EGE 311 CoursePack - People and The Earths Eco

People and the Earth’s Ecosystems
EGE 311
People and the Earth’s Ecosystem
Welcome to People and the Earth’s Ecosystem
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Faculty Information:
Getting help
For academic concerns (College/Adviser)

For administrative concerns (College Dean)
For UVE concerns (KMD)
For health and wellness concerns (UAGC, HSD and OSAS)
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENTS PAGE
Cover page ………………………………… 1
Welcome Message ………………………………… 2
Table of Contents ………………………………… 3
USeP Vision, Mission and Goals ………………….. 4
USeP Graduate Attributes ………………………… 5
USeP Core Values ……………………………….... 5
Course Overview ………………………………… 6
Course Assessment ……………………………….. 7
Course Map ………………………………… 8
Module 1 Overview ………………………………… 10
The Lessons …………………………………
Module 2 Overview ……………………………….. 57
Lessons in Module 2……………………………….
Module 2 Overview ……………………………….. 77
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UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHEASTERN PHILIPPINES
VISION
Premier Research University in the ASEAN.
MISSION
USeP shall produce world-class graduates and relevant research and

extension through quality education and sustainable resource management.
GOALS
At the end of the plan period, the University of Southeastern Philippines

(USeP) aims to achieve five comprehensive and primary goals:
1. Recognized ASEAN Research University

2. ASEAN Competitive Graduates and Professionals
3. Vibrant Research Community
4. Proactive Research-based Economic Empowering
Extension Services
5. Capacity for Innovative Resource Generation
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INSTITUTIONAL GRADUATE ATTRIBUTES
LEADERSHIP SKILLS
Creates and inspires positive changes in the organization; exercises

responsibility with integrity and accountability in the practice of one’s
profession or vocation.
CRITICAL AND ANALYTICAL THINKING SKILLS
Demonstrates creativity, innovativeness, and intellectual curiosity in

optimizing available resources to develop new knowledge, methods,
processes, systems, and value-added technologies.
SERVICE ORIENTED
Demonstrates concern for others, practices professional ethics, honesty, and

exemplifies socio-cultural, environmental concern, and sustainability.
LIFELONG LEARNING
Demonstrates enthusiasm and passion for continuous personal and

professional development.
PROFESSIONAL COMPETENCE
Demonstrates proficiency and flexibility in the area of specialization and in

conveying information in accordance with global standards.
CORE VALUES OF THE UNIVERSITY
UNITY
STEWARDSHIP
EXCELLENCE
PROFESSIONALISM
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THE COURSE OVERVIEW
(NOTE: all the necessary information below can be found in the syllabus. Just
copy them and paste it here!)
COURSE TITLE : General Ecology

CREDIT :5
SEMESTER : 1st semester
TIME FRAME :
COURSE DESCRIPTION : This course deals on the basic principles and
concepts of ecology emphasizing the natural ecosystems, communities,
population, and individual species. It discusses the distribution of organisms in
terms of their abundance, diversity indices, and frequency in different habitats.
It illustrates the inter relationship of organisms, the limiting factors of each
habitats, and the current trends, problems and specific cases of sustainable
use of the environment and its resources. The course describes the current
status of different ecosystems in a Philippine setting.
COURSE OUTCOMES :
CO1 Assess how the human population and activities affect terrestrial and aquatic resources.
CO2 Analyze the relationship of the individual, society, economy, culture to the environment.
CO3 Develop problem-solving skills to examine and propose solutions to different environmental
problems.
CO4 Integrate ecological principles with human activities towards sustainable development.
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COURSE ASSESSMENT
Learning Evidence and Measurement Rubrics

Course
Learning Outcomes
Description and other Details
Evidence it
represents
LE1 Calculating Students will calculate their ecological footprint and determine how
Your Carbon many planet Earth would be needed if everyone on Earth lived the same
Footprint lifestyle as they do. By doing this, students will begin to understand the
individual impacts they personally have on the environment. Students
will then discuss ways that they can lower their ecological footprint.
CO1, CO2,
● Measure the personal ecological footprint.
CO3,
● Describe the factors that determine personal impact on the
CO4
environment.
Visit the following websites:
● https://www.footprintcalculator.org/
● https://footprint.wwf.org.uk/#/
LE2 Environmental Students will create an educational video blog on the conservation
and Wildlife status of a specific site in the Philippines with conservation value.
Conservation Students will also learn to collaborate with appropriate experts,
Efforts in the agencies or organizations in order to gather credible information for their
Philippines topic. Students will develop an understanding on the status of the
Philippine flora and fauna thus gaining knowledge on the responsible CO1, CO2,
and sustainable use of natural resources through conservation. CO3,
● Explain why the national environmental policies are the cornerstone CO4
of Philippine environmental laws.
● Describe how environmental impact statements provide powerful
protection of the environment.
Visit: https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2001/07/30/republic-act-no-
9417/
Area to Assess Expected Satisfactory Acceptable

100 85 75
Timeliness -Submitted one week before -Submitted on scheduled -Submitted 1-5 days after the
the scheduled deadline date scheduled deadline
Content -Includes a clear and - Clear and comprehensive -Vague understanding of the
comprehensive - Information is somewhat given topic hence information
understanding on the organized conveyed is lacking
conservation status of the - Some of the facts are -Ideas are not structured well
chosen topic, species or site presented with supporting or in a confusing order
-Information is well structured data -Supporting data is lacking
and organized
-Transfer of information and
awareness to the audience is
evident
-Compelling presentation of
factual data (graphs, tables
etc.) to support/justify the
conservation status in the
country
Citation - All borrowed information -Some of the information -Information on the video
(images, media, text etc.) presented were not properly were not properly cited (>10
were properly cited cited (<4x) times)
- Consistent use of APA
citation
PowerPoint - Video/audio is at the highest -Video/audio is at the highest -Video/audio is blurry/slurred
Presentation by group resolution resolution
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- Smooth/consistent transition -Consistent transition and -Inconsistency of fonts,

of presentation graphics theme, graphics and
- Consistent utilization of -Evident spelling/grammatical transitions
fonts/theme/graphics errors (>5) - Proper use of grammar and
- Zero to minimal (2x) - 4-5 minute presentation spelling are rampant (>10
spelling/grammatical errors times)
- 5-6 minute video - < 3 minute video
presentation presentation
Grading System
Course
Assessment Activity Description and other Details Outcomes it
represents
AA1 Examination (Midterm & A 50-item, multiple-choice test which covers all the
Final) concepts and theories discussed in this course. The test
CO1, CO2,
items require the student to analyze situations and use
CO3,
their knowledge and understanding of the underlying
CO4
principles, concepts, and theories of People and the
Earth’s Ecosystem to solve the cases presented.
AA2 Quizzes Objective-and-essay-type test to evaluate the
CO1, CO2,
knowledge/information of the students the underlying
CO3, CO4
principles, concepts, and theories of Ecology.
AA3 Oral Presentation A presentation given by a student with an assigned topic CO1, CO2,
based on the underlying principles, concepts, and CO3,
theories of Ecology integrated to human activities. CO4
AA4 Oral Recitation In-class and graded recitation or participation during or CO1, CO2,
after the oral presentation/lecture/discussion. CO3, CO4
Assessment
Grade Source (Score or Rubric Grade) Percentage of Final Grade
Item
AA1 Score (Examination (Midterm & Final)) 30%
AA2 Score (Quizzes) 20%
AA3 Rubric (Oral Presentation) 15%
AA4 Score (Oral Recitation) 15%
LE1 Calculating Your Carbon Footprint 10%
LE2 Environmental and Wildlife Conservation Efforts in
the Philippines 10%
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Module 1
People and the Ecosystems
Module Overview:
The first part of this module introduces the major environmental

problems that humans have created and considers ways to address these
issues. The succeeding lessons tackle the attributes of a natural ecosystem,
and the changes resulting from both natural and human activities.
Module Outcomes:
At the end of the lessons, students should be able to:
• Describe the three factors that are most important in determining human
impact on the environment;
• Describe the basic principles and concepts of ecology;
• Examine the attributes of a natural ecosystem.
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Lesson 1
Environmental Challenges We Face
Learning Outcomes:
• Distinguish among highly developed, moderately developed, and less
developed countries.
• Relate human population size to natural resources and resource
consumption
• Distinguish between people overpopulation and consumption
overpopulation.
• Describe the three factors that are most important in determining
human impact on the environment.
• Define environmental sustainability.
• Identify human behaviors that threaten environmental sustainability.
Time Frame: 1st week
Introduction
Welcome! This lesson talks about the effects of exponentially growing

human population in the economy and the environment. The link between
poverty and overpopulation is covered, its risks and the possible solutions
through environmental sustainability are also tackled.
Activity
Instruction: Visit the links: https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/ and
https://www.focus-economics.com/blog/the-poorest-countries-in-the-world ,
then answer the data sheet below
Date and time of visit: ____________________________________________

The Current World Population: _____________________________________
Births per minute: _______________________________________________
Death per minute: _______________________________________________
Population growth today: _________________________________________
Population in the Philippines: _______________________________________
Current rank of the country: ________________________________________
Philippine Population change from 2010 to 2020: _______________________
Population density in 2019: ________________________________________
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Top 20 Countries with Land area 2019 rank as the poorest

highest population country in the World
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
Analysis
Briefly answer the questions. You may use the back portion of this page.
1. Based on the activity, what is the economic status of the majority of the
countries in the top 20?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
2. What is the relationship between the Philippine population and its rank
in the poorest country in the world?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
3. Which countries in the top 20 have relatively low population based on its
land area?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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Abstraction
Today, human race is the most powerful agent of environmental change

on our planet. Our intellectual capacity has also made it possible for us to travel
into space, enabling us to see the importance of our world in the solar system.
However, we are overpowering the world with our expanding population;
transforming forests, prairies, and deserts to meet our needs and desires; and
consuming ever-increasing quantities of plentiful yet limited resources — rich
topsoil, clean water, and breathable air. We are erasing thousands upon
thousands of species as we kill or change their ecosystems. Evidence
continues to mount that human-induced climate change puts the natural world
at risk.
Human Impacts on the Environment

Earth’s central environmental problem, which links all others
together, is that there are many people, and the number continues to grow.
Human population in 2009:
• passed 6.8 billion individuals
• grown in a very brief span of time
• 1960 – 3 billion; 1975 – 4 billion; 1987 – 5 billion
• human population consume vast quantities of food and
water; use a great deal of energy and raw materials; and
produce much waste.
On a global level, nearly one in four people lives in extreme poverty.
Poverty – is a condition in which people are unable to
meet their basic needs for food, clothing, shelter, education, or
health.
No one knows if Earth will sustain that many humans forever. Seeking
ways to do this is one of the biggest tasks of our time. Among the challenges
to be achieved is to feed a global population that is significantly greater than it
is today without disrupting the biological ecosystems that sustain life on our
planet. The quality of life available to our children and grandchildren will depend
to a large extent on our ability to establish a sustainable agriculture system to
feed the world's people.
Rich and Poor Countries
Countries are divided into rich (the “haves”) and poor (the “have-nots”).
Rich countries are known as highly developed countries, examples are Norway,
Switzerland, Qatar, USA, Canada and Japan.
Highly developed countries – there are countries with
complex industrialized bases, low rates of population growth, and
high per person incomes.
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Poor countries, in which about 82 percent of the world’s population live,

fall into two subcategories: moderately developed and less developed.
Moderately developed countries – are countries with medium levels
of industrialization and per person incomes lower than those of highly
developed countries. Example of countries are Turkey, South Africa, Thailand
and Mexico.
• fewer opportunities for:
o income
o education
o health care
Less developed countries - are countries with low levels of the
following:
• industrialization
• very high rates of population growth
• very high infant mortality rates; and
• very low per person incomes
• Examples are the Philippines, Bangladesh, Haiti and Laos
Population, Resources and the Environment
People of the highly developed countries consume many more
resources per person than do citizens of developing countries. This high rate of
resource use impacts the ecosystem at least as much as the population boom
that is happening in other areas of the world.
We may make two important generalizations about the relationship
between population growth, natural resource use and environmental
degradation.
(1) the quantity of resources vital to an individual’s survival is small, but
rapid population growth (often found in developing countries) tends
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to overwhelm and deplete a country’s soils, forests, and other natural

resources.
(2) in highly developed nations, individual demands on natural resources
are far greater than the requirements for mere survival. Rich
countries deplete resources and degrade the global environment
through increased consumption of nonessential items such as
televisions, jet skis, and gadgets.
It is important to differentiate between non-renewable and renewable
natural resources when analyzing the impact of population on the climate. The
two types of resources are:
(1) nonrenewable resources - are natural resources that are present in
limited supplies and are depleted as they are used. These include
minerals and fossil fuels.
Figure 1. Coal is an example of a nonrenewable resource - a fossil fuel. Image from https://www.nwf.org/Our-
Work/Environmental-Threats/Climate-Change/Fossil-Fuels.
(2) renewable resources – are resources that are replaced by natural

processes and that can be used forever, provided they are not
overexploited in the short term. Examples are trees, fishes and fresh
water.
Figure 2. Basic water cycle (hydrologic cycle). Image from https://www.weather.gov/jetstream/hydro.
• Rapid population growth can cause renewable resources to be

overexploited. For example,
o poor people must grow crops on land—such as mountain
slopes or tropical rain forests—that is poorly suited for
farming.
• The effects of population growth on natural resources are
particularly critical in developing countries.
o Economic growth of developing countries:
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▪ exploitation of their natural resources

▪ resources for export to highly developed countries
• Developing countries dilemma:
o exploiting natural resources to provide for their expanding
populations in the short term; or
o conserving those resources for future generations.
• Poverty is tied to the effects of population pressures on natural
resources and the environment.
Population Size and Resource Consumption
A country is overpopulated if the level of demand on its resource base
results in damage to the environment.
People overpopulation – is a situation in which there are
too many people in a given geographic area.
Consumption overpopulation – is a situation in which
each individual in a population consumes too large a share
of resources.
Fact: Highly developed nations represent less than 20 percent of the world’s
population, yet they consume significantly more than half of its resources.
These countries also generate 75 percent of the world’s pollution and waste.
Ecological footprint – is an amount of productive land,
fresh water, and ocean required on a continuous basis to
supply each person with food, wood, energy, water,
housing, clothing, transportation, and waste disposal.
Human impacts on the environment are difficult to assess. One way to
estimate them is to use the three factors most important in determining
environmental impact (I):
(1) The number of people (P).
(2) The affluence per person, which is a measure of the consumption, or
amount of resources used per person (A).
(3) The environmental effects (resources needed and wastes produced)
of the technologies used to obtain and consume the resources (T).
This method of assessment is usually referred to as the IPAT equation:
𝐼 =𝑃×𝐴×𝑇
The three factors in the IPAT equation are always changing in relation
to each other. For example, consumption of a particular resource may increase,
but technological advances may decrease the environmental impact of the
increased consumption.
Sustainability and the Environment
Sustainability ensures that the ecosystem can work indefinitely without
slipping behind the burden that human activities put on natural systems.
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Environmental sustainability is the ability to meet

humanity’s current needs without compromising the ability
of future generations to meet their needs.
This is based on the following ideas:
(1) We must consider the effects of our actions on the
health and well-being of the natural environment,
including all organisms.
(2) Earth’s resources are not present in unlimited supply.
We must live within limits that let renewable resources
such as fresh water regenerate for future needs.
(3) We must recognize all the costs to the environment and
to society of products we consume.
(4) We must each share responsibility for environmental
sustainability.
Figure 3. Goals of sustainability. Image from Berg et al. (2011)
Application
Instruction:
1. Calculate your carbon/ecological footprint in one of these websites:
a. https://www.footprintcalculator.org/
b. https://footprint.wwf.org.uk/#/
2. Present the result of calculation in an essay that answers the
following questions:
a. What aspect in your daily life increases your footprint the
most?
b. What will be your action to reduce it?
c. Why is knowing your carbon footprint important?
d. As a young Filipino citizen, what can you do to achieve the
goals of environmental sustainability?
3. Your essay must have a maximum of 250 words.
Closure
Congratulations for finishing this lesson! The next lesson is the
basic concepts and principles of Ecology.
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Lesson 2
How Ecosystem Works
Learning Outcomes:
● Define ecology.
● Distinguish among the following ecological levels: population, community,
ecosystem, landscape and the biosphere.
● Summarize how energy flows through a food web.
● Describe the carbon, hydrologic, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus cycles.
● Describe the factors that contribute to an organism’s ecological niche.
● Describe interspecific relationships among organisms
● Discuss an example of a keystone species.
Time Frame: 3 hours
Introduction:
Welcome to our second lesson in EGE 311!
Time Frame: 2nd week (3 hrs lecture, 6 hrs laboratory)
Activity
Instruction: Go to your garden and list down its different components that work
for it to survive and function as a system. Complete the table provided below.
COMPONENT SOURCE
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
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Analysis 2
Instruction: From the activity above. Group each component to energy source,
nutrient source, plant community, animal community, community of
decomposers, storage for nutrients and storage for organic materials. Use
a separate paper for your table. Below is an example of how to make the table.
GROUP FUNCTION
Energy source
1.
2.
Nutrient source
1.
2.
3.
Plant community
1.
2.
3.
Abstraction
Definition
Ecology is derived from the Greek word oikos (“household”) and logos
(“study”). It literally means the study of household. This is the study of “life at
home” with emphasis on “the totality or pattern of relations between organisms
and their environment.” More scientific definition is the study of environmental
house that includes all organisms in it and all the functional processes that make
the house habitable.
BASIC PRINCIPLES AND CONCEPTS OF ECOLOGY
Levels-of-Organization Hierarchy
• Levels of organization is a hierarchical arrangement of order
ranging from the ecosphere (or beyond) to cells (or beyond)
illustrating how each level manifests emergent properties that are
best explained at a particular level of organization.
• Hierarchy is the arrangement into a graded series, while a system
consists of regularly interacting and interdependent components
forming a unified whole.
• A biosystem is a system that constitutes living (biotic) and
nonliving (abiotic) components; in the diagram, this is ranging from
genetic systems to ecological systems.
Ecology is largely concerned with the system levels beyond that of the organisms.
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• Population is a group of individuals of the same species occupying a

common geographical area (for example flock of kalapati in People’s Park,
students in a classroom, colony of hantik ant, and rice in a conventional
farm treated with herbicide and insecticide.
• A community is composed of two or more populations of different species
occupying the same geographical area (examples, herd of baka in a grass
meadow, and normal flora “para ‘yes’ is the answer to the question: okay
ka ba tiyan?”).
Take note that populations and communities include only biotic factors.
• An ecosystem is community plus its abiotic factors (e.g. soil, rain,
temperature and nutrients). The community and the non-living
environment function together as an ecological system. For example, the
coral reef in Talikud Island is an ecosystem with community of fishes,
invertebrates, corals, algae, bacteria and planktons but these organisms
are driven to live in this environment because their needs are met like the
quality of sunlight for the zooxanthellae inside the tissue of coral polyps,
pH, nutrients, salinity and temperature, also the water as their habitat.
• A landscape is defined as a heterogenous area composed of a cluster of
interacting ecosystems that are repeated in a similar manner throughout.
Example, is the Malagos Watershed—a watershed is a convenient
landscape-level unit for large-scale study and management because it is
usually having identifiable natural boundaries. Watershed as a stretch of
land marked off by topographical features such as a ridge or mountain
range, along which rain is caught and drained into a body of water like a
river, lake, dam, irrigation system, or bay. Thus, a watershed encompasses
the area that extends from the uplands to the downstream areas or
lowlands, and the coast. Watersheds are also known as river basins or
catchments.
• Biome is a term pertaining to a large regional or subcontinental system
characterized by a major vegetation type or other identifying landscape
aspect. Example is a tropical rainforest biome—the type of biome we have
here in the Philippines, and the continental shelf ocean biome. While a
region is not included in the diagram of ecological levels-of-organization
hierarchy but it can be used to describe a large geological or political area
that may contain more than one biome. Examples, the Southeast Asia that
contains tropical rainforest and tropical moist deciduous forest biomes;
and, the Middle East that contains desert, subtropical dry forest, temperate
desert, subtropical steppe etc.
• Ecosphere is the largest and most nearly self-sufficient biological system
which include all the living organisms of Earth interacting with the physical
environment as a whole to maintain a self-adjusting, loosely controlled
pulsing state.
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Figure 4. This diagram shows that ecological hierarchy starts from populations to Ecosphere.
ATTRIBUTES OF A NATURAL ECOSYSTEM

Concept of ecosystem
Biotic (living) organisms and abiotic (nonliving) environment are
inseparably interrelated and interact with each other. Ecological system or
ecosystem is any unit that includes biotic community (all organisms) in a given
area interacting with the physical environment so that a flow of energy leads to
clearly defines biotic structures and cycling of materials between living and
nonliving components. The ecosystem is the first in the ecological hierarchy
that is complete with all the components important for survival.
Figure 5. Ecosystem model emphasizing the external environment.
Ecosystems are open systems—that is, things are constantly entering

and leaving. A graphic model of an ecosystem can consist of a box that we can
label the system, which represent the area we are interested in, and two large
circles that we can label input environment and output environment.
Energy is a necessary input, which sun is the ultimate energy source for
the ecosphere and directly supports most natural ecosystems in the biosphere.
There are other energy sources that may be important for many ecosystems,
e.g. wind, rain, water flow, or fossil fuel (major source for the modern city).
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Energy also flows out of the system in the form of heat and in other transformed
or processed forms, such as organic matter (food and waste products) and
pollutants. Water, air and nutrients necessary for life, along with all kinds of
other materials, constantly enter and leave the ecosystem; and organisms and
their propagules (seed or spores) and other reproductive stages enter
(immigrate) or leave (emigrate).
Figure 6. Functional diagram of an ecosystem with emphasis on internal dynamics.

S=storage; A=autotrophs; H=heterotrophs.
In Figure 5, the system part of the ecosystem is shown as black box.
However, we want to look inside it to see how it is organized internally and find
out what happens to all those inputs (Figure 6).
Energy flow is one-way, some of the incoming solar energy is
transformed and upgraded in quality (that is, converted into organic matter, a
higher-quality form of energy than sunlight) by the community, but most energy
is degraded and passes through and out of the system as a low-quality heat
energy (heat sink). Energy can be stored and “fed back,” or exported but it
cannot be reused. In contrast with energy, materials, including nutrients
necessary for life (such as C, N, P) and water, can be used over and over again.
The community of autotrophs (A) and heterotrophs (H) are linked together with
appropriate energy flows, nutrient cycles, and storages (S).
Trophic structure of the ecosystem
The two layers of ecosystem are (1) autotrophic stratum (upper) or the
“green belt” of chlorophyll-containing plants in which the fixation of light energy,
the utilization of simple organic substances, and the buildup of complex organic
substances predominate; and (2) heterotrophic stratum (lower) or the “brown
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belt” of soils and sediments, decaying matter , roots, etc. in which the utilization,
rearrangement, and decomposition of complex materials predominate.
Components constituting an ecosystem are:
(1) organic substances that involved in material cycles (ex. C, N, CO2
and H2O);
(2) organic compounds that link biotic and abiotic components (ex.
Protein, carbohydrates, lipids and humic substances);
(3) air, water and substrate environment, including the climate
regime and other physical factors;
(4) producers (autotrophic organisms) in which mostly green plants that
can manufacture food from simple inorganic substances;
(5) phagotrophs, heterotrophic organisms (animals), they ingest other
organisms or particulate organic matter; and
(6) saprotrophs, decomposers (mainly bacteria and fungi), these are
heterotrophic organisms that obtain their energy by breaking
down dead tissues or by absorbing dissolved organic matter
(DOM) from plants and animals.
Examples of Ecosystems
A pond and an old field
Plants, animals, and microorganisms not only live in the pond and the
old field (or grassland), but they also modify the chemical nature of the water,
soil, and air that compose the physical environment. Thus, a bottle of pond
water or a scoopful of bottom mud or meadow soil is a mixture of living
organisms—both plants and animals—and organic and inorganic compounds.
Abiotic substance
Abiotic substance includes inorganic and organic compounds, such as
water, carbon dioxide, O2, Ca, N, S, and P salts, amino and humic acids, and
others. A small portion of the vital nutrients is in solution and immediately
available to organisms, but a much larger portion is held in reserve (“storage”
S) in particulate matter as well as in the organism themselves.
The rate of release of nutrients from the solids, the solar input, and
changes in temperature, day length, and other climatic conditions are the most
important processes that regulate the rate of function of the entire ecosystem
on a daily basis.
Producer Organism
Producers in a pond are:
(1) rooted or large floating plants (macrophytes) that generally growing
in shallow water; and
(2) minute floating plants, usually algae or green bacteria or protozoa
(phytoplankton) that are distributed throughout the pond as
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deep as light penetrates. In large deep ponds and lakes,

phytoplankton is much more important than rooted vegetation in
the production of basic food for the ecosystem.
In the field or grassland, and in terrestrial communities in general, large,
rooted plants dominate, but small photosynthetic organisms such as algae,
mosses, and lichens also occur on soil, rocks, and stem of plants. Where these
substrates as moist and exposed to light, these microproducers may contribute
substantially to organic production.
Figure 7. Phytoplanktons sampled in the seawater of Davao Gulf; a - Diploneis sp.; b

- Oscillatoria sp.; c - Climacosphenia sp.
Consumer organisms
(1) Herbivores (primary macroconsumers) feed directly on living plants

or plant parts, hereafter, they will also be termed as primary (first-
order) consumers. The two types of microconsumers in the pond
are zooplankton (animal plankton) and benthos (bottom forms).
Herbivores in grassland and fields are the small, plant-feeding
insects and other invertebrates, and the large, grazing rodents and
hoofed mammals.
(2) The secondary (second-order) consumers or carnivores, such as
predaceous insects and game fish (nekton; free-swimming aquatic
organisms) in the pond, and predatory insects, spiders, birds, and
mammals that feed on the primary consumers or other secondary
consumers (thus making them tertiary consumers).
(3) Detritivores are another important consumer that live on the organic
detritus from autotrophic layers above, and provides food for
carnivores.
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Figure 8. Zooplanktons collected from Davao Gulf seawater.
Decomposer organisms
The non-green bacteria, flagellates, and fungi are distributed throughout

the ecosystem, but they are especially abundant in the mud-water interface of
the pond and in the litter-soil junction of the grassland or old-field ecosystem.
When temperature and moisture are favourable, the first stage of composition
occur rapidly. Dead organisms do not retain their integrity for very long but are
soon broken up by the combined action of detritus -feeding microorganisms
and physical processes. Some of the nutrients are released for use.
Figure 9. Decomposers in the forest litters in Mt. Hamiguitan, Davao Oriental. a -

Boletus sp.; b – Pluteus sp.
Fundamental concepts related to energy
Energy is defined as the ability to do work. The behavior of energy is
described by the following laws:
• The first law of thermodynamics, or the law of conservation
of energy, states that the energy may be transformed from one
form to another but is neither created nor destroyed. Light, for
example, is a form of energy; it can be transformed into work,
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heat, or potential energy of food, depending on the situation, but

none of it is destroyed.
• The second law of thermodynamics, or the law of entropy,
may be stated as: no process involving an energy transformation
will spontaneously occur unless there is a degradation of energy
from a concentrated form into a dispersed form. For example,
heat in a hot object will spontaneously tend to become dispersed
into the cooler surroundings. The second law may also be stated
as follows: because some energy is always dispersed into
unavailable heat energy, no spontaneous transformation of
energy (sunlight, for example) into potential energy (protoplasm,
for example) in over 100 percent efficient.
Organisms, ecosystems, and the entire ecosphere possess the following
essential thermodynamic characteristic: They can create and maintain a high
state of internal order, or a condition of low entropy. Low amount of entropy is
achieved by continually and efficiently dissipating energy of high utility (light or
food, for example) into energy of low utility (heat, for example).
Food resulting from the photosynthesis of green plants represents
potential energy, which changes into other forms of energy when the food is
used by organisms. Because one type of energy is always equivalent in quantity
(but not in quality) to another type into which it is transformed, we can calculate
one from the other. Energy that is “consumed” is not actually used up. Rather,
it is converted from state of high-quality energy to a state of low-quality energy.
Energy partitioning in food chains and food webs
The transfer of food energy from its source in autotrophs through a series
of organisms that consume and are consumed is termed the food chain. At
each transfer, a proportion (often as high as 80 to 90 percent) of the potential
energy is lost as heat. Therefore, the shorter the food chain—or the nearer the
organism to the producer trophic level—the greater the energy available to that
population. However, whereas the quantity of energy declines with each
transfer, the quality or concentration of the energy that is transferred increases.
Food chains are of two basic types:
(1) the grazing food chain, which starting from a green plant base, goes to
grazing herbivores and on to carnivores; and
(2) the detritus food chain, which goes from nonliving organic matter to micro-
organisms and then to detritivores and their predators. Food chains are not
isolated sequences; they are interconnected. The interlocking pattern is often
spoken of as the food web.
Balance of nature hypothesis caused much discussion and controversy
among ecologists. They argued that because plants by and large accumulate
a lot of biomass, something must be inhibiting grazing. That something, they
theorized, is predators. Accordingly, primary consumers are limited by
secondary consumers, and primary producers are thus resource limited rather
than grazer limited. Research has resulted in “bottom-up” versus “top-down”
perspectives in the understanding of food chain dynamics. The bottom-up
hypothesis holds that production is regulated by upstream factors such as
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nutrient availability; the top-down hypothesis predicts that predators or

grazers regulate productivity.
Figure 10. Typical food web for terrestrial ecosystem.
Biogeochemical Cycles
The chemical elements, including all the essential elements of life, tend
to circulate in the atmosphere in characteristic pathways from environment to
organisms and back to the environment. These more or less circular pathways
are known as biogeochemical cycles.
Cycling of Nitrogen
Nitrogen gas (N2) accounts for almost 80 per cent of the Earth's
atmosphere, and nitrogen is also the resource that in many ecosystems limits
primary production. Why should that be so? Since plants and animals cannot
use such a source of nitrogen gas. For nitrogen to be usable to generate
proteins, DNA, and other compounds of biological significance, it must first be
transformed into a different chemical type. The method of transforming N 2 into
nitrogen, which is naturally available is called nitrogen fixation.
Many nitrogen-fixing species are free-living and others are symbiotic
nitrogen-fixers, who need close interaction with a host for the cycle to be carried
out. Most symbiotic relationships are very specific and have complex
mechanisms which help to keep the symbiosis going. For example, root
exudates from legume plants (like peas, peanut, soybeans) serve as a signal
to some Rhizobium species, which are nitrogen-fixing bacteria. This signal
draws the bacteria to the roots, and a very complex sequence of events then
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induce the absorption of the bacteria into the root and activate the nitrogen
fixation cycle of nodules forming at the roots.
Some of these bacteria are aerobic, some are anaerobic; some are
phototrophic, some are chemotrophic. While there is a great physiological and
phylogenetic diversity among the species that perform nitrogen fixation, they all
have a common enzyme complex called nitrogenase, which catalyzes
reduction of N2 to ammonia (NH3).
1. Nitrification is the mechanism that transforms ammonia into
nitrite and then nitrate, which is another important step in the
global cycle of nitrogen. Most nitrification occurs aerobically,
and is done by prokaryotes alone. There are two distinct
nitrification steps which are performed by different types of
microorganisms. Its first step is ammonia oxidation to nitrite
that is performed by microbes known as ammonia oxidizers.
Aerobic ammonia oxidizers use intermediate hydroxylamine
to convert ammonia to nitrite, a method that involves two
different enzymes, ammonia monooxygenase and
hydroxylamine oxidoreductase
2. The second step in nitrification is the oxidation of nitrite
(NO2-) to nitrate (NO3-). A completely different community of
prokaryotes, known as nitrite-oxidizing bacteria, performs this
step. Nitrospira, Nitrobacter, Nitrococcus, and Nitrospina are
among the genera involved in nitrite oxidation.
Figure 11. Biogeochemical cycling of nitrogen. Circulation of nitrogen between

organisms and the environment.
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New type of oxidation of ammonia taking place under

anoxic conditions. Anammox (anaerobic ammonia oxidation)
is performed by prokaryotes belonging to the Planctomycetes
phylum of Bacteria. Anammox bacteria oxidize ammonia by
using nitrite as the electron acceptor to produce gaseous
nitrogen.
3. Denitrification is the mechanism that converts nitrate to
nitrogen gas, thus eliminating bioavailable nitrogen and
returning it to the atmosphere. Dinitrogen gas (N2) is the
primary denitrification end result but there are other
intermediate gaseous sources of nitrogen.
4. If an organism excretes waste or dies, the nitrogen in its
tissues is in the form of organic nitrogen like amino acids and
DNA. Various fungi and prokaryotes then decompose the
tissue and release inorganic nitrogen back into the
environment as ammonia in the process known as
ammonification. The ammonia then becomes available for
utilization by plants and other microorganisms for their growth.
Cycling of Phosphorus
Main supplies of phosphorus are present in surface water, rivers, lakes
and seas, and in rocks and ocean sediments. The phosphorus cycle can be
described as an 'open' cycle because of the general tendency of mineral
phosphorus to be transported inexorably from the land to the oceans, mainly in
rivers, but also to a lesser extent in groundwater, or through volcanic activity
and atmospheric fallout, or through the abrasion of coastal land. Alternatively,
the cycle may be referred to as a 'sedimentary cycle' since, essentially,
phosphorus is absorbed into ocean sediments. Typical phosphorus atoms,
which are released from rock through chemical weathering, can join and
circulate within the terrestrial community for years, decades or centuries until
they are transported via groundwater to a stream where they are part of a
nutrient. The atom is transported to the ocean within a short period of joining
the stream (weeks, months or years). This is taken up by species that live on
the surface of the water, until they finally sink down into the oceans.
Cycling of Sulfur
Three natural biogeochemical processes release sulfur to the atmosphere:
(i) the formation of the volatile compound dimethylsulfide (DMS) (by
enzymatic breakdown of an abundant compound in phytoplankton
dimethylsulfonioproprionate);
(ii) anaerobic respiration by sulfate-reducing bacteria; and
(iii) volcanic activity.
Cycling of Carbon
There is a chance that this carbon atom will become part of the skeleton
of the plankton, or component of the bones of the larger animal that consumes
it, and then part of the sedimentary rock when the organisms die and only the
skeletons are left behind. Carbon, which is a part of rocks and fossil fuels such
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as oil, coal and natural gas, can be kept away from the rest of the carbon cycle
for a long time to come. Such long-term storage areas are called "sinks." Once
fossil fuels are burned, carbon that was buried is sent to the air as carbon
dioxide, a greenhouse gas.
Carbon is a part of the seawater, the atmosphere, minerals in limestone
and coal, soils, as well as all living organisms. On our complex world, carbon
will pass from one of these domains to another as part of the carbon cycle.
Carbon transfers from the atmosphere to the plants. Carbon is attached
to oxygen in the air in a gas called carbon dioxide (CO2). Through the method
of photosynthesis, carbon dioxide is drawn from the air to create food produced
for plant production.
Carbon transfers from plants to animals. In the food chain, carbon that
is in plants moves to the animals that consume them. Animals that eat other
animals get the carbon from their food.
Carbon moves from plants and animals to soils. When plants and
animals die, their bodies, wood and leaves decompose bringing the carbon into
the soil. Some are buried and will become fossil fuels in millions and millions of
years.
Carbon moves from living things to the atmosphere. Each time you
exhale, CO2 is released into the atmosphere. Animals and plants need to get
rid of CO2 through respiration.
Carbon moves from fossil fuels to the atmosphere when fuels are
burned. When humans burn fossil fuels to power factories, power plants, cars
and trucks, most of the carbon quickly enters the atmosphere as carbon dioxide
gas.
Carbon moves from fossil sources to the atmosphere as the fuel is
burned. As humans burn fossil fuels to power factories, systems, cars and
vehicles, most of the carbon soon released to the atmosphere as carbon
dioxide gas.
Carbon transfers from the atmosphere to the oceans. The oceans, and
other bodies of water, absorb some carbon from the atmosphere. When the
carbon molecules in the air touches the water surface, it dissolves into the
water.
The Hydrologic Cycle
The hydrological cycle is simple to understand. The main source of water
is the oceans; energy from the sun makes water evaporate into the atmosphere,
winds distribute it over the surface of the Earth, and precipitation brings it down
to earth in a form of rain, snow, or hailstorm where it may be stored temporarily
in soils, lakes and icefields.
Application
Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas that naturally warms the atmosphere
as part of the greenhouse effect. Unfortunately, the amount of CO 2 in the
atmosphere has been increasing over the past hundred years. According to the
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2019 global report from National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

(NOAA), the combined land and ocean temperature has increased at an
average rate of 0.07°C, and the average rate of increase since 1981 (0.18°C)
is more than twice as great. By 2020, models project that global surface
temperature will be more than 0.5°C warmer than the 1986-2005 average,
regardless of which carbon dioxide emissions pathway the world follows.
1. Explain how planting and growing more trees, and preserving the
remaining forest cover in the planet could mitigate this warming trend in
global temperature.
2. Do you think the lockdown in the past months due to Covid-19
pandemic affected the global biogeochemical cycles? Explain your
answer.
Factors that contribute to an organism’s ecological niche
Niche
While there are few environments on earth without life, no single species
can tolerate the full range of earth’s environments. For each species, some
environments are too warm, too cold, too saline, or unsuitable in other ways.
We already learned that organisms take in energy at a limited rate. The
environmental limits of a species are related to its niche. the niche summarizes
the environmental factors that influence the growth, survival, and reproduction
of a species. In other words, a species’ niche consists of all the factors
necessary for its existence—approximately when, where, and how a species
makes its living.
The number of species in the population may be influenced by a range
of abiotic factors. Sometimes one or more factors, known as limiting factors,
are more important than other factors in regulating population growth. This
ecological principle is called the limiting factor principle: Too much or too little
of any abiotic factor can limit or prevent growth of a population, even if all other
factors are at or near the optimal range of tolerance. This principle describes
one way in which population control—a scientific principle of sustainability is
achieved.
Success of an organisms, a group of organisms, or a whole biotic
community depends on a complex of conditions. Any condition that approaches
or exceeds the limits of tolerance is said to be a limiting condition or limiting
factor.
Limits of tolerance concept
Not only may too little of something be a limiting factor but also too much
of such factors as heat, light, and water. Thus, organisms have ecological
minimum and maximum; the range in between represents the limit tolerance.
The concept of the limiting effect of maximum as well as minimum constituents
was incorporated into the Shelford law of tolerance. Some principle to the law
of tolerance may be stated as follows:
(1) organisms may have a wide range of tolerance for one factor and a
narrow range for another;
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(2) organisms with wide ranges of tolerance for limiting factors are likely
to be most widely distributed;
(3) when conditions are not optimal for a species with respect to one
ecological factor, the limits of tolerance may be reduced for
another ecological factors;
(4) frequently, organisms in nature are not actually living at the optimum
range of a particular physical factor; and
(5) reproduction is usually a critical period when environmental factors are most
likely to be limiting. The concept of limiting factors is valuable because it gives
the ecologists an “entering wedge” into the study of complex ecosystems.
On land, precipitation often is the limiting abiotic factor. Lack of water in
a desert limits plant growth. Soil nutrients also can act as a limiting factor on
land. Suppose a farmer plants corn in phosphorus-poor soil. Even if water,
nitrogen, potassium, and other nutrients are at optimal levels, the corn will stop
growing when it uses up the available phosphorus. Too much of an abiotic
factor can also be limiting. For example, too much water or fertilizer can kill
plants. Temperature can also be a limiting factor. Both high and low
temperatures can limit the survival and population sizes of various terrestrial
species, especially plants.
Important limiting abiotic factors in aquatic life zones include
temperature, sunlight, nutrient availability, and the low solubility of oxygen gas
in water (dissolved oxygen content). Another such factor is salinity—the
amounts of various inorganic minerals or salts dissolved in a given volume of
water.
Regulatory Factors
Soil
Biotic and abiotic components are specially intimate in soils, which by
definitions consists of a weathered layer of Earth’s crust with living organisms
intermingled with products of their decay.
Because, for the most part, nutrients are regenerated and recycled
during the decomposition in the soil before they become available for the
primary producers, the soil can be considered a chief organizing center for land
ecosystem. In general, the soil is the net result of the action of climate and
organism, especially vegetation and microbes, on the parent material of the
surface of the Earth.
Fire
Fire is major factor in shaping the history of vegetation in most of the
terrestrial environment of the world. As climate pulses between wet and dry
periods, so does fire in the environment. It is thus an extremely important
limiting factor, if for no other reason than that the control of fire is far more
feasible than the control of many other limiting factors.
Temperature
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Life as we know it can exist only within a tiny range of about 300 degrees
Celcius—from about -200° to 100°C. Actually, most species and most activities
are restricted to an even narrower band of temperatures. Some organisms,
especially in a resting stage, can exist are very low temperatures, whereas a
few organisms, chiefly bacteria and algae, can live and reproduce in hot springs
where the temperature is close to the boiling point.
Variability of temperature is extremely important ecologically. A
temperature fluctuating between 10°C and 20°C and averaging 15°C does not
necessarily have the same effect on organisms as a constant temperature of
15°C. Organisms that are normally subjected to variable temperatures in nature
tend to be depressed, inhibited, or slowed down by constant temperatures.
Light
Light places organisms on the horns of dilemma: direct exposure of
protoplasm to light causes death, yet sunlight is the ultimate source of energy,
without which life could not exist. Light is not only a vital factor but a limiting
one, at both the maximum and minimum levels.
Ecologically, the quality, the intensity, and the duration of light are known
to be important. Both animals and plants respond to different wavelengths of
light. Color vision in animals sporadically occurs in different taxonomic groups,
apparently being well developed in certain species of arthropods, fish, birds and
mammals, but not in other species of the same group. The rate of
photosynthesis varies somewhat with different wavelengths. In terrestrial
ecosystems, the quality of sunlight does not vary enough to have an important
differential effect on the rate of photosynthesis, but as light penetrates water,
the red and blues are filtered out by attenuation, and the resultant greenish light
is poorly absorbed by chlorophyll.
Water
Water, a physiological necessity for all life, is from the ecological
viewpoint chiefly a limiting factor in land environments and in water
environments where the amount can fluctuate greatly or where high salinity
fosters water loss from organisms by osmosis. Rainfall, humidity, the
evaporating power of the air, and the available supply of surface water are the
principal factors measured.
Rainfall is determined largely by geography and by the pattern of large
air movements or weather systems. The distribution of rainfall over the year is
an extremely important limiting factor for organisms. The following tabulation
gives a rough approximation of the climax biotic communities (biomes) that may
be expected with different annual amounts of rainfall evenly distributed in
temperate latitudes:
0-25 cm per year—desert
25-75 cm per year—grassland, savanna
75-125 cm per year—dry forest
>125 cm per year—wet forest
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Humidity represents the amount of water vapor in the air. Absolute

humidity is the actual amount of water in the air expressed as weight of water
per unit of air. As the amount of water vapor that air can hold (at saturation)
varies with temperature and pressure, relative humidity represents the
percentage of water vapor actually present compared with the saturation
density under existing temperature-pressure conditions.
Because of the daily rhythm of humidity in nature (high at night, low
during the day, for example), as well as vertical and horizontal differences,
humidity, along with temperature and light, helps regulate the activities of
organisms and limit their distribution.
Types of interaction between two species

In theory, populations of two species may interact in basic ways that
correspond to combinations of neutral, positive and negative that can be
symbolized as 0 for neutral, + for positive, and – for negative.
1. neutralism – neither population is affected by association with the other
2. competition, direct interference type – both populations actively inhibit
each other
3. competition, resource use type – each population adversely affects the
other indirectly in the struggle for resources in short supply
4. amensalism – one population is inhibited and others are not affected
5. commensalism – one population is benefited
6. parasitism; and
7. predation – one population adversely affects the other by direct attack
but never the less depends on the other;
8. protocooperation (facultative cooperation) – both populations benefit by
the association but their relations are not obligatory; and
9. mutualism – the growth and survival of both populations is benefited,
and neither can survive under natural conditions without the other.
Table 1. Analysis of two-species interactions based on Odum and Barrett
(2005).
General nature of
Type of interaction Species 1 Species 2
interaction
Neither population
Neutralism 0 0
affects the other
Direct inhibition of
Competition, direct
̶ ̶ each species by
interference type
each other
Indirect inhibition
Competition, when common
̶ ̶
resource use type resource is in
short supply
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Population 1
Amensalism ̶ 0 inhibited, 2 not
affected
Population 1, the
commensal,
Commensalism + 0 benefits, while 2,
the host, is not
affected
Population 1, the
parasite, generally
Parasitism + ̶
smaller than 2, the
host
Population 1, the
Predation
predator, generally
(including + ̶
larger than 2, the
herbivory)
prey
Interaction
Protocooperation + + favorable to both
but not obligatory
Interaction
Mutualism + + favorable to both
and obligatory
Note: 0 indicates no interaction; + indicates growth, survival, or other population
attribute benefited; - indicates population growth or other attribute inhibited
Application
1. A few years ago, laundry detergent makers were forced to reduce or
eliminate phosphorus. Other cleaning agents (such as dishwasher detergents)
still contain substantial amounts of phosphorus. What information would make
you change your use of nitrogen, phosphorus, or other useful pollutants?
2. The first law of thermodynamics is sometimes summarized as “you can’t get
something for nothing.” The second law is summarized as “you can’t even break
even.” Explain what these phrases mean. Is it dangerous to oversimplify these
important concepts?
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Lesson 3
The Ecosystems
Learning Outcomes:
● Define biome and discuss how biomes are related to climate.
● Briefly describe the nine major terrestrial biomes, giving attention to the
climate, soil, and characteristic organisms of each.
● Summarize the important environmental factors that affect aquatic
ecosystems.
● Describe the various aquatic ecosystems, giving attention to the
environmental characteristics of each.
● Describe and distinguish among the main ocean life zones.
Time Frame: 2 weeks
Introduction
This lesson talks about the major terrestrial biomes and aquatic
ecosystems around the planet.
Activity
1. What is a biome?
2. How do you distinguish between temperate rain forest and tropical rain
forest? Between savanna and desert?
3. Which environmental factors shape flowing-water ecosystems? standing-

water ecosystems?
4. How do the characteristics of a freshwater wetland differ from those of an

estuary? How does a mangrove swamp differ from a salt marsh?
5. What are the four main life zones in the ocean, and how do they differ from
one another?
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Analysis
What is happening in this picture?
1. This picture shows expensive homes built in the chaparral of the Santa
Monica Mountains. Based on what you have learned in this lesson, what
environmental problem might threaten these homes?
2. Sometimes people have removed the chaparral vegetation to prevent
fires from damaging their homes. Where that has occurred, the roots no
longer hold the soil in place. What could happen when the winter rains
come?
Abstraction
BIOME
 A large, relatively distinct terrestrial region with similar climate, soil,
plants, and animals, regardless of where it occurs in the world.
 Encompasses many interacting ecosystems
 considered the next level of ecological organization above community,
ecosystem, and landscape
 temperature and precipitation, have a predominant effect on biome
distribution.
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Tundra
Arctic tundra
 Treeless biome in the far north that consists of boggy plains covered by
lichens and mosses; it has harsh, cold winters and extremely short
summers.
 alpine tundra- similar ecosystem located in the higher elevations of
mountains, above the tree line
 growing season is short, the days are long
 little precipitation, and most of the yearly 10 to 25 cm (4 to 10 in) of rain
or snow falls during summer months
 Tundra soil is nutrient poor and have little detritus
 Permafrost beneath surface soil and impedes drainage
 Limited precipitation, combined with low temperatures, flat topography
(or surface features), and the layer of permafrost, produces a
landscape of broad, shallow lakes and ponds, sluggish streams, and
bog
 recovers slowly from even small disturbances
 Oil and natural gas exploration and military use have caused damage
to tundra likely to persist for hundreds of years
Flora
Fauna
Lemming ptarmigan
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 supports relatively few species compared to other biomes but the

species exist in great numbers
 Dominant plants: Mosses, lichens, grasses, and grasslike sedges
 Tundra plants seldom grow taller than 30 cm (12 in)
 (year-round): lemmings, voles, weasels, arctic foxes, snowshoe hares,
ptarmigan, snowy owls, and musk oxen
Boreal Forest
 region of coniferous forest (such as pine, spruce, and fir) in the
Northern Hemisphere; located just south of the tundra. Also called
taiga.
 Winters in the boreal forest are extremely cold and severe, although
not as harsh as those in the tundra.
 receives little precipitation (50 cm (20 in) per year
 soil is typically acidic and mineral poor, with a thick surface layer of
partly decomposed pine and spruce needles.
 permafrost deep under the surface
 has numerous ponds and lakes dug by ice sheets during the last ice
age.
 world’s top source of industrial wood and wood fiber
Flora
 Dominating: Black and white spruces, balsam fir, eastern larch, and
other conifers (cone-bearing evergreens)
 Conifers have many drought-resistant adaptations, such as needle-like
leaves whose minimal surface area prevents water loss by evaporation
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Fauna
caribou
 Consists of some larger species such as caribou, which migrate from
the tundra for winter; wolves; brown and black bears; and moose.
 most boreal mammals are medium sized to small, including rodents,
rabbits, and smaller predators such as lynx, sable, and mink.
 Birds are abundant in the summer but migrate to warmer climates for
winter.
 Insects are plentiful, but few amphibians and eptiles occur except in the
southern boreal forest.
Temperate Rain Forest

 A coniferous biome with cool weather, dense fog, and high
precipitation.
 Occurs on the northwest coast of North America, southeastern
Australia and in southern South America
 Annual precipitation is high—more than 127 cm (50 in)—and is
augmented by condensation of water from dense coastal fogs
 seasonal fl uctuation is narrow; winters are mild, and summers are
cool.
 Relatively nutrient-poor soil, though its organic content may be high.
 Cool temperatures slow the activity of bacterial and fungal
decomposers.
 rich wood producer, supplying lumber and pulpwood
Flora
 Dominant: large evergreen trees such as western hemlock, Douglas fir,
western red cedar, Sitka spruce, and western arborvitae
 rich in epiphytes mainly mosses, club mosses, lichens, and ferns, all of
which also carpet the ground
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western hemlock
Fauna
Wood rat
 Squirrels, wood rats, mule deer, elk, numerous bird species, and
several species of amphibians and reptiles
Temperate Deciduous Forest

 A forest biome that occurs in temperate areas where annual
precipitation ranges from about 75 cm to 126 cm (30 to 50 in).
 Hot summers and cold winters
 Soil consists of a topsoil rich in organic material and a deep, clay-rich
lower layer.
 among the first biomes converted to agricultural use
Flora
 Dominating in northeastern and mideastern United States: Broad-
leaved hardwood trees (oak, hickory, and beech)
 Trees form a dense canopy that overlies saplings and shrubs
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Oak
Fauna
 originally contained a variety of large mammals, such as puma, wolves,
and bison, which are now absent.
 deer, bears, and many small mammals and birds
Bison
Tropical Rain forest
 A lush, species-rich forest biome that occurs where the climate is warm
and moist throughout the year.
 are found in Central and South America, Africa, and Southeast Asia
 Annual precipitation is typically between 200 and 450 cm (80 to 180 in).
 commonly occurs in areas with ancient, highly weathered, mineral-poor
soil.
 Little organic matter accumulates in such soils; because temperatures
are high year-round, bacteria, fungi, and detritus-feeding ants and
termites decompose organic litter quite rapidly.
 Roots quickly absorb nutrient minerals from the decomposing material.
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 A fully developed tropical rain forest has at least three distinct stories,
or layers, of vegetation (emergent story, canopy, understory)
Flora
Bromeliad
 No single species dominates
 trees are typically evergreen flowering plants.
 Emergent layer: very tall trees, some 50 m (164 ft)
 middle story, or canopy: trees 30 to 40 m (100 to 130 ft)
 smaller plants in the sparse understory
 communities of epiphytic plants such as ferns, mosses, orchids, and
bromeliads
Fauna
Sloth
 about 90% of tropical rainforest organisms are adapted to live in the
canopy
 abundant and varied insects, reptiles, and amphibians
 Mammals: sloths and monkeys
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Chaparral
 A biome with mild, moist winters and hot, dry summers; vegetation is
typically small-leaved evergreen shrubs and small trees.
 soil is thin and often not very fertile.
 Wildfires occur naturally and are particularly frequent in late summer
and autumn
Flora
Scrub Oak
 Dominant: dense thicket of evergreen shrubs— often short, drought-
resistant pine or scrub oak trees that grow 1 to 3 m (3 to 10 ft) tall
Fauna
 Mule deer, wood rats, chipmunks, lizards, and many species of birds
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Temperate Grassland
 A grassland with hot summers, cold winters, and less rainfall than is
found in the temperate deciduous forest biome.
 Average annual precipitation ranges from 25 -75 cm (10 to 30 in)
 Grassland soil has considerable organic material
 occur in the United States in parts of Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota,
Nebraska, Kansas, and other Midwestern states
 Trees grow sparsely except near rivers and streams, but grasses taller
than a person grow in great profusion in the deep, rich soil.
 Periodic wildfires help to maintain grasses as the dominant vegetation
in grasslands.
 formerly supported large herds of grazing animals (bison and
pronghorn elk)
 Principal predators: wolves, coyotes
 Smaller animals included prairie dogs and their predators (foxes, black-
footed ferrets, and various birds of prey), grouse, reptiles such as
snakes and lizards, and great numbers of insects.
 are temperate grasslands that receive less precipitation than moist
temperate grasslands but more precipitation than deserts.
 occur in parts of Montana, Wyoming, South Dakota, and other
midwestern states
 Grasses that grow knee high or lower dominate
 Plants grow less abundantly than in the moister grasslands, and bare
soil is occasionally exposed.
Fauna
Pronghorn Elk
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Savanna
 A tropical grassland with widely scattered trees or clumps of trees.
 found in areas of low rainfall or, more commonly, in areas of intense
seasonal rainfall with prolonged dry periods.
 Temperatures vary little throughout the year.
 Precipitation is the overriding climate factor: Annual precipitation is 85
to 150 cm (34 to 60 in).
 soil is somewhat low in essential nutrient minerals, in part because it is
heavily leached during
 rainy periods—that is, nutrient minerals filter out of the topsoil.
 Occur in Africa, also in in South America, western India, and northern
Australia.
 converted into rangeland for cattle and other domesticated animals
Flora
Acacia
 has wide expanses of grasses interrupted by occasional trees like the
acacia, which bristles with thorns to provide protection against
herbivores.
 Both trees and grasses have fi re-adapted features, such as extensive
underground root systems, that enable them to survive seasonal
droughts as well as periodic fi res.
Fauna
 herbivores such as antelope, giraffe, elephants, wildebeest, and zebra
 Large predators, such as lions and hyenas, kill and scavenge the
herds.
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Wildebeest
Desert
 A biome in which the lack of precipitation limits plant growth; deserts
are found in both temperate and tropical regions.
 consists of dry areas found in both temperate (cold deserts) and
subtropical or tropical regions (warm deserts).
 Low water vapor content of the desert atmosphere → daily temperature
extremes of heat and cold
 Desert environments vary greatly depending on the amount of
precipitation they receive, which is generally less than 25 cm (10 in)
per year.
 desert soil is low in organic material but is often high in mineral content,
particularly salts
Flora
Sagebrush
 Plants in North American deserts include cacti, yuccas, Joshua trees,
and sagebrush
 Desert plants are adapted to conserve water and as a result tend to
have few, small, or no leaves.
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 Cactus leaves are modified into spines

 Other desert plants shed their leaves for most of the year, growing only
during the brief moist season.
Fauna
 typically small
 desert-adapted insects and arachnids (such as tarantulas and
scorpions)few desert-adapted amphibians (frogs and toads) and many
reptiles, such as the desert tortoise, Gila monster, and Mojave
rattlesnake.
 Desert mammals in North America include rodents such as kangaroo
rats, as well as mule deer and jackrabbits.
 Birds of prey, especially owls, live on the rodents and jackrabbits, and
even the scorpions.
 During the driest months of the year, many desert animals tunnel
underground, where they remain inactive.
AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS
 The most fundamental division in aquatic ecology is probably between

freshwater and saltwater environments.
 Factors affecting distribution of organisms
 Salinity- the concentration of dissolved salts (such as sodium
chloride) in a body of water
 dissolved oxygen
 nutrient minerals
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3 main ecological categories of organisms

1. Plankton- usually small or microscopic organisms; tend to drift or swim
feebly, so, for the most part, they are carried about at the mercy of
currents and waves.
2. Nekton- larger, more strongly swimming organisms such as fishes,
turtles, and whales.
3. Benthos- bottom-dwelling organisms that fix themselves to one spot
(sponges and oysters), burrow into the sand (worms and clams), or
simply walk about on the bottom (crawfish and aquatic insect larvae).
Freshwater Ecosystems
 include lakes and ponds (standingwater ecosystems), rivers and
streams (flowing-water ecosystems), and marshes and swamps
(freshwater wetlands).
 about 2% of Earth’s surface
 play an important role in the hydrologic cycle:
 Large bodies of fresh water help moderate daily and seasonal
temperature fluctuations on nearby land regions, and freshwater
habitats provide homes for many species.
Standing-water ecosystem
 A body of fresh water surrounded by land and whose water does not
flow; a lake or a pond.
 Zonation is characteristic of standing-water ecosystems.
 3 zones of a large lake: the littoral, limnetic, and profundal zones
Zonation in a Large Lake
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Lake: a standing-water ecosystem surrounded by land.
Flowing-water ecosystems
 are highly variable; surrounding environment changes greatly between
a river’s source and its mouth
 Certain parts of the stream’s course are shaded by forest, while other
parts are exposed to direct sunlight.
 Groundwater may well up through sediments on the bottom in one
particular area, making the water temperature cooler in summer or
warmer in winter than in adjacent parts of the stream or river
 Organisms vary greatly from one stream to another, depending
primarily on the strength of the current.
 fast currents: some inhabitants have adaptations such as
suckers, with which they attach themselves to rocks to prevent
being swept away.
 With flattened bodies to slip under or between rocks
 fish that are streamlined and muscular enough to swim in the
current.
Freshwater wetlands
 Lands that shallow fresh water covers for at least part of the year;
wetlands have a characteristic soil and water- tolerant vegetation
 include marshes, dominated by grasslike plants, and swamps,
dominated by woody trees or shrubs
 Wetland soils: waterlogged for variable periods and are therefore
anaerobic; are rich in accumulated organic materials
 provide excellent wildlife habitat for migratory waterfowl and other bird
species, as well as for beaver, otters, muskrats, and game fi sh.
 Provides ecosystem services
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 threatened by pollution, development, agriculture, and dam

construction
 Ecosystem services- Important environmental benefits, such as clean
air to breathe, clean water to drink, and fertile soil in which to grow
crops, that the natural environment provides.
Freshwater swamps
-are inland areas covered by water and dominated by trees, such as
baldcypress
Brackish Ecosystems: Estuaries
 A coastal body of water, partly surrounded by land, with access to the
open ocean and a large supply of fresh water from a river.
 Water levels rise and fall with the tides
 Salinity fluctuates with tidal cycles, the time of year, and
precipitation;also changes gradually within the estuary, from fresh
water at the river entrance, to brackish (somewhat salty) water, to salty
ocean water at the mouth of the estuary
 organisms must have a high tolerance for changing conditions
 usually feature salt marshes
 shallow wetlands in which salt-tolerant grasses grow
 perform many ecosystem services, including providing biological
habitats, trapping sediment and pollution, supplying
groundwater, and buffering storms by absorbing their energy,
which prevents flood damage elsewhere.
 Mangrove forests
 the tropical equivalent of salt marshes
 cover perhaps 70 % of tropical coastlines
 provide valuable ecosystem services
 Their interlacing roots are breeding grounds and nurseries for
several commercially important fi shes and shellfi sh, such as
mullet, spotted sea trout, crabs, and shrimp.
 Mangrove branches are nesting sites for many species of birds,
such as pelicans, herons, egrets, and roseate spoonbills.
 Mangrove roots stabilize the submerged soil, thereby preventing
coastal erosion and providing a barrier against the ocean during
storms.
Major Ocean Life Zones
 intertidal zone
 benthic (ocean floor) environment
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 two provinces—neritic and oceanic—of the pelagic (ocean water)

environment
neritic province
- part of the pelagic environment from the shore to where the water reaches a
depth of 200 m (650 ft)
-overlies the continental shelf.
oceanic province
- part of the pelagic environment where the water depth is greater than 200m,
beyond the continental shelf.
The Intertidal Zone: Transition Between Land and Ocean

 area of shoreline between low and high tides
 Rocky shores provide fi ne anchorage for seaweeds and marine
animals
 organisms are exposed to wave action when submerged during high
tides and exposed to temperature changes and drying out when in
contact with the air during low tides
 Organisms and their adaptations:
 mussels have tough, threadlike anchors secreted by a gland in
the foot
 barnacles secrete a tightly bonding glue that hardens
underwater.
 Some organisms hide in burrows or under rocks or crevices at
low tide.
 Some small crabs run about the splash line, following it up and
down the beach.
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The Benthic Environment

 The ocean floor, which extends from the intertidal zone to the deep-
ocean trenches.
 consists of sediments (mainly sand and mud) where many bottom-
dwelling animals, such as worms and clams, burrow
 Bacteria are common at (1625 ft) below the ocean floor.
 three zones in the deeper benthic (from shallowest to deepest): the
bathyal, abyssal, and hadal zones.
 The communities in the relatively shallow benthic zone that are
particularly productive include coral reefs, sea grass beds, and kelp
forests.
Corals
 -are small, soft-bodied animals similar to jellyfish and sea anemones.
 -live in hard cups, or shells, of limestone (calcium carbonate) that they
produce using the minerals dissolved in ocean water.
 -forms from the accumulated layers of limestone.
Coral reefs
-are found in warm (usually greater than 21°C [70°F]), shallow seawater
-The living portions of coral reefs grow in shallow waters where light
penetrates.
-The tiny coral animals require light for zooxanthellae (symbiotic algae) that
live and photosynthesize in their tissues
-coral animals capture food at night with stinging tentacles that paralyze
plankton (small or microscopic organisms carried by currents and waves) and
small animals that drift nearby.
Coral reef ecosystems are the most diverse of all marine environments
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They contain hundreds of species of fi shes and invertebrates, such as giant

clams, snails, sea urchins, sea stars, sponges, flatworms, brittle stars, sea
fans, shrimp, and spiny lobsters.
provide habitat for many kinds of marine organisms and protect coastlines
from shoreline erosion
provide humans with seafood, pharmaceuticals, and recreation and tourism
dollars.
Sea grasses
-are flowering plants adapted to complete submersion in salty ocean water

-occur only in shallow water (to depths of 10 m, or 33 ft) where they receive
enough light to photosynthesize
-Extensive beds of sea grasses occur in quiet temperate, subtropical, and
tropical waters.
-Eelgrass is the most widely distributed sea grass along the coasts of North
America
-most common sea grasses in the Caribbean Sea are manatee grass and
turtle grass
-high primary productivity and are ecologically important: Their roots and
rhizomes help stabilize sediments, reducing erosion, and they provide food
and habitat for many marine organisms
The Neritic Province: From the Shore to 200 Meters
 The part of the pelagic environment that overlies the ocean floor from
the shoreline to a depth of 200 m (650 ft).
 Organisms are all floaters or swimmers
 euphotic zone- upper level of the pelagic environment which extends
from the surface to a maximum depth of 150 m (490 ft) in the clearest
open ocean water.
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 Large numbers of phytoplankton (microscopic algae) produce food by

photosynthesis and are the base of food webs.
 Zooplankton, including tiny crustaceans, jellyfish, comb jellies, and the
larvae of barnacles, seaurchins, worms, and crabs, feed on
phytoplankton.
 Zooplankton are in turn consumed by plankton-eating nekton (any

marine organism that swims freely), such as herring, sardines, squid,
baleen whales, and manta rays
 These in turn become prey for carnivorous nekton such as sharks,
tuna, porpoises, and toothed whales.
 Nekton are mostly confined to the shallower neritic waters (less than 60
m, or 195 ft, deep), near their food.
The Oceanic Province: Most of the Ocean
 The part of the pelagic environment that overlies the ocean floor at
depths greater than 200 m (650 ft).
 loosely described as the “deep sea.” (The average depth of the ocean
is 4000 m, more than 2 mi.)
 All but the shallowest waters of the oceanic province have cold
temperatures, high pressure, and an absence of sunlight.
 Fishes of the deep waters of the oceanic province are strikingly
adapted to darkness and scarcity of food
 adapted to drifting or slow swimming, often have reduced bone and
muscle mass.
 Many of these animals have lightproducing organs to locate one
another for mating or food capture.
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 Most organisms of the deep waters of the oceanic province depend on

marine snow, organic debris that drifts down into their habitat from the
upper, lighted regions of the oceanic province.
 Organisms are filter feeders, scavengers, and predators
 Many are invertebrates, some of which attain great sizes.
 The giant squid measures up to 18 m (59 ft) in length, including its
tentacles.
Application
1. In which biome do you live?
2. Where would you place your biome in the figure below?
3. How would that compare with your placement of the biome in Alaska or
the biome in Egypt and Dubai?
Closure
This is the end of Module 1. The next module tackles about the
humans and their impact in the different ecosystems.
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Module 2
Human Impacts in the Environment
Module Overview:
This part of module introduces the major environmental problems that

humans have created and considers ways to address these issues.
Module Outcomes:
• Describe how humanity changes the environment;

• Describe land conversion for agriculture; and
• Examine the effects of mining and deforestation to the wildlife.
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Lesson 1
Human Population Change the Environment
Learning Outcomes:
● Define population ecology.
● Explain the four factors that produce changes in population size.
● Summarize the history of human population growth.
● Define demographics and describe the demographic transition.
● Explain how highly developed and developing countries differ in population
characteristics such as infant mortality rate, total fertility rate, replacement-
level fertility, and age structure.
● Define urbanization and describe trends in the distribution of people in rural
and urban areas.
● Describe some of the problems associated with rapid growth rates in large
urban areas.
● Describe sustainable development and its complexities associated with the
concept of sustainable consumption.
Introduction
This lesson talks about the effects of exponentially growing human

population in the environment.
Activity:
Answer the following questions:
1. What is population ecology?
2. How do each of the following affect population size: birth rate, death rate,
immigration, and emigration?
3. How do biotic potential and/or carrying capacity produce the J-shaped and
S-shaped population growth curves?
4. How would you describe human population growth for the past 200 years?
5. Who was Thomas Malthus, and what were his views on human population
growth?
6. When determining Earth’s carrying capacity for humans, why is it not enough
to just consider human numbers?
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Abstraction
How Do Populations Change in Size?
• individuals of a given species are part of a larger organization called a

population.
• Population ecology- Branch of biology that deals with the number of
individuals of a particular species found in an area and why those
numbers increase or decrease over time.
(left) A population of blue columbines in Yankee Boy Basin, Colorado.

Populations of other flowers are in the background; (right) A herd of impala
survey their surroundings.
Photographed in Tanzania.
• growth rate (r)

• The rate of change (increase or decrease) of a population’s size,
expressed in percentage per year.
• birth rate (b) minus the death rate (d)
• r=b–d
• also referred to as natural increase in human populations
• Dispersal- movement from one region or country to another
2 types of dispersal:
• immigration (i)- individuals enter a population and increase its
size
• emigration (e)- individuals leave a population and decrease its
size
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• growth rate (r) of a local population must take into account birth rate
(b), death rate (d), immigration (i), and emigration (e)
• r = (b – d) + (i – e)
Maximum Population Growth
• biotic potential- The maximum rate at which a population could

increase under ideal conditions.
• Factors that influence the biotic potential of a species:
• the age at which reproduction begins
• the fraction of the life span during which an individual can
reproduce
• the number of reproductive periods per lifetime
• the number of ofspring produced during each period of
reproduction.
• life history characteristics determine whether a particular species has a
large or a small biotic potential.
• Generally, larger organisms, such as blue whales and elephants, have
the smallest biotic potentials, whereas micro organisms have the
greatest biotic potentials
Factors that interact to change population size
Exponential population growth

The accelerating population growth that occurs when optimal conditions allow
a constant reproductive rate.
Environmental Resistance and Carrying Capacity

• organisms don’t reproduce indefinitely at their biotic potential because
the environment sets limits, which are collectively called
environmental resistance. Examples: limited food, water, shelter, and
other essential resources, as well as increased disease and predation
• The environment controls population size: As the population increases,
so does environmental resistance, which limits population growth.
• carrying capacity ( K )- The largest population a particular
environment can support sustainably (long term), if there are no
changes in that environment.
• population rarely stabilizes at K (carrying capacity) but its size may
temporarily rise higher than K. It will then drop back to, or below, the
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carrying capacity. Sometimes a population that overshoots K will

experience a population crash, an abrupt decline from high to low
population density when resources are exhausted.
• When a population influenced by environmental resistance is graphed
over a long period, the curve has an S shape (see next figure)
• The curve shows the population’s initial exponential increase (note the
curve’s J shape at the start, when environmental resistance is low).
Then the population size levels out as it approaches the carrying
capacity of the environment
Human Population Patterns
Thomas Malthus (1766–1834)
• a British economist
• One of the first people to recognize that the human population can’t
increase indefinitely was
• pointed out that human population growth is not always
• Noted that human population can increase faster than its food supply,
he warned that the inevitable consequences of population growth
would be famine, disease, and war.
Projecting Future Population Numbers

• zero population growth- The state in which the population remains
the same size because the birth rate equals the death rate.
• estimates vary depending on fertility changes
• Small differences in fertility, then, produce large differences in
population forecasts
Demographics of Countries
• Demographics- The applied branch of sociology that deals with
population statistics.
• infant mortality rate- The number of deaths of infants under age 1 per
1000 live births.
• Per person GNI PPP- a country’s gross national income (GNI) in
purchasing power parity (PPP) divided by its population. It indicates the
amount of goods and services an average citizen of that particular
country could buy in the United States
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Highly developed moderately developed Less developed

countries countries countries
have the lowest -have birth rates and have the shortest life
birth rates in the infant mortality rates expectancies, the
world, low infant higher than those of lowest average per
mortality rates and highly developed person GNI PPPs, the
have longer life countries, but they are highest birth rates, and
expectancies declining the highest infant
-medium level of mortality rates
industrialization, and
their average per person
GNI PPPs are lower vs
highly developed
countries
• replacement-level fertility- The number of children a couple must

produce to “replace” themselves.
• total fertility rate (TFR)- The average number of children born to each
woman.
The Demographic Transition- process whereby a country moves from
relatively high birth and death rates to relatively low birth and deathrates.
Age Structure of Countries

• Age Structure- The number and proportion of people at each age in a
population
• age structure diagram- presents the number of males and the number
of females at each age, from birth to death
• The age structure diagram of a country with a high growth rate, based
on a high fertility rate (Ethiopia or Guatemala)—is shaped like a
pyramid
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Declining fertility rates have profound social and economic implications

because as fertility rates drop, the percentage of the population that is elderly
increases.
Population and Urbanization

• Urbanization- A process whereby people move from rural areas to
densely populated cities.
The city as a dynamic ecosystem
Environmental Problems of Urban Areas
• Suburban sprawl that encroaches into former forest, wetland, desert, or

agricultural land destroys or fragments wildlife habitat.
• brownfields—areas of abandoned, vacant factories, warehouses, and
residential sites that may be contaminated from past uses
• Air pollution: airborne emissions, including particulate matter (dust),
sulfur oxides, carbon oxides, nitrogen oxides, and volatile organic
compounds (from automobiles)
• water flow is affected because they cover the rainfall absorbing soil
with buildings and paved roads
• Contaminated runoff
Environmental Benefits of Urbanization

• well-planned city actually benefits the environment by reducing
pollution and preserving rural areas.
• Compact development- Design of cities in which tall, multiple-unit
residential buildings are close to shopping and jobs, and all are
connected by public transportation.
• Urbanization is a worldwide phenomenon.
• more than 50% of the world population lives in urban areas with
populations of 2000 or greater
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Challenges faced by developing countries

• substandard housing (slums and squatter settlements); poverty;
exceptionally high unemployment; heavy pollution; and inadequate or
non-existent water, sewage, and waste disposal (left figure).
• Rapid urban growth also strains school, medical, and transportation
systems.
Application
The photo shows people—mainly displaced/marginalized rural

workers—picking through trash at the Smoky Mountain in Payatas landfill in the
Manila. They are looking mainly for scraps of plastics and metals that they can
sell.
What valuable environmental service does such scavenging provide?
Do you think this is the result of urbanization and environmental conversion?
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Closure
The next lesson is about the people and agriculture.
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Lesson 2
People and Agriculture
Learning Outcomes:
● Differentiate between undernutrition and overnutrition.
● Define food insecurity and relate it to human population, poverty, and world
hunger.
● Contrast industrialized agriculture with subsistence agriculture.
● Describe three kinds of subsistence agriculture.
● Relate the benefits and problems associated with the green revolution.
● Describe the environmental impacts of industrialized agriculture, including
land degradation and habitat fragmentation.
Introduction
This lesson talks about the human agricultural practices and its
environmental effects.
Activity:
Answer the following questions:
1. What is the difference between undernutrition and overnutrition? Where

is each type of malnutrition most prevalent in the world?
2. What is food insecurity and how does it relate to human population,

poverty, and world hunger?
3. What are some differences between industrialized agriculture and

subsistence agriculture?
4. What are shifting cultivation, nomadic herding, and intercropping?
5. What is happening to the number of domesticated plant and animal

varieties? Why?
6. What is the green revolution? What are some of its benefits and
problems?
7. What are the major environmental problems associated with

industrialized agriculture?
8. What is sustainable agriculture? What are some features of a

sustainable farm?
9. Why are some people opposed to GM crops?
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Abstraction
World Food Problems
 average adult human must consume enough food to get approximately

2600 calories, per day
 Undernutrition- a type of malnutrition in which there is an
underconsumption of calories or nutrients that leaves the body
weakened and susceptible to disease
 Overnutrition- a type of malnutrition in which there is an
overconsumption of calories that leaves the body susceptible to
disease.
• Millions of children suffer from kwashiorkor, caused by severe protein

deficiency. Note the characteristic swollen belly, which results from
fluid retention.Photographed in Haiti.
• Marasmus is progressive emaciation caused by a diet low in both total
calories and protein. Symptoms include a pronounced slowing of
growth and extreme wasting of muscles. Photographed in Somalia.
• Globally, millions of adult men and women are hungry. This homeless
man is suffering from severe malnutrition and starvation. Photographed
in New Delhi, India.
Population and World Hunger

 food insecurity- The condition in which people live with chronic
hunger and malnutrition.
 Factors that contribute to food shortage: civil wars and military actions,
HIV/AIDS (which has killed or incapacitated much of the agricultural
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workforce in some countries), fl oods, droughts, and soil erosion from

hilly, marginal farmlands.
 Economic development- An expansion in a government’s economy,
viewed by many as the best way to raise the standard of living.
 According to National Geographic, by 2030 farmers will have to grow
30% more grain than they do now so that the 8.3 billion people living
then can be fed.
Poverty and Food

 Poverty- main cause of undernutrition
 Infants, children, and the elderly are most susceptible to poverty and
chronic hunger
 world’s poorest people—those living in developing countries in Asia,
Africa, and Latin America—do not own land on which to grow food and
do not have sufficient money to purchase food.
The Principal Types of Agriculture
 2 types of agriculture: industrialized agriculture and subsistence

agriculture
 Industrialized agriculture- Modern agricultural methods that require
large capital inputs and less land and labor than traditional methods. . It
relies on large inputs of capital and energy (in the form of fossil fuels)
to make and run machinery, purchase seed, irrigate crops, and
produce agrochemicals such as commercial inorganic fertilizers and
pesticides
 Subsistence agriculture- Traditional agricultural methods that are

dependent on labor and a large amount of land to produce enough
food to feed oneself and one’s family.
 Most farmers in highly developed countries and some in developing

countries practice high-input agriculture, or industrialized agriculture
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 Most farmers in developing countries practice subsistence

agriculture
 Shifting cultivation - a form of subsistence agriculture in which short
periods of cultivation are followed by longer periods of fallow (land
being left uncultivated), during which the land reverts to forest. Shifting
cultivation supports relatively small populations.
 Slash-and-burn agriculture - a type of shifting cultivation that involves
clearing small patches of tropical forest to plant crops. Farmers must
move from one area of forest to another every 3 years or so.
 Nomadic herding, in which livestock is supported by land too arid for
successful crop growth, is a similarly land-intensive form of subsistence
agriculture. Nomadic herders must continually move their livestock to
find adequate food for the animals.
 Intercropping- a form of intensive subsistence agriculture that involves
growing a variety of plants on the same fi eld simultaneously. When
certain crops are grown together, they produce higher yields than when
they are grown as monocultures.
 Monoculture- is the cultivation of only one type of plant over a large
area
 Polyculture - a type of intercropping in which several kinds of plants
that mature at different times are planted together.
Challenges of Agriculture
 prime farmland- land that has the soil type, growing conditions, and
available water to produce food, forage, fiber, and oilseed crops.
 Challenges: decline in prime farmland, coping with declining numbers
of domesticated varieties, improving crop and livestock yields, and
addressing environmental impacts.
Loss of Agricultural Land

 prime agricultural land is falling victim to urbanization and suburban
sprawl by being converted to parking lots, housing developments, and
shopping malls
Global Decline in Domesticated Plant and Animal Varieties
 A global trend is currently under way to replace the many local varieties
of a particular crop or domesticated farm animal with just a few kinds
 farmers abandon traditional varieties in favor of more modern ones,
which are bred for uniformity and maximum production; great loss in
genetic diversity
 germplasm Any plant or animal material that may be used in breeding.
Increasing Crop Yields

 Advances by research scientists since then have dramatically
increased food production in highly developed countries
 Greater knowledge of plant nutrition has resulted in production of
fertilizers that promote high yields.
 The use of pesticides to control insects, weeds, and disease-causing
organisms has also improved crop yields.
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The Green Revolution

 By the middle of the 20th century, serious food shortages occurred in
many developing countries coping with growing populations.
 The development and introduction during the 1960s of high-yield
varieties of wheat and rice to Asian and Latin American countries gave
these nations the chance to provide their people with adequate
supplies of food
 But the high-yield varieties required intensive industrial cultivation
methods, including the use of commercial inorganic fertilizers,
pesticides, and mechanized machinery, to realize their potential. These
agricultural technologies were passed from highly developed nations to
developing nations.
 (1965) Mexico’s annual wheat production rose to more than 2400 kg
(2.65 tons) per hectare.
 Indonesia, formerly imported more rice than any other country in the
world. Today Indonesia produces enough rice to feed its people and
export some.
Critics of Green Revolution

 green revolution has made developing countries dependent on
imported technologies, such as agrochemicals and tractors, at the
expense of traditional agriculture.
 associated with higher crop production are the high energy costs built
into this type of agriculture
 environmental problems caused by the intensive use of fertilizers and
pesticides.
 (1999) International Food Policy Research Institute projected that the
world
demand for rice, wheat, and corn will increase 40% between 2000 and 2020.
 concerted scientific effort to improve crops: genetic engineering
 Modern agricultural methods, such as water-effi cient irrigation
Increasing Livestock Yields

 use of hormones and antibiotics, although controversial, increases
animal production. Hormones, usually administered by ear implants,
regulate livestock bodily functions and promote faster growth.
 low doses of antibiotics to feed for pigs, chickens, and cattle. These
animals gain 4 to 5 percent more weight than untreated animals (still
continued in United States and many other countries)
Environmental Impacts:
 Air pollution
 Water pollution
 pesticide runoff
 degradation (of land)- Natural or human-induced reduction in the
potential ability of the land to support crops or livestock.
 Habitat fragmentation- The breakup of large areas of habitat into
small, isolated patches.
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Solutions to Agricultural Problems
 Sustainable agriculture- Agricultural methods that maintain soil

productivity and a healthy ecological balance while having minimal
long-term impacts.
 An important goal of sustainable agriculture is to preserve the quality of
agricultural soil
 Crop rotation, conservation tillage, and contour plowing help control

erosion and maintain soil fertility
 organic agriculture—use no pesticides
 integrated pest management (IPM)- incorporates the limited use of
pesticides with pest-controlling biological and cultivation practices
 second green revolution -trend away from using intensive techniques
that produce high yields and toward methods that focus on long-term
sustainability of the soil.
Genetic Engineering: A Solution or a Problem?

 Genetic engineering- The manipulation of genes (for example, taking
a specific gene from one species and placing it into an unrelated
species) to produce a particular trait.
 has the potential to produce more nutritious food plants that contain all
the essential amino acids
 has been used to develop more productive farm animals, including
rapidly growing hogs and fishes.
 greatest potential contribution: the production of vaccines against
disease organisms that harm agricultural animals
Concerns About Genetically Modified Foods
 inserted genes could spread from GM crops to weeds or wild relatives
of crop plants and possibly harm natural ecosystems in the process
 some consumers might develop food allergies to GM foods
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Application
What is happening in these pictures?
This aerial view of a crop circle shows a center-pivot irrigation system

that supplies water to a 99-acre corn field. You can see the arc that was most
recently watered at the 10 o’clock position on the field. The spots are
nonfertile areas where crops do not thrive. Center-pivot irrigation saves water
compared to the traditional gravity-flow method of irrigation, in which water is
directed to flow in ditches between crop rows; perhaps only 40 percent of the
water reaches the crops using traditional irrigation methods.
Use the Internet to investigate the lowenergy, precision application
(LEPA) sprinklers that allow 90 to 95 percent of the water in center-pivot
irrigation to reach crops.
1. Highly developed countries have most of the world’s center-pivot
irrigation systems. Why do you think this is the case?
2. The wavy lines are small dikes constructed to control runoff because
the field is not flat. Why do you think these dikes are constructed the
way they are? How is using these dikes similar to contour plowing?
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Closure
The next lesson is about mining.
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Lesson 3
Mining and Environment
Learning Outcomes:
• Relate the environmental impacts of mining and refining minerals. Include a brief
description of acid mine drainage.
• Explain how mining lands can be restored.
Time Frame: 1 week
Introduction
This lesson talks about the use of soil resources through mining and
refining of minerals.
Activity:
1. What are three harmful environmental effects of mining and processing

minerals?
2. How are mining lands restored?
3. What are three harmful environmental effects of mining and processing

minerals?
4. How are mining lands restored?
Abstraction
Environmental Implication of Mineral Use
• Effects of mining
• disturbs large areas of land
• destroys existing vegetation
• mined land is particularly
• prone to erosion
• wind erosion causing air pollution
• water erosion polluting nearby waterways and damaging aquatic
habitats
• depletion of the groundwater
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acid mine drainage

• Pollution caused when sulphuric acid and dangerous dissolved
materials such as lead, arsenic, and cadmium wash from mines into
nearby lakes and streams.
Tailings
-usually left in giant piles on the ground or in ponds near the processing
plants
-contain toxic materials such as cyanide, mercury, and sulfuric acid.
-contaminate the air, soil, and water.
• Smelting plants may emit large quantities of air pollutants, particularly
sulfur, during mineral processing.
• Contaminants in ores include the heavy metals lead, cadmium, arsenic,
and zinc.
• toxic elements may pollute the atmosphere during the smelting process
and cause harm to humans.
• Smelters emit airborne pollutants as well as hazardous liquid and solid
wastes that can pollute the soil and water.
• Depletion of non-renewable energy reserves and production of carbon
dioxide and other air pollutants
Restoration of Mining Lands
• When a mine is no longer profitable to operate, the land can be
reclaimed, or restored to a seminatural condition (e.g Copper Basin in
Tennessee)
• Reclamation prevents further degradation and erosion of the land,
eliminates or neutralizes local sources of toxic pollutants, and makes the
land productive for purposes other than mining
• Restoration also makes such areas visually attractive
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Application
1. This is a foreign owned legally operating large-scale open-pit mining activity

in Surigao del Sur. What types of pollution do you see in this picture?
2. Do you think this sort of mining activity has greater or lesser effects
because it is legally operating? Explain your answer.
Closure
This is the end of Module 2. The next module tackles about the renewable
and non-renewable resources.
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Module 3
Renewable and Non-renewable Resources
Module Overview:
This part of module introduces renewable and non-renewable resources

that the planet Earth offers for human use.
Module Outcomes:
• Describe how human uses the Earth’s resources;

• Distinguish non-renewable from renewable energy resource
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Lesson 1
People and the Forest
Learning Outcomes
● Define sustainable forestry and explain how monocultures and wildlife corridors are related
to it.
● Define deforestation, including clearcutting, and list the main causes of tropical
deforestation.
● Describe national forests and state which government agencies administer them and
current issues of concern.
Time Frame: 1 week
Introduction
This lesson talks about the how forest corridors help in sustainable
farming, and the incidence of deforestation around the globe.
Activity
1. What is sustainable forestry?
2. What is deforestation? What are four important causes of tropical

deforestation?
Abstraction
FORESTS and their ROLES
• Provide many goods and services to support human society
• occupy less than one-third of Earth’s total land area.
• Timber harvested from forests is used for fuel construction materials,
and paper products.
• supply nuts, mushrooms, fruits, and medicines.
• provide employment for millions of people worldwide and offer recreation
and spiritual sustenance in an increasingly crowded world.
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Role of forests in the hydrologic cycle

• regulating global biogeochemical cycles like those for carbon and
nitrogen
• Photosynthesis by trees removes large quantities of heat-trapping
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and fixes it into carbon
compounds, while releasing oxygen back into the atmosphere.
• act as carbon “sinks,” which may help mitigate climate warming,
• produce oxygen for cellular respiration of organisms
• Tree roots hold vast tracts of soil in place, reducing erosion and
mudslides
• protect watersheds; moderation of water flow provides a more
• regulated flow of water downstream
• Forest soils remove impurities from water, improving its quality.
• provide a variety of essential habitats for many organisms
Forest Management
• Management for timber production disrupts a forest’s natural condition
and alters its species composition and other characteristics.
• Monoculture- Ecological simplification in which only one type of plant
is cultivated over a large area.
• Disadvantage of monocultures: at increased risk of damage from
insect pests and disease-causing microorganisms.
• Sustainable forestry- the use and management of forest ecosystems in
an environmentally balanced and enduring way
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• wildlife corridor- A protected zone that connects isolated unlogged or

undeveloped areas.
• Harvesting Trees
• about 3.5 million m3 (120 million ft3) of wood are harvested annually
(forfuelwood, timber, and other products)
• 5 countries with the greatest tree harvests: United States, Canada,
Russia, Brazil, and China
• About 50% of harvested wood is burned directly as fuelwood or used to
make charcoal.
Harvesting trees
• Selective cutting- mature trees are cut individually or in small clusters
while the rest of the forest remains intact, allows the forest to
regenerate naturally.
• shelterwood cutting- The removal of all mature trees in an area over
an extended period. In the first year of harvest, undesirable tree
species and dead or diseased trees are removed. Subsequent
harvests occur at intervals of several years, allowing time for remaining
trees to grow.
• seed tree cutting- almost all trees are harvested from an area; a
scattering of desirable trees is left behind to provide seeds for the
regeneration of the forest.
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• clear-cutting A logging practice in which all the trees in a stand of

forest are cut, leaving just the stumps.
Deforestation
➢ The temporary or permanent clearance of large expanses of forest for
agriculture or other uses.
➢ Causes of the decades-long trend of deforestation include fires caused
by drought and land clearing practices, expansion of agriculture,
construction of roads, tree harvests, insects, disease, and mining.
• Most of the world’s deforestation is currently taking place in Africa and
South America
Results of Deforestation
• decreased soil fertility
• Uncontrolled soil erosion
• Increased sedimentation of waterways caused by soil erosion harms
downstream fisheries.
• formation of deserts
• Disruption of Regulation of water flow → alternating periods of flood
and drought
• extinction of many species
• habitat modification and destruction
• regional and global climate changes
• increase in global temperature by releasing carbon originally stored in
the trees into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide
Boreal Forests and Deforestation
• Extensive deforestation in boreal forests due to logging began in the
late 1980s.
• Boreal forests
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• occur in Alaska, Canada, Scandinavia, and northern Russia and

are dominated by coniferous evergreen trees such as spruce, fi
r, cedar, and hemlock.
• the world’s largest, covering about 11% of Earth’s land.
• primary source of the world’s industrial wood and wood fi ber.
Tropical Forests and Deforestation
• two types of tropical forests: tropical rain forests and tropical dry
forests.
• Tropical rain forests
• prevail in warm areas that receive 200 cm (79 in) or more of
precipitation annually.
• are found in Central and South America, Africa, and Southeast
Asia, but almost half of them are in just three countries: Brazil,
Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Indonesia
• Tropical dry forests
• occur in other tropical areas where annual precipitation is less
but is still enough to support trees.
• India, Kenya, Zimbabwe, Egypt, and Brazil
Why are tropical rain forests disappearing?
• Population growth
• Deforestation
• Agricultural expansion
• economic, social, and government factors
• 3 agents: subsistence agriculture, commercial logging, and cattle
ranching
• For fuelwood
• Wood as heating and cooking fuel
• wood cut for fuel is converted to charcoal, which is then used to power
steel, brick, and cement factories.
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Application
Julia “Butterfly” Hill lived in this

600–1,000-year-old, 180-foot-tall California
redwood for more than 2 years in the late
1990s, to keep a lumber company from
cutting down the tree.
1. Would Hill’s perspective on wilderness better fit the wise-use movement or
the environmental movement?
2. Explain the likely differences in the perspectives of Hill and the lumber
company, especially given that the tree is on the company’s land.
3. Based on issues faced in Tongass National Forest, why do ecologists and
environmentalists think that the logging of old-growth trees causes particular
damage?
Closure
The next lesson talks about the water resources.
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Lesson 2
People and waters
Learning Outcomes
● Explain how processes of the hydrologic cycle allow water to circulate through the
abiotic environment.
● Relate some of the problems caused by aquifer depletion, overdrawing of surface
waters, and salinization of irrigated soil.
● Define water pollution.
● Discuss how sewage is related to eutrophication, biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD), and dissolved oxygen.
● Describe sources of groundwater pollution.
● Describe the global ocean and its significance to life on Earth.
● Define El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and La Niña and describe some of
their effects.
Time Frame: 1 week
Introduction
This lesson talks about the water resources and how humans utilize
them. This will also tackle the effects of development in the fresh and marine
waters.
Activity
1. How do processes in the hydrologic cycle affect the accumulation of

groundwater?
2. How do hydrogen bonds form between adjacent water molecules?
3. What are two unique properties of water?
4. What is water pollution?
5. What is biochemical oxygen demand? How is BOD related to sewage?
6. How does point source pollution differ from nonpoint source pollution? What
are some examples of each?
7. What are some common sources of groundwater pollutants?
Abstraction
The Importance of Water

• All life forms, from unicellular bacteria to multicellular plants and animals,
contain water.
• Humans are composed of approximately 60 percent water by body
weight.
• Drinking water
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• agriculture, manufacturing, mining, energy production, and waste

disposal.
• 97%-saltwater
• Fresh water is distributed unevenly
The Hydrologic Cycle and Our Supply of Fresh Water
• In the hydrologic cycle, water continuously circulates through the
environment, from the ocean to the atmosphere to the land and back to
the ocean
• hydrologic cycle provides a continual renewal of the supply of fresh
water on land
• surface water- Precipitation that remains on the surface of the land

and does not seep down through the soil.
• Runoff- The movement of fresh water from precipitation and snowmelt
to rivers, lakes, wetlands, and the ocean.
• drainage basin, or watershed- the area of land drained by a single
river or stream
• Groundwater- The supply of fresh water under Earth’s surface that is
stored in underground aquifers.
• Aquifers- underground reservoirs in which groundwater is stored
Properties of Water
• Consisting of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen.
• polar
• high melting/ freezing point (0°C, 32°F)
• High boiling point (100°C, 212°F)
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• most water exists in the liquid form organisms need.
• high heat capacity

• A solvent
• In nature, water is never completely pure because it contains dissolved
gases from the atmosphere and dissolved mineral salts from the land.
Water Pollution
• A physical or chemical change in water that adversely affects the
health of humans and other organisms.
• eight categories: sewage, disease-causing agents, sediment pollution,
inorganic plant and algal nutrients, organic compounds, inorganic
chemicals, radioactive substances, and thermal pollution.
Types of Water Pollution
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Eutrophication: An Enrichment Problem

• Oligotrophic- Lakes, estuaries, and slow-fl owing streams that have
minimal levels of nutrients; Supports small populations of aquatic
organisms
• Eutrophication- enrichment of a lake, an estuary, or a slow-flowing
stream
• by inorganic plant and algal nutrients such as phosphorus;
• Eutrophic- an enriched body of water→ increased photosynthetic
productivity; presence of vast numbers of algae and cyanobacteria
• Artificial Eutrophication- Overnourishment of an aquatic ecosystem
by nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates due to human activities
such as agriculture and discharge from sewage treatment plants.
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Sources of Water Pollution

• come from both natural sources and human activities
• 2 SOURCES:
• Point source pollution- is discharged into the environment
through pipes, sewers, or ditches from specific sites such as
factories or sewage treatment plants; relatively easy to control
legislatively, but accidents still occur.
• nonpoint source pollution- Pollution that enter bodies of water
over large areas rather than being concentrated at a single point
of entry.
• polluted runoff- Pollutants that enter bodies of water over large areas
rather than at a single point cause nonpoint source pollution, also
called polluted runoff
Groundwater Pollution
• drinking water from groundwater, is also withdrawn for irrigation and
industry.
• The most common pollutants, such as pesticides, fertilizers, and
organic compounds, seep into groundwater from municipal sanitary
landfi lls, underground storage tanks, backyards, golf courses, and
intensively cultivated agricultural lands
The Global Ocean
• ocean is a vast wilderness
• It teems with life—from warmblooded mammals such as whales to
softbodied invertebrates such as jellyfish.
• It is essential to the hydrologic cycle that provides water
• It affects cycles of matter on land, influences our climate and weather,
and provides foods that enable millions of people to survive..
Patterns of Circulation in the Ocean
• Gyres- Large, circular ocean current systems that often encompass an
entire ocean basin.
• Coriolis effect- influences the paths of surface, or shallow, ocean
currents just as it does the winds
• Earth’s rotation from west to east causes surface ocean currents to
swerve to the right in the Northern Hemisphere
• In the Southern Hemisphere, ocean currents swerve to the left, thereby
moving in a circular, counterclockwise pattern
Vertical Mixing of Ocean Water
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• Variations in the density (mass per unit volume) of seawater affect

deep-ocean currents.
• Cold, salty water is denser than warmer, less salty water.
• Colder, salty ocean water sinks and flows under warmer, less salty
water, generating currents far below the surface.
• ocean conveyor belt
• moves cold, salty deep-sea water from higher to lower latitudes,
where it warms up.
• affects regional and possibly global climate
• shifts from one equilibrium state to another
El Niño–Southern Oscillation
• El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO)- A periodic, large-scale
warming of surface waters of the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean that
temporarily alters both ocean and atmospheric circulation patterns.
• Every 3 to 7 years, the trade winds weaken, and the warm mass of
water expands eastward to South America, increasing surface
temperatures in the usually cooler east Pacific
• During an ENSO event, however, the colder, nutrient-rich deep water is
about 150 m (490 ft) below the surface, and the warmer surface
temperatures and weak trade winds prevent upwelling
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• alters global air currents, directing unusual, sometimes dangerous,

weather to areas far from the tropical Pacifi c where it originates
• 1997–1998 ENSO- the strongest on record, caused more than 20,000
deaths and $33 billion in property damage worldwide
• TAO/ TRITON array- instruments collect oceanic and weather data
during normal conditions and El Niño events
La Niña
• in Spanish, “the girl child”
• occurs when the surface water temperature in the eastern Pacific
Ocean becomes unusually cool and westbound trade winds become
unusually strong.
• often occurs after an El Niño event and is considered part of the natural
oscillation of ocean temperature.
• typically causes wetter-than-usual winters in the Pacifi c Northwest,
warmer weather in the Southeast, and drought conditions in the
Southwest.
• Atlantic hurricanes are stronger and more numerous than usual during
a La Niña event
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Application
https://r3.rappler.com/nation/special-coverage/weather-alert/263621-pagasa-rainy-season-philippines-2020

Rain soaks the streets of Manila.
1. How might the hydrologic cycle be linked to potential groundwater pollution
in this type of urban setting?
2. What unique property of water allows it to carry pollutants?
3. What about the structure of water molecules determines why water on Earth
is most often found in this liquid form?
Closure
The next lesson talks about the climate.
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Lesson 3
People and climate
Learning Outcomes
• Distinguish between weather and climate.

• Summarize the effects of solar energy on Earth’s temperature.
• List the five main greenhouse gases and describe the enhanced
greenhouse effect.
• Discuss some of the potential effects of global climate change.
• Give examples of strategies to mitigate or adapt to global climate
change.
Time Frame: 1 week
Introduction
In this lesson, we will be tackling here atmosphere and climate. Then we

will proceed our discussion to the alarming changes of our global climate.
Activity
List down the top 10 dreadful typhoon that hit the Philippines in the last 10
years. Include the damages they caused to the people, to the properties and
to the environment. You may present this with pictures.
Typhoons Number of Extent of damage Extent of damage to

families affected to the properties the environment
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
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Analysis
1. From the above activity, what do you think are the causes of the
devastations?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
2. List down 5 ways on how to mitigate the aftermath of these disasters.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Abstraction
Atmosphere and Climate
Earth’s atmosphere is a thin layer of mixed gases that extends upward

approximately 500 km. It contains the air we breathe and protects us from the
heat blast radiated from the sun.
There are 4 distinct zones of the atmosphere based on the temperature:

1. troposphere – is in the lowest region closest to the Earth’s surface
where most of the weather occurs. Weather includes temperature,
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atmospheric pressure, precipitation, cloudiness, humidity, and wind.

Climate is the typical weather patterns that occur in a place over a period
of years. The uppermost layer of the troposphere is called tropopause.
2. stratosphere – approximately 18 km above tropopause which has
almost no water vapor and nearly 1,000 times more ozone (O3). Near
the earth’s surface ozone is a pollutant, but in the stratosphere it absorbs
certain wavelengths of sun’s radiation, protecting life on the earth’s
surface. The uppermost layer of stratosphere is called stratopause.
3. mesosphere (middle layer) – the coldest layer of the atmosphere which
reaches approximately 80km above the earth’s surface. Meteors usually
burn up in this region.
4. thermosphere (heated layer)– a region where aurora borealis (northern
lights) and aurora australis (southern lights) occur.
Earth absorbs heat radiation from the sun unequally across the globe. Near the
equator receives more incoming solar radiation (insolation) than at high
latitudes. This energy absorption warms the atmosphere slightly. About half of
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insolation reaches the earth’s surface. Some of this energy is reflected by bright
surfaces, such as snow, ice, and sand. The rest is absorbed by the earth’s
surface and by water. Surfaces that reflect energy have a high albedo
(reflectivity).
Temperature Changes with Latitude and Season
Earth’s inclination on its own axis causes seasons. From March 21 to

September 21, the Northern Hemisphere tilts toward the Sun, and during
September 22 to March 20, it tilts away from the Sun. This means that the 2
hemispheres always experience opposite seasons. Half of the year, the
northern hemisphere receives more light from the sun than the southern
hemisphere. And on the other half of the year, the southern hemisphere tilts the
opposite way, so it receives more light than the northern hemisphere.
Causes of Global Climate Change
1. Human Activities
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https://climategamechanger.sg/2019/08/ https://metro.co.uk/2019/09/23/climate- https://education.seattlepi.com/effect-

14/causes-of-climate-change/ change-causes-effects-accelerating-warn- human-activities-environment-3653.html
scientists-10790754/
Significant amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) through human activities such as

deforestation, land use changes, and burning fossil fuels is released through
the atmosphere. High nitrous oxide is also produced in cultivating the soil, fossil
fuel combustion, landfills, and biomass burning. The widely use of
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which are nontoxic, nonflammable chemicals, for
various purposes.
Greenhouse effect is the natural warming of the Earth’s surface that results
from trapping the sun’s heat in the earth’s atmosphere. These gases in the
atmosphere that keep the sun’s heat from escaping are called greenhouse
gasses.
Water vapor (H2O) is the most abundant greenhouse gas, and it is always
present in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the most abundant human-
caused greenhouse gas; followed by methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O),
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), and tropospheric ozone (O3) and dozens of other
gases. Because of these gases, a rapid increase in temperature and amount of
CO2 in the atmosphere have been observed in the last 50 years.
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2. Volcanic eruption
- During volcanic
eruption, huge amount
of natural aerosols like
carbon dioxide, sulfur
dioxides, salt crystals,
volcanic ashes or dust,
and even
microorganisms like
bacteria and viruses
are released to the
atmosphere. Some of
these aerosols have
effect on our climate pattern but in short period only.
3. Orbital Changes
- the earth’s movement around the sun can
also cause climate change as proposed by
the Milankovitch theory though its impact is
considered as insignificant in our present
climate patterns.
Effects of Climate Change

• Global temperature rise
• Warming ocean
• Shrinking ice sheets
• Glacial retreat
• Decreased snow cover
• Rise of sea level Left: Shrinking ice sheets. Right: Decreased snow cover
Source: https://climate.nasa.gov/evidence/
• Declining Arctic Sea ice
• Extreme Events
• Ocean Acidification
Declining Arctic Sea ice.

https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2019/arcti
c-sea-ice-2019-wintertime-extent-is-seventh- Typhoon Ulysses. https://www.topgear.com.ph/news/motoring-
lowest news/typhoon-ulysses-markina-city-a962-20201112
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Mitigation of Global Climate Change:

• Developing alternatives to fossil
fuels
• Reducing energy use
• Energy-pricing Strategies
• Planting and maintaining forests
• Innovating technology for
carbon management
• Increasing efficiency of coal-
fired power plants
• Increasing fuel economy of
motor vehicles
• Redesigning cities to reduce
reliance on single occupant
vehicles
• Insulating buildings to reduce
the need for heating in the
winter and cooling in the
summer
Adaptation to Global Climate Change
On one of the most pressing issues - rising sea level.
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• People living in coastal areas could be moved inland, away from the
dangers of storm surges.
• Construction of massive sea walls to protect coastal land.
• Countries with temperate climates are evaluating semitropical crops to
determine the best substitutes for traditional crops as the climate warms.
• Large lumber companies are developing heat- and drought-resistant
strains of trees that will be harvested when global climate change may
be well advanced.
Application
1. Describe the weather patterns where you live.

__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
2. Will it be easier for societies to mitigate climate change or to adapt to a

changed climate? Explain your answer.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
3. Most of us find it difficult to contemplate global climate change. The

potential effects are so disastrous and the time scale is so long that we
simply put it out of our minds. How can we frame the issue in positive,
practical terms that people can do something about immediately?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
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Lesson 4
Energy
Learning Outcomes
• Distinguish non-renewable from renewable energy resources
Time Frame: 1 week
Introduction
Welcome students to this last lesson of the course that talks about renewable
and non-renewable energy resources.
Activity
1. Create a check-list of the energy you use at home?

2. What renewable energy sources does your home use?
3. How can you help to lessen the use of non-renewable energy and use more
of renewable one? Do you think renewable energy is more environmentally
friendly? Account for this.
Abstraction
Energy Consumption
• Human society depends on energy.

• World energy consumption has increased every year since 1982, with
most of the increase occurring in developing countries.
Coal
▪ the most abundant fossil fuel in the world
▪ found primarily in the Northern Hemisphere
▪ The largest coal deposits are in the United States, Russia, China,
Australia, India, Germany, and South Africa
Coal Mining
• 2 basic types of coal mines: surface and subsurface (underground)
mines.
• surface mining- extraction of mineral and energy resources near
Earth’s surface by first removing the soil, subsoil, and overlying rock
strata.
• subsurface mining- extraction of mineral and energy resources from
deep underground deposits.
Environmental Impacts of Coal
• acid mine drainage- Pollution caused when sulphuric acid and
dangerous dissolved materials, such as lead, arsenic, and cadmium,
wash from coal and metal mines into nearby lakes and streams.
• One of the most land- destructive types of surface mining is
mountaintop removal.
100 | P a g e
• Dangerous landslides occurred on hills that were unstable due to the

lack of vegetation
• Coal burning generally contributes more of the common air pollutants
than burning either oil or natural gas.
• acid deposition- coal contains sulfur and nitrogen that, when burned,
are released into the atmosphere as sulfur oxides (SO2 and SO3) and
nitrogen oxides (NO, NO2, and N2O), many of which form acids when
they react with water.
• Burning coal causes a more severe CO2 problem than burning other
fossil fuels because coal releases more CO2 per unit of heat energy
produced than does burning either oil or natural gas.
Making Coal Cleaner
• fluidized-bed combustion- A clean-coal technology in which crushed
coal is mixed with limestone to neutralize acidic compounds produced
during combustion.
• In the United States several large power plants are testing fluidized-
bed combustion, and a few small plants are already using this
technology.
• The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 provide incentives for utility
companies to convert to clean coal technologies.
Oil and Natural Gas
• Petroleum, or crude oil, is a liquid composed of hundreds of
hydrocarbon compounds.
• Oil is also used to produce petrochemicals, compounds used to make
products such as fertilizers, plastics, paints, pesticides, medicines, and
synthetic fibers.
• During petroleum refining, the compounds are separated into different
products—such as gases, jet fuel, heating oil, diesel, and asphalt—
based on their different boiling points
• natural gas contains only a few hydrocarbons: methane and smaller
amounts of ethane, propane, and butane.
• Propane and butane are separated from the natural gas, stored in
pressurized tanks as a liquid called liquefied petroleum gas, and
used primarily in rural areas as fuel for heating and cooking.
• Methane is used to heat residential and commercial buildings, to
generate electricity in power plants, and for a variety of purposes in the
organic chemistry industry.
• Natural gas use is increasing in three main areas: electricity
generation, transportation, and commercial cooling.
• Natural gas is often used in cogeneration, a clean and efficient
process in which natural gas is used to produce both electricity and
steam; the heat of the exhaust gases provides energy to make steam
for water and space heating
• Natural gas efficiently fuels residential and commercial air-cooling
systems
• Natural gas use is increasing in three main areas: electricity
generation, transportation, and commercial cooling.
• Natural gas is often used in cogeneration, a clean and efficient
process in which natural gas is used to produce both electricity and
101 | P a g e
steam; the heat of the exhaust gases provides energy to make steam
for water and space heating
• Natural gas efficiently fuels residential and commercial air-cooling
systems
Environmental Impacts of Oil
and Natural Gas
• Extracting, transporting, and burning oil and natural gas create a
variety of environmental problems.
• burning oil and natural gas produces CO2 that contributes to global
climate change.
• Burning oil also leads to acid deposition and the formation of
photochemical smog.
• Natural gas, on the other hand, is a relatively clean, efficient source of
energy that contains almost no sulphur and releases far less CO2,
fewer hydrocarbons, and almost no particulate matter compared to oil
and coal.
• One risk of oil and natural gas production relates to their transport,
often over long distances by pipelines or ocean tankers.
• Natural gas leaks, while rare, can lead to massive explosions.
• Oil spills create environmental damage, particularly in aquatic
ecosystems, where an oil slick can travel great distances.
Nuclear Energy
• The energy released by nuclear fission or fusion.

• Involves changes in the nuclei of atoms; small amounts of matter from
the nucleus are converted into large amounts of energy.
• Nuclear reactions produce 100,000 times more energy per atom than is
available from a chemical bond between two atoms.
• Fission- The splitting of an atomic nucleus into two smaller fragments,
accompanied by the release of a large amount of energy.
• Fusion- two small atoms are combined, forming one larger atom of a
different element
Conventional Nuclear Fission
• Uranium ore
• mineral fuel used in conventional nuclear power plants
• nonrenewable resource present in limited amounts in
sedimentary rock in Earth’s crust.
• Uranium ore contains three isotopes: U-238 (which makes up
99.28 % of uranium), U-235 (0.71 %), and U-234 (less than 0.01
%).
102 | P a g e
• Enrichment- The process by which uranium ore is refined after mining

to increase the concentration of fissionable U-235.
• After enrichment, uranium is processed into small pellets of uranium
dioxide; each pellet contains the energy equivalent of 1 ton of coal
• The pellets are then placed in closed pipes, often as long as 3.7 m (12
ft), called fuel rods. The fuel rods are grouped into square fuel
assemblies, generally made up of 200 rods each
• nuclear reactor –A device that initiates and maintains a controlled
nuclear fission chain reaction to produce energy for electricity.A typical
nuclear reactor contains 150 to 250 fuel assemblies.
• A typical nuclear power plant has four main parts: the reactor core, the
steam generator, the turbine, and the condenser
• Nuclear fission occurs in the reactor core, and the heat produced by
fission is used to produce steam from liquid water in the steam
generator.
• The turbine uses the steam to generate electricity, and the condenser
cools the steam, converting it back to a liquid.
Nuclear Energy and Fossil Fuels
• Worldwide, nuclear power production is steadily increasing.
• In part, this is due to concerns about climate change, but it is primarily
driven by an increasing demand for energy.
• nuclear energy emits few pollutants into the atmosphere.
• Nuclear energy can also provide power without producing climate
altering CO2.
• spent fuel- Used fuel elements that were irradiated in a nuclear reactor
• Nuclear power Plants produce radioactive coolant fl uids and gases in
the reactor Which are extremely dangerous, and the hazards of their
health and environmental impacts require that special measures be
taken to ensure their safe storage and disposal.
• At high temperatures, the metal encasing uranium fuel can melt,
releasing radiation; this is called a meltdown
• water used in a nuclear reactor to transfer heat can boil away during an
accident, contaminating the atmosphere with radioactivity.
• Nuclear power risks are involuntary and potentially catastrophic
Radioactive Wastes
• classified as either “low level” or “high level.”
• low-level radioactive wastes - Solids, liquids, or gases that give off
small amounts of ionizing radiation.
• high-level radioactive wastes - Radioactive solids, liquids, or gases
that initially give off large amounts of ionizing radiation.
Direct Solar Energy
• sun produces a tremendous amount of energy, most of which
dissipates into space.
• Only a small portion is radiated to Earth.
• Solar energy differs from fossil and nuclear fuels in that it is always
available;
• Solar energy will deplete only when the sun’s nuclear fire burns out.
Heating Buildings and Water
103 | P a g e
• active solar heating - A system of putting the sun’s energy to use in

which collectors absorb solar energy and pumps or fans distribute the
collected heat.
• active solar heating - A system of putting the sun’s energy to use in
which collectors absorb solar energy and pumps or fans distribute the
collected heat.
• passive solar heating- A system of putting the sun’s energy to use
that does not require mechanical devices to distribute the collected
heat.
Photovoltaic Solar Cells

• A wafer or thin film of solid-state materials, such as silicon or gallium
arsenide, that is treated with certain metals in such a way that the film
generates electricity when solar energy is absorbed.
• Photovoltaics generate energy that can pump water, refrigerate
vaccines, grind grain, charge batteries, and supply rural homes with
lighting.
• PVs creates no air or water pollution but the manufacturing process
requires industrial chemicals, many of which are toxic
• A means of producing electricity in which the sun’s energy is
concentrated using mirrors or lenses onto a fluid-filled pipe; the heated
fluid is used to generate electricity.
• are inherently more efficient than other solar technologies because
they concentrate the sun’s energy.
• Hydrogen is a clean fuel; it produces water and heat as it burns, but it
produces no sulfur oxides, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbon particulates,
or CO2 emissions.
• It does produce some nitrogen oxides, though in amounts fairly easy to
control
• Hydrogen has the potential to provide energy for transportation (in the
form of hydrogenpowered automobiles) as well as for heating buildings
and producing electricity.
• fuel cell - A device that directly converts chemical energy into
electricity. A fuel cell requires hydrogen and oxygen from the air.
Indirect Solar Energy
• Some renewable energy sources indirectly use the sun’s energy.
• Combustion of biomass (organic matter) is an example of indirect solar
energy because plants use solar energy for photosynthesis and store
the energy in biomass.
104 | P a g e
• Windmills, or wind turbines, use wind energy to generate electricity.

• The damming of rivers and streams to generate electricity is a type of
hydropower—the energy of flowing water.
Biomass Energy
• biomass - Plant and animal material used as fuel.
• Biomass fuel, which may be a solid, liquid, or gas, is burned to release
its energy.
• Solid biomass fuels such as wood, charcoal (wood turned into coal by
partial burning), animal dung, and peat (partly decayed plant matter
found in bogs and swamps) supply a substantial portion of the world’s
energy.
• Biogas- usually composed of a mixture of gases (mostly methane), is
like natural gas. It is a clean fuel—its combustion produces fewer
pollutants than either coal or biomass
• biogas digesters use microbial decomposition of household and
agricultural wastes to produce biogas for cooking and lighting
• When biogas conversion is complete, the solid remains are removed
from the digester and used as fertilizer.
• Biomass can also be converted into liquid fuels, especially methanol
(methyl alcohol) and ethanol (ethyl alcohol), which can replace
gasoline in internal combustion engines.
• Bio diesel- made from plant or animal oils
Wind Energy
• wind energy- Electric energy obtained from surface air currents
caused by the solar warming of air
• Wind produces no waste and is a clean source of energy.
• It produces no emissions of sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide, or nitrogen
oxides. Every kilowatt-hour of electricity generated by wind power
rather than fossil fuels prevents as much as 1 kg (2.2 lb) of the
greenhouse gas CO2 from entering the atmosphere.
• one concern is the deaths of birds and bats.
105 | P a g e
Hydropower
• A form of renewable energy that relies on flowing or falling water to
generate electricity.
• more effi cient than any other energy source for producing electricity;
about 90 % of available hydropower energy is converted into
consumable electricity.
• form of solar energy in greatest use
• 10 countries with the greatest hydroelectric production are: (decreasing
order) Canada, the United States, Brazil, China, Russia, Norway,
Japan, India, Sweden, and France
Disadvantages:
• Building a dam changes the natural flow of a river: Water backs up,
flooding large areas of land and forming a reservoir, which destroys
plant and animal habitats.
• Native fishes are particularly being harmed by dams because the
original river ecosystem is so altered.
• The migration of spawning fish is also altered
• Below the dam, the once-powerful river is reduced to a relative trickle.
• The natural beauty of the countryside is affected, and certain forms of
wilderness recreation are made impossible or less enjoyable, although
the dams permit water sports in the reservoir.
Other Renewable Energy Sources

Geothermal energy- Energy from Earth’s interior, used for space heating or
generation of electricity.
• typically associated with volcanism
106 | P a g e
• considered environmentally benign because it emits only a fraction of

the air pollutants released by conventional fossil fuel–based energy
technologies. The most common environmental hazard is the emission
of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) gas, which comes from the very low levels of
dissolved minerals and salts found in the steam or hot water.
Tidal Energy
• A dam built across a bay can harness the energy of large tides to
generate electricity. As the tide falls, water fl owing back to the ocean
over the dam’s spillway turns a turbine and generates electricity
through tidal energy.
• Cannot become a significant resource worldwide because few areas
experience large enough differences in water level between high and
low tides to make power generation feasible
• Disadvantages: high cost of building a tidal power station and
potential environmental problems associated with tidal energy in
estuaries
Application
These pipes suck methane, which is used as fuel, from decomposing trash in
Payatas, Quezon.
1. Is this a renewable energy source? a form of conservation? Explain.

2. What would be some advantages and disadvantages of this type of
energy production?
107 | P a g e

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People and the Earth’s Ecosystems

Welcome to People and the Earth’s Ecosystem

For academic concerns (College/Adviser)

Cover page ………………………………… 1

Welcome Message ………………………………… 2

Table of Contents ………………………………… 3

USeP Vision, Mission and Goals ………………….. 4

USeP Graduate Attributes ………………………… 5

USeP Core Values ……………………………….... 5

Course Overview ………………………………… 6

Course Assessment ……………………………….. 7

Course Map ………………………………… 8

Module 1 Overview ………………………………… 10

The Lessons …………………………………

Module 2 Overview ……………………………….. 57

Lessons in Module 2……………………………….

Module 2 Overview ……………………………….. 77

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHEASTERN PHILIPPINES

Premier Research University in the ASEAN.

USeP shall produce world-class graduates and relevant research and

At the end of the plan period, the University of Southeastern Philippines

1. Recognized ASEAN Research University

INSTITUTIONAL GRADUATE ATTRIBUTES

Creates and inspires positive changes in the organization; exercises

CRITICAL AND ANALYTICAL THINKING SKILLS

Demonstrates creativity, innovativeness, and intellectual curiosity in

Demonstrates concern for others, practices professional ethics, honesty, and

Demonstrates enthusiasm and passion for continuous personal and

Demonstrates proficiency and flexibility in the area of specialization and in

CORE VALUES OF THE UNIVERSITY

THE COURSE OVERVIEW

COURSE TITLE : General Ecology

Learning Evidence and Measurement Rubrics

Area to Assess Expected Satisfactory Acceptable

- Smooth/consistent transition -Consistent transition and -Inconsistency of fonts,

People and the Ecosystems

The first part of this module introduces the major environmental

At the end of the lessons, students should be able to:

Time Frame: 1st week

Welcome! This lesson talks about the effects of exponentially growing

Date and time of visit: ____________________________________________

Top 20 Countries with Land area 2019 rank as the poorest

Today, human race is the most powerful agent of environmental change

Human Impacts on the Environment

Poor countries, in which about 82 percent of the world’s population live,

to overwhelm and deplete a country’s soils, forests, and other natural

(2) renewable resources – are resources that are replaced by natural

Figure 2. Basic water cycle (hydrologic cycle). Image from https://www.weather.gov/jetstream/hydro.

• Rapid population growth can cause renewable resources to be

▪ exploitation of their natural resources

Environmental sustainability is the ability to meet

Figure 3. Goals of sustainability. Image from Berg et al. (2011)

Time Frame: 3 hours

Time Frame: 2nd week (3 hrs lecture, 6 hrs laboratory)

BASIC PRINCIPLES AND CONCEPTS OF ECOLOGY

• Population is a group of individuals of the same species occupying a

ATTRIBUTES OF A NATURAL ECOSYSTEM

Figure 5. Ecosystem model emphasizing the external environment.

Ecosystems are open systems—that is, things are constantly entering

Figure 6. Functional diagram of an ecosystem with emphasis on internal dynamics.

deep as light penetrates. In large deep ponds and lakes,

Figure 7. Phytoplanktons sampled in the seawater of Davao Gulf; a - Diploneis sp.; b