oil, which is then produced back to the
surface. Hot oiling has been used successfully to remove paraffin precipitation,
but it can damage the formation. Using hot salt water to dissolve the paraffin
may be a safer method.

Figure 24 paraffin Figure 25 paraffin

Solvents, both organic and inorganic, have been used in the past. These include
crude oil, kerosene, diesel, and surfactant formulations that can solubilize the
paraffin. Organic solvents that consist of a blend of aromatics are usually used to
remove mixtures of paraffin and asphaltene deposits. However, the cost of such
treatments can be significantly higher than that of hot oil or water treatments.
Steam has been used in a number of cases in which severe paraffin problems
have resulted in plugged tubular. The lack of solubility of paraffin in hot water
necessitates the use of surfactants with steam or hot water so that the melted
paraffin can be removed.

 What Problems Caused When Wax is formed :

 They deposit and accumulate on the inside surfaces of the casing, tubing,
production lines.

 Pipeline blockage, the pressure required to restart flow are greater than the
available pumps can, generate or exceeds the pipeline test pressure.

 Wax & formation solids present greater difficulties to some forms of artificial
lift than others, ex: pump wear with solid production in rod pumps.

23
 Asphaltenes :
Asphaltenes are defined as the heaviest components of petroleum
fluids that are insoluble in light nalkanes such as n-pentane (nC5) or n-heptane
(NC7) but soluble in aromatics such as toluene and benzene.

Figure 26 Asphaltenes

Asphaltene precipitation or deposition can occur in wellbores, pipelines, and

surface facilities and is undesirable because it reduces well productivity and
limits fluid flow.

The name “Asphaltenes “refers to an amorphous, bituminous, solid material,

which precipitates from some crude.

 Asphaltene precipitation is often observed in light crude oils that contain

very low asphaltene content. This is because light oils contain large amounts
of light alkanes in which asphaltenes have limited solubility.

 Heavy oils, which are usually rich in asphaltenes, contain large amounts of
intermediate components that are good asphaltene solvents.

 Heavy oils, those with the greatest asphaltene concentrations, are usually
stable during production, and do not promote well clogging.
Asphalteneprecipitation problems are more common in lighter oils that
contain minor amounts of asphaltenes in reservoirs.

 Asphaltene Removal:-

 Asphaltene deposits are generally removed manually, if present in readily

accessible equipment, such as separators and other surface equipment.

24
 For tubular and flowline deposits, removal techniques involve chemical
methods such as solvent soaks with or without dispersants. Combining
solvents and heating may also be effective.

 Physical methods can be used depending on the hardness of the deposit

(e.g., pigging, hydroblasting, and drilling).

 Pigging is appropriate for removing pipeline deposits often, mixtures of

waxes and Asphaltenes.

 Emulsions Problems:-
Formed when one liquid (discontinuous phase) is dispersed within another
liquid (continuous phase) with which it is immiscible
Emulsions can be stable or unstable

Figure 27 Emulsions
 Two types of emulsions in oil field
• Oil-in-water
• Water-in-oil
 Water-in-oil emulsion is the most common type to block the formation
 Sufficient agitation must be present to mix the fluids
 Droplets held together by interfacial tension or electrostatic charge

 Treating for Emulsions :-

Surfactants are also used to break down emulsions by reducing interfacial

tension and lowering immiscibility, allowing for more liquid mixing.

25
 Change wettability
 Neutralizes the effects of emulsifier stabilizers
 Also used to treat water blocks
 Chemical emulsifiers removers

 Hydrates Problems :-
It is formed due to the presence of molecules of water with natural gas that is
transported in transmission lines. The presence of water with gas leads to
mixing of the molecules of the two materials and changing the degree of gas
change. Figure 28 Hydrates Problems

For example, dry natural gas freezes at a temperature of -40 degrees Celsius,
but when there is Water may reach the temperature at which it freezes to 10
degrees Celsius, and this causes very big problems in transmission lines, as it
forms gatherings of hydrates that cause blockages and blockages in the pipes

Figure 29 Hydrates Problems

 Hydrate:
In chemistry, a hydrate is a substance that contains water or its constituent
elements. The chemical state of the water varies widely between different
classes of hydrates, some of which were so labeled before their chemical
structure was understood

26
Hydrates are inorganic salts "containing water molecules combined in a definite
ratio as an integral part of the crystal that are either bound to a metal center or
that have crystallized with the metal complex. Such hydrates are also said to
contain water of crystallization or water of hydration. If the water is heavy
water in which the constituent hydrogen is the isotope deuterium, then the
term deuterate may be used in place of hydrate.

Figure 30 Hydrates Problems

Through the explanation, it is understood that hydrate does not form unless
water is present with gas in the transmission lines

 This problem can be overcome by several solutions such as:

 Injecting chemicals into the line that change and separate the water from the
gas and change the freezing point of the gas
 Controlling the (temperature) and (pressure) of the gas to prevent the
formation of hydrates, which is sometimes difficult to implement.
 Installing a (scraper) to remove water particles entering with the gas, and
that is sometimes the best solution is to install a (Knock Out) device to
separate hydrates and liquids from the gas
 Depressurization: Decreasing pressure equally on both sides below the
hydrate point and allowing time for the hydrate to dissolve.
 Melting a plug with heat: Heat can be applied by spraying steam on the line
or electrical resistance heating.
 Pigging: Inserting the pigging tool is sufficient to remove the hydrate from
the pipeline.
27
 Corrosion Problems :-
The Corrosion Process:
Most metals are like iron ; they tend to combine with Oxygen, Sulfur, and
other element.
Four elements are necessary for corrosion to occur:
○ An anode (the corroded material)
○ A cathode
○ An electrolyte (Water)
○ A metallic path for electron flow

All corrosion inhibitors and coatings are designed to reduce current flow,
usually by increasing resistance in the electrochemical corrosion circuit.

 Causes of Corrosion :
Metal corrodes when it reacts with another substance such as oxygen,
hydrogen, an electrical current or even dirt and bacteria. Corrosion can also
happen when metals like steel are placed under too much stress causing the
material to crack.

 Types of Corrosion :

 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) or Sweet Corrosion

 Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S) or Sour Corrosion
 oxygen Corrosion
 Differential Aeration Cell
 Erosion Corrosion
 Microbial Induced Corrosion (MIC)
 Corrosion Fatigue Figure 31 Types of Corrosion

28
  Tests for corrosion conditions :-
1. Chemical tests: (CO2, H2S, O2, dissolved iron and Scale [such as: iron Oxide])

2. Tests for Bacteria: (aerobic or anaerobic [SRB])

3. Electrochemical tests: (lines tests)

4. Tests for pipelines: (soil resistivity, current flow in well casing and voltages
changes)

 Corrosion Control :-

with a protective layer

Electrical insulation
We separate different minerals
cathodic protection
environmental factors

 Bacteria problem :-

 Bacterial Slime / cellular remnants etc. will physically plug the formation
pores if injected into the well.

 Iron Bacteria are aerobic bacterial, which can establish themselves under an
iron deposit that they form themselves.

 Sulphate Reducing Bacteria (SRB) are anaerobic bacteria, which are capable of
producing large quantities of hydrogen sulphide (H2S) when both the
sulphate anion (usually from sea water) and carbon source (crud oil) are
present in the absence of oxygen.

29
 Sand Production Problem :-

The breakdown of the formation or the production of sand can result in the
following:

1. Casing damage due to formation slumping.

2. Plugging and erosion of down hole and surface equipment.
3. Sand disposal problems.

Appropriate measures should be taken either to handle or avoid sand

production.

 There are three types of sand production:

1. Continuous sand production.

2. Disastrous sand production.
3. Sand production.

1. Continuous Sand Production: Figure 32 sand production

In most petroleum fields, sand production appears to be continuous and the

tolerable sand concentration depends on operating limitations regarding
separator capacity, artificial lift, erosion, well location, and sand dumping. In
the case of oil wells, the permissible sand cutting levels range from 6 g/m3 to
600 g/m3 and in the case of gas wells this level is 16 kg/106 m3, but these
numbers can vary from case to case. Inside the wellbore, part of the resulting
continuous sand settles due to the increase in the depth of capture and the
closing of the production interval. To restore normal production, a temporary
cleaning procedure is adopted. The volume of sand deposited in the wellbore
can be up to several cubic meters and depends on the wellbore design.

30
2- Disastrous sand production:
In this case, the well is choked and/or dies due to the high rate of sand
production. There can be two types of catastrophic scenarios, at the first
moderate sized sand streams to be created in the pipes and/or suffocation by
sand slugs after or during the closing and beaning process. In the second
scenario, the wellbore is filled and sealed due to the massive flow of sand. The
sand volumes in these massive sand failures range from several cubic meters to
tens of cubic meters and also depend on the wellbore design.

3. Trans-sand production:
In this case the sand concentration decreases with time when a well is
produced at a constant rate of production. This type of sand production is seen
during cleaning after acidification or perforation, after water penetration and
after roasting. The volume of sand produced and the period of decline vary
widely.

 Control :-

 Use of screens or slotted lines

 Gravel packing
 Pre-coated screens
 Resin coated gravel
 Resin/plastic consideration
 Sand traps

31
M1: Apply the main Terminologies related to oil, gas and water well site
production and gas injection operations:-
 Well Plugging

By that term, what is meant is that the production well shuts down as a
result of the accumulation of impurities such as sand, salts, and other
stones, which over time cause weakness in production and stoppage.

 Gas Injection

A form of secondary production, gas injection is used on the well to

improve the decreasing pressure within the formation. Systematically
spread throughout the field, gas injection wells are used to inject gas and
effectively sweep the residual petroleum formation, promoting
production.

 Gas lift

Gas lift or bubble lift pumps use industrial lift technology to lift a liquid
such as water or oil by introducing compressed air bubbles, water vapor, or
other vapor bubbles into the outlet tube. This has the effect of reducing
the hydrostatic pressure in the outlet pipe versus the hydrostatic pressure
in the inlet side of the pipe.

 Sand Production

It is the process of producing sand during the extraction of oil from oil
wells, and it is a major problem that works to close the well and causes a
decrease in pressure, and also among its problems is the occurrence of
corrosion in the transport pipes

32
 Hydrate

Hydrates are inorganic salts "containing water molecules combined in a

definite ratio as an integral part of the crystal that are either bound to a
metal center or that have crystallized with the metal complex. Such
hydrates are also said to contain water of crystallization or water of
hydration. If the water is heavy water in which the constituent hydrogen is
the isotope deuterium, then the term deuterate may be used in place of
hydrate.

 Emulsions

An emulsion is a mixture of two or more liquids that are usually immiscible

but under specific transforming processes will adopt a macroscopic
homogeneous aspect and a microscopic heterogeneous one. In an
emulsion, one liquid is dispersed in the other.

 Asphaltene

Asphaltenes are macromolecular substances found in crude oil, along with

resins, aromatic hydrocarbons, and saturates (that is, saturated
hydrocarbons such as alkanes). Bossengault coined the word "asphalt" in
1837 when he noticed that the distillation residue of some bitumens had
asphalt-like properties. Asphalt in the form of asphalt or bitumen products
from oil refineries is used as a paving material for roads, shingles for roofs,
and waterproof coatings for building foundations.

 Paraffin

Paraffin wax is a soft, colorless solid substance derived from petroleum,

coal, or oil shale, consisting of a mixture of hydrocarbon molecules
containing between twenty and forty carbon atoms.

33
 Wax

Paraffin wax is a soft, colorless solid substance derived from petroleum,

coal, or oil shale, consisting of a mixture of hydrocarbon molecules
containing between twenty and forty carbon atoms.

 Scale

It is a collection of excess salts due to the increase in the salinity of the

water produced with the oil, which leads to the creation of very strong
deposits of salts, which are Similar in strength to concrete and deposited
on it wall of the inner tube and work to close the line with the passage of
time

 condensates

Condensates are a portion of natural gas of such composition that are in the
gaseous phase at temperature and pressure of the reservoirs, but that, when
produced, are in the liquid phase at surface pressure and temperature.

 Crude oil

Crude Oil is the portion of petroleum that exists in the liquid phase in natural
underground reservoirs and remains liquid at atmospheric conditions of
pressure and temperature. Crude Oil may include small amounts of non-
hydrocarbons produced with the liquids. Crude Oil has a viscosity of less than
or equal to 10,000 centipoises at original reservoir temperature and
atmospheric pressure, on a gas free basis.

 dry gas

Dry Gas is a natural gas containing insufficient quantities of hydrocarbons

heavier than methane to allow their commercial extraction or to require
34
their removal in order to render the gas suitable for fuel use. (Also called
Lean Gas)

 Dry Hole

A well found to be incapable of producing either oil or gas in

sufficient quantities to justify completion as an oil or gas well.

 Flow Test

An operation on a well designed to demonstrate the presence of moving

Petroleum in a Reservoir by creating flow to the surface and/or providing an
indication of the potential productivity of that Reservoir. Some flow tests,
such as the drill stem tests (DST), are performed in the open pit.

 Injection

Impacting or pumping material into a rock formation below the porous and
permeable surface. Examples of injected substances can include either gases
or liquids

 Natural gas

Natural gas is a portion of petroleum that is either in the gaseous phase or

present in solution in crude oil in natural aquifers, and which is gaseous under
conditions of atmospheric pressure and temperature. Natural gas may
contain amounts of non-hydrocarbons

 Primary recovery

Primary recovery is the extraction of petroleum from reservoirs using only

natural energy available in the reservoirs to move fluids through reservoir
rock or other recovery points

35
 Sour natural

gas Sour natural gas is natural gas that contains sulfur, sulfur compounds,
and/or carbon dioxide in quantities that may require removal for effective use

 Sweet natural gas

Sweet natural gas is natural gas that does not contain sulfur or sulfur
compounds at all, or in such small quantities that it does not need to be
treated to remove them so that the gas can be used directly as a non-
corrosive home heating fuel

 Wet gas

Wet (rich) gas is natural gas that contains sufficient amounts of hydrocarbons
heavier than methane to allow commercial extraction or require removal in
order to make the gas suitable for fuel use

36
 Task No.02

P3: Describe in details coil tubing and wire line equipment used for well
intervention:-
 Coiled Tubing (CT) :-

In the oil and gas industries, coiled tubing refers to a very long metal tube,
typically 1 to 3.25 inches (25 to 83 mm) in diameter supplied coiled on a large
spool. It is used for interventions in oil and gas wells and sometimes as
production tubing in depleted gas wells. Coiled tubing is often used to perform
operations similar to wire connection. The main benefits over wire cable are
the ability to squirt chemicals through the coil and the ability to force them
into the hole instead of relying on gravity.

Figure 33 Coiled Tubing (CT)

In an offshore environment, Coiled Tubing can be run into a well as quickly as 3

hours, after positioning the equipment on deck. When truck mounted for land
operations, this time can be cut to 1.5 hours after rig up on site. With the
addition of a maximum working depth of 7700m (25,000 ft), which can be
achieved at running speeds of 79m/minute (260 ft/minute), it can be seen that
Coiled Tubing is a very cost-effective way of performing downhole work.

37
The standard coiled tubing package can be defined in terms of the surface
equipment needed to carry out a safe voyage of the coiled tubing into and out
of the well, to the following parts:

 Coiled tubes
 Pulley unit
 Power pack
 Control unit
 Pipe injector unit
 CT Pressure Control Equipment - Blowout Preventers (Including Lubricator
and Side Door Eliminator)

 Coiled pipe:

Coiled tube describes a long tube that is rolled into a spool. The tube is made of
a steel alloy that makes the material flexible and at the same time strong.

The tube is made of rolled plates in a cylindrical shape. The open roller
transitions to a welding arrangement that welds the ends of the plate together
along the length of the tube. They are all produced in the form of a long tube
that is fed into a storage drum.

It can be bent around the cylinder

core without snapping or

collapsing, but the tube is

permanently deformed by the Figure 34 Coiled pipe

curve it is bent. When the tube is pulled out of the cylinder, it is slightly curved
due to the bending it undergoes on the cylinder.

38
 Control Cabin :-
The control room consists of the following parts:
 Basic control of the CT unit
 Tomography controls
 BOP controls
 Monitoring and follow-up equipment

 Power Packs :- Figure 35 Control Cabin

 Diesel fuel unit

 Hydraulic pumps
 Individual power systems

 CT Pressure Control Equipment - Blowout Preventers (Including Lubricator

and Side Door Eliminator)

The equipment provides pressure control in live well operations

 Stripper
 Blowout preventer BOP
 Check the valve located in the bottom hole assembly
 Pipe injector unit :-
The primary functions of the injector head or the equipment that is normally
mounted on the injector head include:

 CT chain injection and recovery (chain/drive system)

 Fixed hold CT chain (chains and braking system)
 Guide the CT to the pulley (gooseneck)
 Tensile/compression gauge (weight indicator)
 Depth / Velocity Measurement (Depth System Sensor)
 Installation location of the base pressure blocker (stripper)

39
 Stripper :-
 Basic well control
As coiled tubing runs in and out of the well, stripper packer can effectively
pack-off on coiled tubing to prevent overflow of oil, gas, water and other
fluids, avoiding natural resource waste and environmental pollution. It is an
important well control unit to safeguard operation and personal safety.

 Hydraulically actuated
Figure 36 Stripper

Exwell Hydraulic Quadruple Coiled BOP is a hydraulic coiled tubing valve.

Specifically designed to be used as coiled tubing operations. It has four
formation rams to provide positive protection against blowouts and secure
the well in emergency situations. It is allowed to carry out coiled pipe work
under well pressure on surface equipment, while the pipe is in the
wellbore. The hydraulic quadruple blowout preventer CT BOP is positioned
directly above the wellhead.

 10,000 or 15,000 Psi WP

 Side door trimmer
 Radial stripper
 Side wrap stripping tool
Figure 37 Stripper
40
 BOP Features (COMBI BOP) :-
Well control equipment components must be installed, tested, and in use to
maintain control of the well at all times. Two barriers must be provided
throughout the process to prevent the release of any hydrocarbon. To ensure
this, the minimum well control stack must include the following elements, from
top to bottom;

Figure 38 BOP Features (COMBI BOP)

 Double stripper BOP type blowout sealer (also check BOP stack) with bottom
stripper provided along with a tube plunger to provide two buffers in case
the sealant needs to be replaced, primary control.
 One BOP piston, including balancing valve via rams.
 The shear well control component can be combined with blind rams.
 One kill line and fuse (2x).
 One slip ram bop.
 Single tube BOP piston, including cross balancing valve rams.

41
 Different Types of CT Units :-
 CT Express :-
The CT EXPRESS unit is designed

to complement CT operations with

low pump rates, moderate

pressures, and nonstop pumping.

Eliminates the need to work under a Figure 39 CT Express

suspended load or climb onto the unit Provides control over CT scans and
pumping functions Improves work efficiency, economy and operating safety

Provides reliability over rough terrain and in harsh conditions.

By electrically controlling the coiled tubing unit and pumps from the control
chair, the unit enables better use of your crew and eliminates communication
problems among operators.

 CTU – Paved Road :-

Two-truck-mounted equipment to improve flexibility in tough road
conditions Main truck adopts frame beam to improve load-bearing capacity
Dropped structure frame allows bobbin to hold large-diameter pipe (≥2");
quick roller design allows for safe and convenient bobbin change Blowout
preventer backup system BOP to meet the requirements in case two BOP are
needed;

Figure 40 CTU – Paved Road

and auxiliary truck equipped with hydraulic pipe feeding system to reduce
on-site labor and connection ports are designed with yard spool and pipe
blower with extension equipment functions.

42
 CTU – Mobile Mast :-
A coiled tubing unit (CTU) is a self-contained multi-use machine that can do
almost anything that a conventional service rig does – with the exception of
tripping jointed pipe. There are generally two types in shallow service – Arch
and Picker. Figure 41 CTU – Mobile Mast

One uses a vertical elevator with a horsehead on top, and an injector hanging
by winch line off it. The Picker units have a picker, and a horsehead bolted
directly to the injector.

 CTU – Skid Mounted :-

Figure 42 CTU – Skid Mounted

Designed for the challenging operating environment, the CTU ensures that
wellsite operations can be performed quickly, safely, and reliably. With a
tubing capacity of 8,200 m (27,000 ft) 2⅜-in. Coiled and dry tubes of 56,800
kg (125,000 lb), this 5-axis motor controller is optimized to maximize tube
load

43
 CT Applications :-

The most common CT wellintervention and applications involve issues

related to sand cleanouts or solids-transport efficiency.

Figure 43 CT Applications

The process of cleaning sand or solids out of a wellbore requires pumping a

fluid down into the well, entraining the solids into the wash fluid, and
subsequently carrying the solids to the surface.

 Well bore Cleanout :-

Did you know that the amount of

non-productive time (NPT) during the

well completion phase is directly

related to the debris remaining in the Figure 44 Well bore Cleanout

wellbore after drilling Well debris is a significant hazard to well operations and
completion, and debris management is a critical phase in well construction.

Coiled tubing can be used to remove sand, or other debris, that may be
produced into a wellbore, that will restrict the flow of hydrocarbon to surface.
Can be extremely challenging on wells with larger tubulars and restrictions.

44
 Jet Blaster :-

Concentrated, high-energy fluid streams reliably loosen pressurized packages.

The high rate allows liquids to flow safely out. Engineered long throw, high
pressure nozzles produce a consistent, consistent liquid stream across a large,
efficient jet radius.

Figure 45 Jet Blaster

Because the cleaning radius is not limited by tool geometry, the service enables
undamaged cleaning of complex and sensitive structures, such as downhole
screens, fixtures, gas lift magnets and slip sleeves.

Performance is improved by reducing energy loss

across the swivel and nozzles. Effective downhole

jetting does not depend on the corrosion effect

of the bore, and the efficiency is not affected by the wellbore depth.

 Acidizing through CT :-

Acid, usually either HCl or HF, is pumped through coiled tubing to protect the
customer's tubing, and to increase accuracy as to its placement in the formation

The acid works to remove the damage caused by the holes and near the well
bore area.

45
  Fishing :-
Using coiled tubing to remove stuck or lost objects from a wellbore.

 CT is considerably stronger than slick line or braided line.

 The rigidity of CT helps to access highly deviated and horizontal sections of a
well that cannot be reached using slick line.
 Fluids pumped through CT can improve access to the fish.

Figure 46 Fishing

"TJ" WIRELINE TUBULAR JAR PARVEEN Tubular Jars are used in the Tool Series
for effective jarring. Tubular jars are commonly used to remove obstructions
from a tubing ID by repulsion. This is an effective method of wire fishing while
fishing as there is very little chance of the tubing jar being jammed with wire.

 Coiled Tubing Logging :-

The development of electric (electronic line) tractor technology

has been deployed and is in operation, designed to haul the
"tool passenger" deep into the job over the highly skewed
section of the well, examples of which are logging tools,
perforating guns or plugs and packing. . The tractor is designed
to be an integral part of the E-Line tool chain using the same
surface sawing equipment and therefore requires minimal
resources in addition to those of a standard E-Line operation in
terms of equipment, personnel, logistics and time - providing an
efficient, light, agile and cost-effective solution.

Figure 47 Coiled Tubing Logging

46
  Advantages to CTD :-

 Unbalanced drilling
The ability to work with surface pressure during the flow of produced fluids
and continuous pumping when stumbling in and out of the hole clearly
represents the most important advantage of CTD. This unique ability allows
unbalanced conditions in the formation to be maintained to reduce the
potential for formation damage and increase drilling penetration rate.
Maintaining unbalanced conditions in the tank at all times is critical to
minimizing the potential for formation damage in sensitive tanks.

 Managed pressure drilling :-

Again, the ability to work with surface pressure gives a unique advantage to the
CTD process. Experienced Coiled Tubing Unit (CTU) crews are well trained to
work with surface pressure, and the CT equipment is designed to work with
significant surface pressure. Once the BHA has been pressure sawed, which is
usually done with a lubricated wire rig and BOP spread, there is no need to
loosen or strip the joints with a BOP rotary stripper. This capability, along with
reduced pipe handling, helps increase process safety and reduces the risk of
spills.

 CT provides continuous use of hardwired telemetry and conduits:-

As previously mentioned, CT can have electric logging line or other signal
telemetry options installed that are fully operational even while tripping. These
power and signal paths significantly increase the communication bandwidth
available for bidirection telemetry. The hardwired telemetry data transmission
rates surpass any mud pulse telemetry, allowing greater data acquisition while
drilling. Hardwired telemetry also allows deeper attainable communications
than other technologies, such as electromagnetic telemetry. These power and
signal paths significantly increase the communication bandwidth available for
47
 bidirectional telemetry. Other pressure conduit(s), such as small capillary
tubing, are often installed in CTD reels, which enable the unique capabilities for
operating downhole tools.

 Fully contained well pressure :-

CTD operations are most often performed with fully contained well pressure
via the well control stack, including a lubricator and upper stripper of hydraulic
packoff. This mechanical pressure-control system is often considered a part of
the primary well control as opposed to the drilling fluid in most conventional
rotary-drilling operations. In properly designed and engineered jobs, taking a
kick is not as much of a threat to manpower and equipment as in common
rotary drilling operations.

 Disadvantages to CTD :-

 Inability to rotate
The inability to rotate the pipe accounts for the largest single disadvantage to
CTD technology. Running drilling operations in 100% slide mode would be the
closest analogy to understanding CTD limitations. This inability to rotate
reduces:

 The ability to prevent cuttings beds uphole

 Achievable depths
 Tolerance of solids in the drilling fluid

 Cost of consumables:-
Unlike drillpipe, CT is plastically yielded 6 times every round trip in the hole.
After a finite number of trips into the hole, the entire CT string is scrapped or
sold for less severe applications. This price differential can be compounded by
the fact that CT typically cost more per foot than OCTG products of similar size
48
and weight. Because the probability of having a pinhole or parted CT is higher
than in a properly maintained drillpipe, a well-defined contingency plan for
such an occurrence is essential. A downhole motor is required for all CTD
operations because no current method of rotating CT has been applied in the
field. This adds to the cost per foot.

As previously mentioned, butt-welds significantly reduce the available useful

life of a reel of CT that is already a consumable.

Limited drilling-fluids life As previously mentioned, CTD requires a low-solids

loading in the drilling fluid to:

 Provide the highest weight on bit (WOB)

 Assure adequate rate of penetration (ROP)
 Maximize the potential reach

Relatively low achievable CTD pump rates often mandate relatively high
viscosity to assure adequate hole cleaning. This high viscosity often exceeds a
low shear-rate viscosity (LSRV) of 40,000 or more and tasks the ability of
solids-control equipment to efficiently remove solids. Finally, the high friction
losses and associated turbulence degrade many common biopolymers used in
CTD applications. All these factors result in higher costs to maintain a drilling-
fluid system.

49
 Slick line:-
Pressure control equipment is necessary to
enable a slickine operation to be safely
conducted on a live well. Specialized systems
have been developed for the various types of Figure 48 Slick line
slickline, braided line and electric wireline used. The desire to gather more
information on the reservoir and production characteristics of the completion
has encouraged the development of equipment and techniques to enable safe
and efficient wellbore access in live and flowing wells. Modern pressure control
equipment and techniques began to emerge in the 1940’s and early 1950’s. The
original techniques used by electric wireline and slickline service companies
were similar to the procedure used to swab in a well.

A line wiper or stuffing box, consisting of a housing at the surface containing a

resilient packing material, typically rubber, was used to seal off around the
cable. The line wiper was mounted on top of the joint of tubing or pipe, called a
lubricator. The lubricator served as a chamber above the wellhead, which the
swabbing tools could be pulled into, permitting the swabbed fluids to flow
uninterrupted through the flow line. The swabbing tools could then be retrieved
while keeping the well pressure and fluids under control. However, this was an
unsatisfactory method of controlling moderate to high-pressures because
abrasive wear of the rubber seals by the stranded cable permitted well fluids,
including oil, water or gas, to escape around and through the cable. This created
obvious hazards at the wellsite and surrounding environment.

50
The friction created around the cable by a conventional rubber element stuffing
box under pressure was severely limited. For example, at 5,000 psi, it was
necessary to add 40 to 50 feet of weight rails to overcome the friction created
by the stuffing box. This required a greaser with a length of 85 to 100 feet. Thus,
getting into the well under pressure became costly and difficult due to the time
and effort required in assembling, installing, and disassembling a lubricant of
this length.

 Slick line Unit

• Drums

• Controls

• Power Packs

 Surface Pressure Control Equipment

• Wire line Valve

• Lubricators

• Stuffing Box

• Chemical Injection Sub

• Grease Injection System Figure 49 Slick line Unit

The wire cable unit has been developed to provide increased power and portability while
meeting stringent safety requirements. Wire line winch is used as a means of lowering and
raising tool chains in wells that require wire line servicing; The crane will consist of these

Main gatherings:

 Wire cylinder
 Regulations
 Power packs

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The most common power unit to drive wire line winches are diesel powered
hydraulic systems. Electrically powered winches are also used in some areas.
Available hydraulic power must be sufficient to support lengthy jarring
operations; the unit has to be compact for offshore locations and satisfy zoning
regulations for hazardous area use.
The power pack and winch may be combined into one unit or separate
components may be utilised which requires the connection of hoses to
complete the hydraulic circuit

A sheave guides and assists the slick line from the unit to the wellbore to keep
the slick line off the ground and away from workers. Sheaves vary in size, type,
and make. All slick line jobs require a top and bottom sheave. A bottom sheave
is usually connected to the wellhead, or stump, and must be supported to keep
it from falling over. A top sheave can be suspended by a boom, derrick staff, rig
blocks, or stuffing box. It guides the line into the surface pressure control
equipment. All rigging used to secure top and bottom sheaves must be visually
inspected prior to each use and recorded.

 Manual Wire line Valve :-

 The wireline valve is used to close off and seal around the slickline without
causing damage to the wire.

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 As an example, if the packing in the stuffing box were to prematurely wear
out or be blown out, the wire line valve would be closed to shut in the well
until the problem was corrected.
 These valves allow remote valve operation with a hydraulic pump and hose.

• They are beneficial for service operations performed on H2S wells, as they
eliminate the need to manually operate the valve at the wellhead.

• They are recommended where the operation of manual wireline valves may
not be safe or practical.

 Stuffing Box :-

A stuffing box is used on the top of the wellhead assembly to contain the
pressure seal around the slick line as it is run in and out of the hole. An oil
injection sub, or grease head, may be used in conjunction with a stuffing box to
maintain the seal around the slick line.

Stuffing boxes should be inspected for packing wear before use. The packing is a
series of rubber pieces through which the line runs. To ensure a proper seal,
packing should be in good working condition and not too loose on the line.

• There are two common types of stuffing boxes:

1. Stuffing Box with Sheave

2. Stuffing Box without Sheave

 Stuffing Box with Sheave :-

• This stuffing box supports the top sheave which guides the line into the stuffing
box.

• The sheave should be inspected for wear in the wire guide groove and the
bearings should be in good working condition

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• A sheave is used to effect a 180deg bend and to guide the wire into the stuffing
box packing.

 Stuffing Box without Sheave :-

• A stuffing box without a sheave is commonly used for larger gauge slick line.
The sheave that guides the slick line into the stuffing box is suspended by a
boom, derrick staff, or rig blocks

 Slick line Applications :-

1. Tagging T.D. (Total Depth, which is the furthest depth possible down the
wellbore)

2. Gauge Ring runs (which is running a special sized down hole tool called a gauge
ring, which comes in various pre-machined diameters, designed to ensure the
pipe is clear to a certain point)

3. Tubing Broach / Plunger Installations (a tubing broach looks like an aggressive,

tubular file, available in different diameters, used for removing burrs and crimps
in the inside of tubing and casing in oil and gas wells)

4. Bailing sand and debris (removing formation sand/rock and other such debris
left over from the drilling and completion of the well, using a specialized tool
called a bailer. This tool uses either a Chinese water pump type stroke action or a
hydrostatic vacuum action to suction up the down hole debris, allowing it to be
conveyed back to surface via the wire line) Slick line Applications

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5. Setting / Pulling plugs and chokes (specialized down hole tools which either
lock into pre-machined restrictions in the tubing, or which lock into the tubing
itself, sealing pressure from below or above the plug)

6. Setting / Pulling gas lift valves

7. Running tailpipes (tubing extensions where the tubing is not landed close
enough to the formation perforations in the casing)

8. Bottom hole pressure and temperature surveys (specialized electronic and

mechanical tools designed to measure the pressure and temperature at
predetermined depths in the wellbore. This data can be used to determine
reservoir life)

9. Paraffin cutting (making a hole through and removing a wax buildup, which is a
byproduct of oil cooling too much to reach surface)

10. Running production logging tools

11. Fishing operations (fishing usually refers to attempting to retrieve lost tools
or wire, or other debris that was not intended to restrict the flow / disrupt the
well operations. Fishing can be difficult, due to the fish being down hole, and
other affecting conditions such as high pressure, the fish being jammed in the
tubing / casing)

 Sand Bailer Operations :-

Bailing operations are defined as the operations of collecting solids and/or
cleaning the wellbore. It’s carried out on: drilling rigs, work over operations,
production wells, either onshore or offshore. The following figure shows an
example of stones, large debris, and sand removed from one well.

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Figure 50 Sand Bailer
 Fishing Operations :-
Slick line fishing tools are specialized well intervention tools that are
mechanically operated and help in the retrieval of other equipment that are
accidentally fallen into the wellbore.

Figure 52 Fishing Operations

Figure 51 Fishing Operations

A standard fishing toolbox contains: Wire line Clamp, Wire line Grab, Wire line
Finder, Overshoot’s, Tubular jars, Heavy duty pulling tool, Wire line cutters, etc.
The following figure shows examples of slick line fishing tools.

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M2: Identify the trouble shootings of coil tubing and wire line:-
There are many problems facing coil tubing and wire line, so it is important to
identify the most important risks and problems facing this equipment and
understand the reason for each of them:

 Wire breaks :-

It means overloading the wire line, which leads to cutting or damage to it, and it
can also happen in cases where the cable gets stuck in the well when
completing a fishing operation or extracting equipment inside the well, and
causes the worker’s lack of knowledge to overload the cable, which leads to the
occurrence of Cuts and damage to the cable, and this problem is repeated in
the case of overloading the cable or failure to apply maintenance and periodic
examination before putting it into work.

 Fatigue (work hardening failure) Figure 53 Wire breaks

Fatigue is defined as the increased load or pressure that is exposed to high and
affects the cable during its work. It may also be the stress resulting from
continuous work without any maintenance or examination, which is the main
reason for the occurrence of Fatigue.

Figure 54 Fatigue
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 Corrosion (H2S, CO2, acids)

Figure 55 Corrosion

Cable corrosion occurs as a result of the presence of harmful gases such as

sulfur gas, carbon dioxide, or other acidic compounds that cause corrosion and
damage to minerals, and this is a very common danger in many wells around
the world, and it causes corrosion of metal layers and weakening of the wire
used in operations Examination and maintenance

– load failure

This happens as a result of excessive weight or as a result of the weakness of

the cable that works to lift and maintain the equipment

 Damage to well equipment

Damage to well equipment, and this occurs as a result of an interruption or

fall of the equipment inside the well, which leads to damage to the
equipment, which does not allow it to be able to engage in any other
operations during the maintenance or examination of the well.

 coatings from wire abrasion

Sometimes corrosion occurs in the tube of the cable downstream, which leads
to corrosion of the cable and the surface of the tube as a result of the constant
friction of the cable against the tube wall.

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 wrong collection process :-

Figure 56 wrong collection process

In this process, the cable is collected incorrectly and unregulated, and this
process affects the health of the cable and its life span, and it also affects the
cable when a process is being lowered into the well for maintenance, where
the cable must be collected in an organized way to facilitate the process of
reusing it without any danger to cable or equipment

 Coiled Tubing (CT) :-

Coiled Tubing (CT) originated as small diameter butt-welded tubing for well
servicing use. The tube-to-tube weld was a weak point, possibly because poor
NDE was used (double wall RT, and PT for the OD surface), and the need for
more consistency arose. By joining strips to get her end to end and running the
accumulated strip through mill, long tubes can now be made. Typical lengths
of CT string are 20,000 - 25,000 ft. Strip lengths are from1200-3200 ft,
depending upon the thickness, and welded at an angle. Constant mass slabs
are used to hot-roll the strip

As length requirements rose, two things happened:

(a) Thicker strips were used at one end (and occasionally atthe other to
provide for corrosion at the bottom of astring).

(b) Strips that were continuously tapered were introduced so that the skelp-
end welds could be made gauge-to-gauge.
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 Main Failures Causes:-
 Corrosion:
 Corrosion failures count for about 30% of the CT failures analyzed. It was
indicated that CT corrosion failures can be subdivided by the source of the
corrosion damage into storage-corrosion and corrosion-operations.
 Storage-corrosion is caused by the accumulation of corrosive fluids inside or
outside the string. The failure normally occurs by propagation of fatigue
cracks from the corrosion damage.
 Corrosion-operations classification includes the CT failures associated with
the exposure of the pipe to the fluids pumped through the string and/or the
well environments.

 Corrosion Remedies:
 Appropriate acid mix design (fluids and inhibitors) that considers the Grade,
acid system, and exposure time and temperature.
 Neutralizing after acid jobs using sodium carbonate. It is worthy to point out
that the Service Company banned the use of sodium hydroxide as neutralizing
chemical because of the risk of Caustic-Stress Corrosion Cracking (Caustic -
SCC).
 Displacement of remaining fluids with fresh water + inhibitor
 Mechanical Damage:
The working conditions at which united mbing strings are subjected can cause
external mechanical damage. This t s type of external damage can be very
diverse and can be caused by the action of the surface equipment (reel,
gooseneck, injector) or while running in and out of the well. This mechanical

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 damage causes a stress strain concentration point from which fatigue cracks
can start and propagate causing a premature failure.

 Types of Mechanical Damage:

 Longitudinal plowing marks (LPM)(cause of this type of damage is pipe

slippage through the injector blocks).
 Transverse notch
 External dents
 Circumferential crushing ("pipe crushing")

 Treatments:

Figure 57 CT

 The use of "smooth" clutch blocks can reduce frictional force while
potentially causing pipe slippage.
 Remove the debris material from the notched clutch block as it loses its grip
on the CT chain.
 The pressure of the hydraulic motor can cause a different torque to be
applied to the chain block causing the tube to slip.

 Human error:

 Human error caused an overload failure or buckling of the pipe.

 Recommended chain tension and traction pressures charts.

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 Microbiological Influenced Corrosion (MIC(

 MIC failures associated with the use/accumulation of water contaminated

with bacteria had occurred.
 Mainly in the form of very severe, localized, and aggressive pitting corrosion.

 Remedies:

 Treatment of surface equipment: cleaning tanks to remove bacteria and

apply quaternary biocide (instead of chlorine dioxide).
 Treatment of circulating fluids: treating frac tanks with quaternary biocide,
and adding additional volumes of biocide during operations.
 Treatment of stagnant fluids between wells: flushing CT with fresh water +
quaternary biocide + inhibitors (H2S anti-cracking inhibitor and general
corrosion inhibitor) followed by full nitrogen

 Remedies:

 Eliminate sources of defects

 handling, injector debris
 Monitor/Inspect
 Environmentally Induced Cracking
Figure 58 Remedies

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