Human Development: An Ever-Evolving Field 
develops may be used to intervene in development, for
What is human development, and how has its study
evolved?
From the moment of conception, human beings begin a
process of change that will continue throughout life. A
single cell develops into a living, breathing, walking,
talking person. And though this single cell will become a
unique individual, the changes people experience
during their lifetimes have certain patterns in common.
Babies grow and become children, who grow and
become adults. Similarly, human characteristics have
common patterns. For example, some 10 to 15 percent
of children are consistently shy, and another 10 to 15
percent are very bold. Other influences may modify
these traits, but they tend to persist, at least to a
moderate degree, especially in children who are at one
extreme or the other.
The field of human development focuses on the
scientific study of the systematic processes of change
and stability in people. Developmental scientists (or
developmentalists)—individuals engaged in the
professional study of human development—look at
ways in which people change from conception through
maturity as well as at characteristics that remain fairly
stable.
Research showing that the adolescent brain is still
immature has prompted suggestions that adolescents
accused of crimes be exempt from the death penalty.
An understanding of adult development can help
people understand and deal with life transitions: a
woman returning to work after maternity leave, a
person making a career change, a widower dealing with
loss, someone coping with a terminal illness.
STUDYING THE LIFE SPAN
Developmentalists have come to recognize that human
development is a lifelong process—a concept known as
life-span development. Paul B. Baltes's life-span
developmental approach, provides a comprehensive
conceptual framework for the study of life-span
development.
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT TODAY
As the field of human development became a scientific
discipline, its goals came to include description,
explanation, prediction, and intervention.
For example, to describe when most children say their
first word or how large their vocabulary typically is at a
certain age, developmental scientists observe large
groups of children and establish norms, or averages, for
behavior at various ages. They then attempt to explain
how children acquire language and why some children
learn to speak later than usual. This knowledge may
make it possible to predict future behavior, such as the
likelihood that a child will have serious speech
problems. Finally, an understanding of how language
example, by giving a child speech therapy.
The Study of Human Development: Basic Concepts
DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT
Development Characteristics
Developmental scientists study three major domains, or
aspects, of the self: physical, cognitive, and
psychosocial. Growth of the body and brain, sensory
capacities, motor skills, and health are parts of physical
development. Learning, attention, memory, language,
thinking, reasoning, and creativity make up cognitive
development. Emotions, personality, and social
relationships are aspects of psychosocial development.
As one researcher points out, “Our brains work better,
our thinking is sharper, our mood brighter, and our
vulnerability to disease diminished if we are physically
fit”. For example, a child with frequent ear infections
may develop language more slowly than a child without
this physical problem. During puberty, dramatic physical
and hormonal changes affect the developing sense of
self. In contrast, physical changes in the brains of some
older adults may lead to intellectual and personality
deterioration.
Cognitive advances and declines are closely related to
physical, emotional, and social factors. A child who is
precocious in language development may bring about
positive reactions in others and thus gain in self-worth.
Memory development reflects gains or losses in physical
connections in the brain. An adult who has trouble
remembering people's names may feel shy in social
situations.
Ear infections are the most common cause of speech
delays in young children. Ear infections fill the inner ear
with liquid, making it harder for the baby to hear and
therefore learn language.
Psychosocial development can affect cognitive and
physical functioning. Indeed, without meaningful social
connections, physical and mental health suffers.
Motivation and self-confidence are important
contributors to school success, whereas negative
emotions such as anxiety can impair performance.
Researchers even have identified possible links between
a conscientious personality and length of life.
Conversely, physical and cognitive capacities can affect
psychosocial development. They contribute greatly to
self-esteem and can affect social acceptance and choice
of occupation.
Although for simplicity's sake we look separately at
physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development,
development is a unified process. Throughout the text,
links among the three major domains of development
are highlighted.
 Age Period Physical Developments
Prenatal Period Conception occurs by normal
(conception to birth) fertilization or other means.
The genetic endowment interacts
with environmental influences
from the start.
Basic body structures and organs
form; brain growth spurt begins.
Physical growth is the most rapid
in the life span.
Vulnerability to environmental
influences is great.
Infancy and All senses and body systems
Toddlerhood (birth operate at birth to varying
to age 3) degrees.
The brain grows in complexity and
is highly sensitive to
environmental influence.
Physical growth and development
of motor skills are rapid.
Early Childhood Growth is steady; appearance
(ages 3 to 6) becomes more slender and
proportions more adult like.
Appetite diminishes, and sleep
problems are common.
Handedness appears; fine and
gross motor skills and strength
improve.
Middle Childhood Growth slows.
(ages 6 to 11)
Strength and athletic skills
improve.
Respiratory illnesses are common,
but health is generally better than
at any other time in the life span.
Cognitive Developments
Abilities to learn and remember
and to respond to sensory
stimuli are developing.
Abilities to learn and remember
are present, even in early
weeks.
Use of symbols and ability to
solve problems develop by end
of second year.
Comprehension and use of
language develop rapidly.
Thinking is somewhat
egocentric, but understanding
of other people's perspectives
grows.
Cognitive immaturity results in
some illogical ideas about the
world.
Memory and language improve.
Intelligence becomes more
predictable.
Preschool experience is
common, and kindergarten
experience is more so.
Egocentrism diminishes.
Children begin to think logically
but concretely.
Memory and language skills
increase.
Cognitive gains permit children
to benefit from formal
schooling. Some children show
special educational needs and
strengths.
Psychosocial Developments
Fetus responds to mother's voice
and develops a preference for it.
Attachments to parents and
others form.
Self-awareness develops.
Shift from dependence toward
autonomy occurs. Interest in
other children increases.
Self-concept and understanding
of emotions become more
complex; self-esteem is global.
Independence, initiative, and
self-control increase.
Gender identity develops. Play
becomes more imaginative,
more elaborate, and usually
more social.
Altruism, aggression, and
fearfulness are common.
Family is still the focus of social
life, but other children become
more important.
Self-concept becomes more
complex, affecting self-esteem.
Coregulation reflects gradual
shift in control from parents to
child.
Peers assume central
importance.
Adolescence (ages 11 Physical growth and other
to about 20) changes are rapid and profound.
Reproductive maturity occurs.
Major health risks arise from
behavioral issues, such as eating
disorders and drug abuse.
Ability to think abstractly and
use scientific reasoning
develops.
Immature thinking persists in
some attitudes and behaviors.
Education focuses on
preparation for college or
vocation.
Search for identity including
sexual identity, becomes central.
Relationships with parents are
generally good.
Peer group may exert a positive
or negative influence.

Emerging and Young Physical condition peaks, then Thought and moral judgments Personality traits and styles
Adulthood (ages 20 declines slightly. become more complex. become relatively stable, but
to 40) changes in personality may be
Lifestyle choices influence health. Educational and occupational influenced by life stages and
choices are made, sometimes events.
after period of exploration.
Intimate relationships and
personal lifestyles are
established but may not be
lasting.

Most people marry, and most

become parents.

Middle Adulthood Slow deterioration of sensory
(ages 40 to 65) abilities, health, stamina, and
strength may begin, but individual
differences are wide.
Women experience menopause.
Mental abilities peak; expertise
and practical problem-solving
skills are high.
Creative output may decline
but improve in quality.
For some, career success and
earning powers peak; for
others, burnout or career
change may occur.
Sense of identity continues to
develop; midlife transition may
occur.
Dual responsibilities of caring for
children and parents may cause
stress.
Launching of children leaves
empty nest.

Late Adulthood (age Most people are healthy and
65 and over) active, although health and
physical abilities generally
decline.
Slowing of reaction time affects
some aspects of functioning.
Most people are mentally alert.
Although intelligence and
memory may deteriorate in
some areas, most people find
ways to compensate.
Retirement from workforce may
occur and may offer new options
for use of time.
People develop more flexible
strategies to cope with personal
losses and impending death.

Relationships with family and

close friends can provide
important support.

Search for meaning in life

The age divisions are approximate and somewhat
arbitrary. This is especially true of adulthood, when
there are no clear-cut social or physical landmarks, such
as starting school or entering puberty, to signal a shift
from one period to another.
Although individual differences exist in the way people
deal with the characteristic events and issues of each
period, developmentalists suggest that certain basic
needs must be met and certain tasks mastered for
normal development to occur.
assumes central importance.
Infants, for example, are dependent on adults for food,
clothing, and shelter as well as for human contact and
affection. They form attachments to parents and
caregivers, who also become attached to them.
With the development of speech and self-locomotion,
toddlers become more self-reliant; they need to assert
their autonomy but also need parents to set limits on
their behavior.
During early childhood, children gain more selfcontrol
and become more interested in other children.
During middle childhood, control over behavior
gradually shifts from parent to child, and the peer group
becomes increasingly important.
A central task of adolescence is the search for identity—
personal, sexual, and occupational. As adolescents
become physically mature, they deal with conflicting
needs and emotions as they prepare to leave the
parental nest.
During emerging adulthood, an exploratory period in
the early to midtwenties, many people are not yet ready
to settle down to the typical tasks of young adulthood:
establishing independent lifestyles, occupations, and
families. By the thirties, most adults have successfully
fulfilled those tasks.
During middle adulthood, some decline in physical
capabilities is likely. At the same time, many middle-
aged people find excitement and challenge in life
changes—launching new careers and adult children—
while some face the need to care for elderly parents.
In late adulthood, people need to cope with losses in
their faculties, the loss of loved ones, and preparations
for death. If they retire, they must deal with the loss of
work-based relationships but may get increased
pleasure out of friendships, family, volunteer work, and
the opportunity to explore previously neglected
interests. Many older people become more
introspective, searching out the meaning of their lives.
What makes each person unique? Although students of
development are interested in the universal processes
of development experienced by all normal human
beings, they also study individual differences in
characteristics, influences, and developmental
outcomes. People differ in gender, height, weight, and
body build; in health and energy level; in intelligence;
and in temperament, personality, and emotional
reactions. The contexts of their lives differ too: the
homes, communities, and societies they live in, the
relationships they have, the schools they go to (or
whether they go to school at all), and how they spend
their free time.
HEREDITY, ENVIRONMENT, AND MATURATION
Some influences on development originate primarily
with heredity: inborn traits or characteristics inherited
from the biological parents. Other influences come
largely from the environment: the world outside the
self, beginning in the womb, and the learning that
comes from experience.
Many typical changes of infancy and early childhood,
such as the abilities to walk and talk, are tied to
maturation of the body and brain—the unfolding of a
natural sequence of physical changes and behavior
patterns. As children grow into adolescents and then
into adults, individual differences in innate
characteristics and life experience play a greater role.
Throughout life, however, maturation continues to
influence certain biological processes, such as brain
development.
Even in processes that all people undergo, rates and
timing of development vary.
To understand development, then, we need to look at
the inherited characteristics that give each person a
special start in life. We also need to consider the many
environmental, or experiential, factors that affect
development, especially such major contexts as family,
neighborhood, socioeconomic status, race/ethnicity,
and culture. We need to consider how heredity and
environment interact. We need to understand which
developments are primarily maturational and which are
not. We need to look at influences that affect many or
most people at a certain age or a certain time in history
and also at those that affect only certain individuals.
Finally, we need to look at how timing can accentuate
the impact of certain influences.
CONTEXTS OF DEVELOPMENT
Human beings are social beings. Right from the start
they develop within a social and historical context. For
an infant, the immediate context normally is the family,
but the family in turn is subject to the wider and ever-
changing influences of neighborhood, community, and
society.
Family
The nuclear family is a household unit consisting of one
or two parents and their children, whether biological,
adopted, or stepchildren.
The extended family—a multigenerational network of
grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins, and more distant
relatives—is the traditional family form.
A family's socioeconomic status (SES) is based on family
income and the educational and occupational levels of
the adults in the household.
SES affects these processes and outcomes indirectly,
through such related factors as the kinds of homes and
neighborhoods people live in and the quality of
nutrition, medical care, and schooling available to them.
Poverty, especially if it is long-lasting, can be harmful to
the physical, cognitive, and psychosocial well-being of
children and families. Poor children are more likely than
other children to have emotional or behavioral
problems, and their cognitive potential and school
performance suffer more.
The harm done by poverty may be indirect, through its
impact on parents' emotional state and parenting
practices and on the home environment they create.
Threats to well-being multiply if, as often happens,
several risk factors —conditions that increase the
likelihood of a negative outcome—are present.
NORMATIVE AND NONNORMATIVE INFLUENCES
To understand similarities and differences in
development, we need to look at two types of
normative influences: biological or environmental
events that affect many or most people in a society in
similar ways and events that touch only certain
individuals.
Normative age-graded influences are highly similar for
people in a particular age group. The timing of biological
events is fairly predictable within a normal range. For
example, people don't experience puberty at age 35 or
menopause at 12
Normative history-graded influences are significant
events (such as the Great Depression or World War II)
that shape the behavior and attitudes of a historical
generation: a group of people who experience the
event at a formative time in their lives.
A historical generation is not the same as an age cohort:
a group of people born at about the same time.
Nonnormative influences are unusual events that have
a major impact on individual lives because they disturb
the expected sequence of the life cycle. They are either
typical events that happen at an atypical time of life
(such as the death of a parent when a child is young) or
atypical events (such as surviving a plane crash).
TIMING OF INFLUENCES: CRITICAL OR SENSITIVE
PERIODS
Konrad Lorenz (1957), an Austrian zoologist, got
newborn ducklings to follow him as they would a
mother duck. Lorenz showed that newly hatched
ducklings will instinctively follow the first moving object
they see, whether it is a member of their species or not.
This phenomenon is called imprinting, and Lorenz
believed that it was automatic and irreversible.
Imprinting, said Lorenz, is the result of a predisposition
toward learning: the readiness of an organism's nervous
system to acquire certain information during a brief
critical period in early life.
A critical period is a specific time when a given event, or
its absence, has a specific impact on development.
However, the concept of critical periods in humans is
controversial. Because many aspects of development,
even in the physical domain, have been found to show
plasticity, or modifiability of performance, it may be
more useful to think about sensitive periods, when a
developing person is especially responsive to certain
kinds of experiences.
For example, one recent study found that children who
were highly reactive to environmental events showed,
as expected, negative responses such as aggression and
behavior problems when faced with stressors such as
marital conflict in their families.
Paul B. Baltes (1936–2006) and his colleagues have
identified seven key principles of a life-span
developmental approach.
1. Development is lifelong. Development is a lifelong
process of change. Each period of the life span is
affected by what happened before and will affect what
is to come. Each period has unique characteristics and
value. No period is more or less important than any
other.
2. Development is multidimensional. It occurs along
multiple interacting dimensions— biological,
psychological, and social—each of which may develop
at varying rates.
3. Development is multidirectional. As people gain in
one area, they may lose in another, sometimes at the
same time. Children grow mostly in one direction—up—
both in size and in abilities. Then the balance gradually
shifts. Adolescents typically gain in physical abilities, but
their facility in learning a new language typically
declines. Some abilities, such as vocabulary, often
continue to increase throughout most of adulthood;
others, such as the ability to solve unfamiliar problems,
may diminish; but some new attributes, such as
wisdom, may increase with age. People seek to
maximize gains by concentrating on doing things they
do well and to minimize losses by learning to manage or
compensate for them.
4. Relative influences of biology and culture shift over
the life span. The process of development is influenced
by both biology and culture, but the balance between
these influences changes. Biological abilities, such as
sensory acuity and muscular strength and coordination,
weaken with age, but cultural supports, such as
education, relationships, and technologically age-
friendly environments, may help compensate.
5. Development involves changing resource allocations.
Individuals choose to invest their resources of time,
energy, talent, money, and social support in varying
ways. Resources may be used for growth (for example,
learning to play an instrument or improving one's skill),
for maintenance or recovery (practicing to maintain or
regain proficiency), or for dealing with loss when
maintenance and recovery are not possible. The
allocation of resources to these three functions changes
throughout life as the total available pool of resources
decreases. In childhood and young adulthood, the bulk
of resources typically goes to growth; in old age, to
regulation of loss. In midlife, the allocation is more
evenly balanced among the three functions.
6. Development shows plasticity. Many abilities, such as
memory, strength, and endurance, can be improved
significantly with training and practice, even late in life.
However, even in children, plasticity has limits that
depend in part on the various influences on
development. One of the tasks of developmental
research is to discover to what extent particular kinds of
development can be modified at various ages.

7. Development is influenced by the historical and

cultural context. Each person develops within multiple
contexts—circumstances or conditions defined in part
by maturation and in part by time and place. Human
beings not only influence but also are influenced by
their historical-cultural context. As we discuss
throughout this book, developmental scientists have
found significant cohort differences, for example, in
intellectual functioning, in women's midlife emotional
development, and in the flexibility of personality in old
age.