Advanced Materials

Advanced materials can be defined in many ways. The broadest definition is to refer to all
materials that represent advances over the traditional materials that have been used for
hundreds or even thousands of years. From this perspective, advanced materials refer to all new
materials and modifications to existing materials to obtain superior performance in one or more
characteristics that are critical for the application under consideration.

They can also exhibit completely novel properties. Advanced materials typically have
properties that are superior to and outperform conventional materials in their applications. The
development of advanced materials is associated with the generation of new knowledge and
intellectual property (IP). The development of advanced materials can even lead to the design
of completely new products. Advanced materials may also be remarkably adaptable.

The advanced materials industry encompasses a full life cycle from materials extraction,
primary production, process development and materials characterisation to product fabrication,
testing, use and end-of-life waste management and recycling. Supporting activities would
include research, design and development, together with skills and standards development.

A more insightful and focused approach to advanced materials is to consider materials that are
early in their product and/or technology lifecycle. In other words, there is significant room for
growth in terms of the improvement of the performance characteristics (technology lifecycle)
and their sales volume (product lifecycle). Examples of these elite of materials include
ceramics, glass, liquid crystals, composites, semiconductors and polymers.

1. Applications of Advanced Materials in Rechargeable batteries

Disadvantages of Li ion battery
Ceramic Electrolyte Sheet for Next-Generation Rechargeable Batteries:
A significant reduction in grain-boundary resistance of the developed ceramic electrolyte sheet,
which has been difficult to realize, has been achieved utilizing a new sintering process. The
sheet shows high overall conductivity (1×10-3 S/cm) at room temperature. The thin large-area
sheet can be manufactured more energy efficiently than conventional products. Therefore, its
use as a ceramic electrolyte for an all-solid lithium ion battery with high safety is expected.
The film has excellent water resistance, meets requirements as an electrolyte material for
lithium-air batteries expected to be next-generation storage batteries, and is expected to
accelerate the development of high-performance rechargeable batteries.

An LTAP-based glass ceramic electrolyte having a NASICON type crystal structure has been
developed as a material having an exceptionally high water resistance among the ceramic
electrolytes. In existing products using this material, the overall conductivity as a
polycrystalline substance is as low as 1×10-4 S/cm at room temperature it provides high water
resistance and high thermal stability up to 800°C. The developed ceramic electrolyte contains
titanium, known to cause degradation when metal lithium is directly brought into contact with
the electrolyte. Therefore, devising such as the use of organic electrolyte liquid-containing
polymer is needed in the manufacture of current storage batteries.

• Provides 1×10-3 S/cm lithium ion conductivity at room temperature, high water
resistance, and excellent thermal stability
• More energy efficient production than conventional sheet manufacture
• Accelerates the development of lithium-air batteries as next-generation storage
batteries
2. Applications of Advanced Materials in Bio-medical application

✓ Diagnosis- Inorganic nanoparticles, Polymer composites, Liquid crystals.

✓ Imaging- Nanoparticles, Dendrimers, Polymer composite materials.
✓ tissue engineering- Biodegradable polymers, Ceramics, Metal -alloys
✓ targeted drug delivery - Multi stimuli-responsive smart materials,
Nanoparticles, Hybrid polymer- Metal composite.
✓ self healing materials- CERAMICS, POLYMERS.
Smart materials have the capability to alter some of their properties in reaction to a variation
in their immediate surroundings. Currently, smart materials are receiving a lot of consideration
in the biomedical field owing to their potential use in a wide variety of biological devices
(Greco & Mattoli, 2012). These smart materials have lighter weight, longer life, and corrosion
resistance properties, which makes them a suitable candidate for biomedical applications.
Smart materials can detect defects and fractures by altering their characteristics, making them
helpful as a diagnostic too.

Targeted drug delivery

1.Multi stimuli-responsive smart materials

Multi stimuli-responsive smart materials are materials that can respond to multiple stimuli,
such as changes in temperature, pH, light, and magnetic or electric fields. These materials have
a wide range of potential applications in various fields, including biomedical engineering, drug
delivery, and sensing. (micelles, micro/nanogels, vesicles, and hybrid particles),
2.Nanoparticles for drug delivery

Nanotechnology drug delivery applications occur through the use of designed nanomaterials
as well as forming delivery systems from nanoscale molecules such as liposomes. Applying
nanotechnology to drug delivery should achieve the following benefits:
1. Improve the ability to deliver drugs that are poorly water soluble.
2. Provide site-specific targeting to reduce drug accumulation within healthy tissue.
3. Help retain the drug in the body long enough for effective treatment.
4. The extension of drug bioactivity through protection from the biological environment.
5. Allow for the transportation of drugs across epithelial and endothelial barriers.
6. Combine therapeutic and diagnostic modalities into one agent.

Fullerenes Carbon based carriers Photodynamics

Drug delivery
Dendrimers Branched polymers Drug delivery

Natural materials or Chitosan Drug/Gene delivery

derivatives
Dextrane
Gelatine
Alginates
Liposomes
Starch

Fullerene Derivatives with Non-covalent Drugs and Interactions

In the second category, fullerene derivatives with drug delivery applications can be
based on non-covalent association of a drug, targeting substrate, or a protein to the
fullerene derivative’s surface. Fullerenes and fullerene derivatives are well known to
form non-covalent intermolecular.C60.
Dendrimers are nano-sized, radially symmetric molecules with well-defined,
homogeneous, and monodisperse structure consisting of tree-like arms or branches.
Approaches for delivering unaltered natural products using polymeric carriers is of
widespread interest. Dendrimers have been explored for the encapsulation
of hydrophobic compounds and for the delivery of anticancer drugs. The physical
characteristics of dendrimers, including their monodispersity, water solubility,
 encapsulation ability, and large number of functionalizable peripheral groups make
these macromolecules appropriate candidates for drug delivery vehicles. Recently,
PAMAM dendrimers have been used as delivery vehicles for NSAIDS to increase
hydrophilicity, allowing greater drug penetration.( Poly(amidoamine).
Chitosan exhibits muco-adhesive properties and can be used to act in the tight epithelial
junctions. Thus, chitosan-based nanomaterials are widely used for continued drug
release systems for various types of epithelia, including buccal , intestinal , nasal, eye
and pulmonary, Silva et al.
3. Hybrid polymer- Metal composite:
Metals and polymers are divergent materials concerning their physicochemical
characteristics, but balancing with regard to their functionality. The properties like high
drug loading capability, on-demand structural modifications, elastic properties, and
high magnetic responsiveness are achievable on the metal−polymer complex by
utilization of the properties of both metals and polymers.
Ex:
1. Zn Bovine serum albumin Doxorubicin
2. Se, Cd Chitosan-poly(methacrylic acid) Temozolomide
3. Se Poly(ethylene glycol) and poly(propylene glycol) Doxorubicin
4. Fe, Al Zeolitic imidazolate framework Ibuprofen
5. Cu, Zn F127 Pluronic nonionic surfactant/silica hybrid Anticancer drugs

Application of advanced materials in imaging

1. Nano materials:
Nanomaterials have been extensively explored for their potential applications in diagnostic
medicine. The unique properties of nanomaterials, such as their small size, large surface area,
and tunable optical properties, make them attractive candidates for various diagnostic
applications. Imaging: Nanomaterials can be used as contrast agents for various imaging
techniques, including magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computed tomography (CT), and
fluorescence imaging. These contrast agents improve the sensitivity and specificity of the
imaging technique, allowing for earlier and more accurate diagnosis.
Iron oxide nanoparticles: These nanoparticles have magnetic properties that make them
useful as contrast agents in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). They can be functionalized
with targeting ligands to improve their specificity and allow for targeted imaging.
Quantum dots: These are semiconductor nanoparticles that emit light when excited by a light
source. They are used in fluorescence imaging to visualize cells and tissues at high resolution.
Quantum dots can be functionalized with specific ligands to target specific cells or tissues.
Gold nanoparticles: These nanoparticles have unique optical properties that make them useful
for imaging applications. They can be functionalized with targeting ligands to allow for
targeted imaging of specific cells or tissues. Gold nanoparticles are also used in CT imaging as
contrast agents.
Carbon nanotubes: These are cylindrical nanoparticles made of carbon atoms. They can be
used in imaging techniques such as CT and MRI. Carbon nanotubes can also be functionalized
with targeting ligands to allow for targeted imaging.
Liposomes: These are spherical nanoparticles made of a phospholipid bilayer. They can be
used to encapsulate contrast agents or drugs for targeted delivery to specific cells or tissues.
Liposomes are used in various imaging techniques, including MRI and ultrasound.
Overall, nanoparticles have a wide range of applications in medical imaging, and ongoing
research is likely to lead to even more innovative uses for these materials in the future.

2. Dendrimers
are highly branched, nanoscale polymers that have a wide range of applications in medical
imaging. Here are a few examples of dendrimers that are used in medical imaging:

Polyamidoamine (PAMAM) dendrimers: These dendrimers have been extensively studied

for their use in imaging applications. They can be functionalized with targeting ligands and
imaging agents to allow for targeted imaging of specific cells or tissues. PAMAM dendrimers
have been used in various imaging techniques, including MRI and fluorescence imaging.
Polyethylene glycol (PEG) dendrimers: These dendrimers have been used as contrast agents
in MRI. They can be functionalized with targeting ligands to allow for targeted imaging of
specific cells or tissues. PEG dendrimers have also been used for drug delivery and as
theragnostic agents.
Polypropylenimine (PPI) dendrimers: These dendrimers have been studied for their use as
imaging agents in fluorescence and MRI. They can be functionalized with targeting ligands to
allow for targeted imaging of specific cells or tissues. PPI dendrimers have also been used for
drug delivery and as theragnostic agents.
Carbosilane dendrimers: These dendrimers have been used as contrast agents in MRI. They
can be functionalized with targeting ligands to allow for targeted imaging of specific cells or
tissues. Carbosilane dendrimers have also been studied for their use in drug delivery and as
theragnostic agents.

3. Polymer composites

are a type of material that consists of a polymer matrix and one or more types of
reinforcement materials, such as nanoparticles, fibers, or fillers. Here are a few examples of
polymer composites that are used in medical imaging:

Polymer-iron oxide nanoparticle composites: These composites are used as contrast agents
in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The iron oxide nanoparticles provide a strong magnetic
signal, while the polymer matrix helps to stabilize the nanoparticles and improve their
biocompatibility.
Polymer-gold nanoparticle composites: These composites are used in computed tomography
(CT) imaging as contrast agents. The gold nanoparticles provide a strong X-ray attenuation
signal, while the polymer matrix helps to stabilize the nanoparticles and improve their
biocompatibility.
Polymer-carbon nanotube composites: These composites are used in various imaging
techniques, including CT and MRI. The carbon nanotubes provide strong signals in these
imaging modalities, while the polymer matrix helps to stabilize the nanotubes and improve
their biocompatibility.
Polymer-ceramic composites: These composites are used as bone substitutes and for bone
imaging. The ceramic reinforcement materials, such as hydroxyapatite, provide a strong signal
in X-ray and CT imaging, while the polymer matrix helps to improve the mechanical properties
and biocompatibility of the material.
Polymer-fiber composites: These composites are used for imaging and as scaffolds for tissue
engineering. The fibers, which can be made from a variety of materials such as carbon or glass,
provide a strong signal in various imaging modalities, while the polymer matrix helps to
improve the mechanical properties and biocompatibility of the material.
Overall, polymer composites have tremendous potential for medical imaging applications, and
ongoing research is likely to lead to even more innovative uses for these materials in the future.

Application of advanced materials in Tissue engineering

Tissue engineering is a field that involves the development of biological substitutes that can
restore, maintain, or improve tissue function. Advanced materials play a crucial role in tissue
engineering, as they can be used to create scaffolds, provide mechanical support, and facilitate
cell growth and differentiation. Here are a few examples of advanced materials used in tissue
engineering:
Biodegradable polymers: These are polymers that can be broken down by the body into
harmless products. Biodegradable polymers can be used to create scaffolds for tissue
engineering applications, as they can provide mechanical support for the growing tissue while
gradually degrading as the tissue matures.
Poly(lactic acid) (PLA): PLA is a biodegradable polymer that is widely used in tissue
engineering applications. It is produced from renewable resources and has good mechanical
properties. PLA degrades slowly, which makes it suitable for long-term applications such as
bone regeneration.
Poly(glycolic acid) (PGA): PGA is a biodegradable polymer that is widely used in tissue
engineering applications. It has good mechanical properties and degrades rapidly, which makes
it suitable for short-term applications such as drug delivery.
Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA): PLGA is a biodegradable copolymer that is widely
used in tissue engineering applications. It combines the properties of PLA and PGA and has
good mechanical properties and degradation rate. PLGA is commonly used for drug delivery,
tissue engineering, and scaffolding applications.
Poly(caprolactone) (PCL): PCL is a biodegradable polymer that is widely used in tissue
engineering applications. It has good mechanical properties and degrades slowly, which makes
it suitable for long-term applications such as nerve regeneration.
Chitosan: Chitosan is a biodegradable polymer derived from chitin, a natural polymer found
in the shells of crustaceans. It has good mechanical properties, biocompatibility, and
biodegradability. Chitosan is commonly used for wound healing, tissue engineering, and drug
delivery applications.

2. Ceramics
are a class of materials with high biocompatibility, mechanical strength, and stability that
make them suitable for use in tissue engineering. Here are some examples of ceramics used in
tissue engineering:
Hydroxyapatite (HA): HA is a biocompatible ceramic that is structurally similar to the
mineral component of bone. HA is used in bone tissue engineering to promote cell adhesion,
proliferation, and differentiation. It can be synthesized in various forms such as powders,
coatings, and scaffolds.
Tricalcium phosphate (TCP): TCP is another biocompatible ceramic used in bone tissue
engineering. It has a similar composition to the mineral component of bone and can be used to
promote cell adhesion, proliferation, and differentiation. TCP is available in various forms such
as powders, coatings, and scaffolds.
Zirconia: Zirconia is a biocompatible ceramic that has high mechanical strength and wear
resistance. It is used in dental tissue engineering to create restorative materials and implants.
Alumina: Alumina is a biocompatible ceramic with high mechanical strength and wear
resistance. It is used in orthopedic tissue engineering to create joint replacements and other
implants.
3.Metal alloys
are also used in tissue engineering due to their unique mechanical properties, biocompatibility,
and corrosion resistance. Here are some examples of metal alloys used in tissue engineering:
Titanium alloys: Titanium alloys are commonly used in orthopedic and dental tissue
engineering due to their biocompatibility and high mechanical strength. They can be used to
create implants such as artificial joints, dental implants, and spinal implants.
Cobalt-chromium alloys: Cobalt-chromium alloys are used in orthopedic tissue engineering
to create implants such as artificial joints and bone plates. They have high corrosion resistance
and are biocompatible.
Stainless steel alloys: Stainless steel alloys are commonly used in orthopedic and dental tissue
engineering. They have high mechanical strength and are resistant to corrosion. They can be
used to create implants such as bone screws, dental implants, and spinal implants.
Magnesium alloys: Magnesium alloys have recently gained attention in tissue engineering due
to their biodegradability and biocompatibility. They can be used to create implants such as
bone screws and plates that gradually degrade over time, allowing for natural bone
regeneration.
Nitinol: Nitinol is a shape memory alloy that is used in tissue engineering applications such as
vascular stents. It can be deformed at low temperatures, but will return to its original shape
when exposed to body temperature.

Application of advanced materials in Diagnosis

1. Inorganic nanoparticles
Inorganic nanoparticles have unique properties that make them attractive for various diagnostic
applications. Here are a few examples of inorganic nanoparticles used in diagnosis:
Gold nanoparticles: Gold nanoparticles have unique optical properties and can be easily
functionalized with biomolecules such as antibodies or oligonucleotides. They can be used in
biosensors to detect disease biomarkers with high sensitivity and specificity, and also in
imaging techniques such as CT, MRI, and optical imaging.
Quantum dots: Quantum dots are fluorescent semiconductor nanoparticles that emit light at
specific wavelengths. They can be used in imaging techniques such as fluorescence microscopy
and in vivo imaging to detect diseases such as cancer.
Iron oxide nanoparticles: Iron oxide nanoparticles can be functionalized with targeting
ligands to specifically bind to cancer cells or other disease biomarkers. They can be used in
imaging techniques such as MRI and magnetic particle imaging (MPI) to detect diseases such
as cancer and cardiovascular diseases.
Mesoporous silica nanoparticles: Mesoporous silica nanoparticles have a high surface area
and can be easily functionalized with targeting ligands and drugs. They can be used for targeted
drug delivery to treat diseases such as cancer and also in imaging techniques such as MRI and
PET.
Silver nanoparticles: Silver nanoparticles have unique optical and antibacterial properties.
They can be used in biosensors for the detection of bacterial infections and also in imaging
techniques such as CT and MRI.

2. Polymer composites
have unique properties that make them attractive for various diagnostic applications. Here are
a few examples of polymer composites used in diagnosis:
Carbon nanotube-polymer composites: Carbon nanotube-polymer composites can be used
in biosensors for the detection of disease biomarkers with high sensitivity and specificity. They
can also be used in imaging techniques such as CT, MRI, and PET.
Graphene-polymer composites: Graphene-polymer composites have high surface area and
electrical conductivity, and can be functionalized with biomolecules such as antibodies or DNA
strands. They can be used in biosensors to detect disease biomarkers with high sensitivity and
specificity, and also in imaging techniques such as CT, MRI, and PET.
Polymer-metal oxide composites: Polymer-metal oxide composites have unique optical and
magnetic properties, and can be functionalized with targeting ligands and drugs. They can be
used in imaging techniques such as MRI and PET, and also for targeted drug delivery to treat
diseases such as cancer.
Polymer-silica composites: Polymer-silica composites have high surface area and can be
easily functionalized with targeting ligands and drugs. They can be used for targeted drug
delivery to treat diseases such as cancer, and also in imaging techniques such as MRI and PET.
Polymer-magnetic nanoparticle composites: Polymer-magnetic nanoparticle composites
have unique magnetic properties, and can be functionalized with targeting ligands and drugs.
They can be used in imaging techniques such as MRI and magnetic particle imaging (MPI),
and also for targeted drug delivery to treat diseases such as cancer.

3. Liquid crystals

have unique properties that make them attractive for various diagnostic applications. Here are
a few examples of liquid crystals used in diagnosis:
Liquid crystal nanoparticles: Liquid crystal nanoparticles can be used in biosensors for the
detection of disease biomarkers with high sensitivity and specificity. They can also be used in
imaging techniques such as fluorescence microscopy and in vivo imaging to detect diseases
such as cancer.
Liquid crystal sensors: Liquid crystal sensors can be functionalized with antibodies or other
biomolecules to specifically bind to disease biomarkers. They can be used to detect diseases
such as cancer, and also to monitor environmental and chemical parameters.
Liquid crystal-based colorimetric assays: Liquid crystal-based colorimetric assays can be
used to detect disease biomarkers by detecting changes in the orientation and spacing of liquid
crystal molecules. They are simple and inexpensive, and can be used for point-of-care
diagnosis.
Liquid crystal-based imaging techniques: Liquid crystal-based imaging techniques such as
polarized light microscopy can be used to detect changes in the structure and organization of
biological tissues, which can be indicative of diseases such as cancer.

Application of advanced materials in Self-healing materials

Self-healing materials have shown great potential in biomedical applications due to their ability
to repair themselves when damaged, which can enhance the longevity and performance of
implanted devices or materials.
1. Self-healing ceramics

have shown great potential for biomedical applications, particularly in the field of bone
regeneration. Here are a few examples of self-healing ceramics used in biomedical
applications:
Hydroxyapatite-based ceramics: Hydroxyapatite-based ceramics have been developed for
bone regeneration applications. These materials can repair themselves when exposed to body
fluids, which can enhance their ability to promote tissue regeneration and integration with
surrounding bone.
Calcium phosphate-based ceramics: Calcium phosphate-based ceramics have also been
developed for bone regeneration applications. These materials can repair themselves when
exposed to body fluids and can also release ions that promote bone growth and healing.
Bioactive glass ceramics: Bioactive glass ceramics have been developed that can promote
bone regeneration and healing. These materials can repair themselves when exposed to body
fluids and can also release ions that stimulate bone growth and angiogenesis.
Zirconia-based ceramics: Zirconia-based ceramics have been developed for dental
applications, such as dental implants and dental crowns. These materials can repair themselves
when exposed to heat and have good biocompatibility and mechanical properties for dental
applications.

2.Self-healing polymers

have shown great potential for biomedical applications, particularly for the development of
implants and devices that can repair themselves when damaged. Here are a few examples of
self-healing polymers used in biomedical applications:
Polyurethane-based polymers: Polyurethane-based polymers have been developed for
cardiovascular applications, such as stents and heart valves. These materials can repair
themselves when exposed to body fluids, which can improve the longevity and performance of
the implant.
Hydrogels: Hydrogels are water-swollen networks of polymer chains that have potential
applications in drug delivery and tissue engineering. Some hydrogels have been designed to be
self-healing, allowing them to repair themselves when damaged.
Silk-based polymers: Silk-based polymers have been developed for use in tissue engineering
and drug delivery applications. These materials have good biocompatibility and can be
designed to be self-healing, which can improve their performance and longevity in vivo.
Polyethylene glycol-based polymers: Polyethylene glycol-based polymers have been
developed for use in drug delivery and tissue engineering applications. These materials can be
designed to be self-healing, which can improve their ability to release drugs over a longer
period of time or to promote tissue regeneration.

Application of advanced materials in Catalysis

1. Graphene:

Graphene is a two-dimensional material consisting of a single layer of carbon atoms arranged

in a hexagonal lattice structure. It is the basic building block of other carbon-based materials,
such as carbon nanotubes and fullerenes. Graphene has unique physical, chemical, and
mechanical properties that make it a promising material for a wide range of applications in
electronics, energy, medicine, and more.
Some of the key properties of graphene include:
High electrical conductivity: Graphene is an excellent conductor of electricity, making it ideal
for use in electronic devices.
High thermal conductivity: Graphene has excellent heat dissipation properties, making it useful
for applications in thermal management.
High surface area: Graphene has a very large surface area per unit of mass, making it useful
for applications in catalysis and energy storage.
High mechanical strength: Graphene is one of the strongest materials known, making it useful
for applications in composites and structural materials.

Graphene in homogenous/ heterogeneous catalysis:

1. Palladium nanoparticles: Palladium nanoparticles supported on graphene have been
used as efficient catalysts for a variety of reactions, including Suzuki coupling and Heck
coupling reactions.
2. Ruthenium complexes: Ruthenium complexes supported on graphene have been used
as efficient catalysts for the hydrogenation of a variety of unsaturated organic
compounds.
3. Iron complexes: Iron complexes supported on graphene have been used as efficient
catalysts for the oxidation of organic compounds.
 4. Gold nanoparticles: Gold nanoparticles supported on graphene have been used as
efficient catalysts for the reduction of nitroaromatic compounds and in the synthesis of
heterocyclic compounds.
5. Platinum nanoparticles: Platinum nanoparticles supported on graphene have been
used as efficient catalysts for the oxidation of carbon monoxide and the reduction of
nitrogen oxides.
6. Nickel nanoparticles: Nickel nanoparticles supported on graphene have been used as
efficient catalysts for the hydrogenation of a variety of unsaturated organic compounds.
7. Molybdenum disulfide: Molybdenum disulfide supported on graphene has been used
as an efficient catalyst for the hydrogen evolution reaction in water splitting for
renewable energy production.

2. Zeolites:
Zeolites are a type of porous, crystalline material composed of alumina, silica, and other
metal oxides. They have a three-dimensional framework structure with uniform and
interconnected pores of molecular dimensions. Zeolites are used in a wide range of industrial
applications, particularly in the petrochemical industry, due to their unique properties, such as
high surface area, thermal stability, and ion-exchange capacity.one of the most important
applications is
Catalysts: Zeolites are widely used as catalysts in many chemical reactions, such as
cracking of petroleum, isomerization, alkylation, and others. The uniform and interconnected
pores of zeolites allow for precise control of reactant and product molecules, leading to high
selectivity and efficiency.
1. Platinum-group metals: Platinum-group metals, such as platinum, palladium, and
rhodium, have been supported on zeolites for use as catalysts in reactions such as
hydrogenation, oxidation, and isomerization.
2. Acid-catalyzed reactions: Zeolites have acid sites that can catalyze various acid-
catalyzed reactions, such as cracking of hydrocarbons, alkylation, and dehydration.
3. Base-catalyzed reactions: Zeolites can also be modified to have basic sites, which can
catalyze various base-catalyzed reactions, such as aldol condensation and Michael
addition reactions.
4. Enzymatic reactions: Enzymes have been immobilized on zeolites for use in various
enzymatic reactions, such as the hydrolysis of cellulose.

Zeolites are not typically used as homogeneous catalysts because they are insoluble in
most solvents and do not dissolve or mix well with reactants. However, zeolites can be used
as host materials to encapsulate homogeneous catalysts, protecting them from deactivation and
enhancing their performance. This is known as a "host-guest" approach, where the zeolite acts
as the host and the catalyst is the guest.
1. Palladium catalysts: Palladium catalysts have been encapsulated in zeolites for use in
various reactions, such as Suzuki cross-coupling reactions and C-H bond activation
reactions.
2. Platinum catalysts: Platinum catalysts have been encapsulated in zeolites for use in
hydrogenation reactions.
 3. Polymers:
Polymers have been used as homogeneous and heterogenous catalysts due to their unique
properties, such as high molecular weight, high catalytic activity, and tunable properties. Some
examples of polymers used as homogeneous catalysts are:
1. Polyethyleneimine (PEI): PEI is a polymer with a high concentration of amine groups,
which can act as a strong base catalyst. It has been used as a catalyst for various
reactions, such as the Michael addition and aldol condensation reactions.
2. Poly(4-vinylpyridine) (P4VP): P4VP is a polymer with a high concentration of
pyridine groups, which can act as a Lewis base catalyst. It has been used as a catalyst
for various reactions, such as the Knoevenagel condensation and Diels-Alder reactions.
3. Poly(acrylic acid) (PAA): PAA is a polymer with a high concentration of carboxylic
acid groups, which can act as an acid catalyst. It has been used as a catalyst for various
reactions, such as the esterification and transesterification reactions.
4. Poly(N-heterocyclic carbene) (PNHC): PNHC is a polymer with a high concentration
of N-heterocyclic carbene groups, which can act as a strong base catalyst. It has been
used as a catalyst for various reactions, such as the Heck reaction and Suzuki cross-
coupling reaction.
5. Polystyrene sulfonic acid (PSSA): PSSA is a polymer with sulfonic acid groups,
which can act as a strong acid catalyst. It has been used as a heterogeneous catalyst for
various reactions, such as the esterification and transesterification reactions.
6. Poly(N-vinylpyrrolidone) (PVP): PVP is a polymer with nitrogen-containing groups,
which can act as a Lewis base catalyst. It has been used as a heterogeneous catalyst for
various reactions, such as the Michael addition and aldol condensation reactions.
7. Polymers as supports for metal nanoparticles: Polymers such as polystyrene,
polyethyleneimine, and polyvinyl alcohol have been used as supports for metal
nanoparticles, such as palladium, gold, and silver. The resulting materials have been
used as heterogeneous catalysts for various reactions, such as the Suzuki cross-coupling
reaction and the reduction of nitroarenes.