Republic of the Philippines
Department of Education
Caraga Administrative Region
Division of Surigao del Norte
REVIEWER IN PRACTICAL RESEARCH II
S.Y. 2022 - 2023
Probability Sampling Technique
Simple Random Sampling. The chance of
selection is the same for every member of the
population. The sample is drawn so that all
elements have equal number of chances to be
selected. It is a way of choosing individuals in
which all members of the accessible population are
given an equal chance to be selected. The
sampling method that chooses respondents by
pure chance
Systematic Random Sampling. It refers to a
sampling that follows regular intervals from a list.
May spread the selected samples evenly across the
entire population than simple random sampling.
Stratified Random Sampling. The population is
divided into groups called strata and then simple
random sampling is applied in selecting samples
from each group.
Cluster Sampling. Used for large scale surveys.
Used when the target respondents in a research
study are spread across a probability sampling where you make a conscious
GEOGRAPICALLOCATION. The population is
group into what we called CLUSTER and simple
random sampling is used in selecting the cluster.
Non - Probability Sampling Technique
Convenience sampling (also called haphazard,
grab, opportunity, or accidental sampling).
Convenience sampling is a common type of non-
probability sampling where you choose
participants for a sample, based on their
convenience and availability.
Convenience sampling also has two subtypes:
1. Consecutive sampling (also known as
total enumerative sampling) is the
process of doing research with the sample
members that meet the inclusion criteria
and are conveniently available.
2. Self-selection (also known as volunteer
sampling) is sampling technique uses
volunteers to fill in the sample size until it
reaches a specified amount.
Prepared by: Nessel D. Auditor
School: Surigao del Norte National High School
Quota sampling (also known as dimension
sampling) is a non-probability sampling technique
like stratified sampling. In this method, the
population is split into segments (strata) and you
have to fill a quota based on people who match the
characteristics of each stratum.
There are two types of quota sampling:
1. Proportional quota sampling gives
proportional numbers that represent
segments in the wider population. For this,
the population frame must be known.
2. Non-proportional quota sampling uses
stratum to divide a population, though only
the minimum sample size per stratum is
decided.
Snowball sampling (also known as referral,
respondent-driven, or chain referral sampling)
is a non-probability sampling type that mimics a
pyramid system in its selection pattern. You choose
early sample participants, who then go on to recruit
further sample participants until the sample size
has been reached.
Purposive sampling (also known as judgmental,
selective, or subjective sampling) is a type of non-
decision on what the sample needs to include and
choose participants accordingly.
Availability sampling - What is the sampling
method that allows researchers to pick out people
who are easy to find or locate and willing to
establish contact with them.
DEFINITION OF FINDINGS
Sustained: Misconduct is substantiated.
Misconduct may be as stated in complaint or as a
result of investigation.
Exonerated: Incident occurred, officer acted
lawfully and properly.
Unfounded: Incident cited in complaint is falsely
reported or not factual. Not Sustained: Insufficient
evidence exists to prove or disprove complaint.
Voluntarily Withdrawn: Complainant decided
not to pursue the original allegation(s) and
 Republic of the Philippines
Department of Education
Caraga Administrative Region
Division of Surigao del Norte
requested the case file be closed and not
investigated further .
Refused to Cooperate: Complainant and/or
witnesses refuse to assist investigators handling.
the case.
Instrument is the general term that researchers use
for a measurement device (survey, test,
questionnaire, etc.). To help distinguish between
instrument and instrumentation, consider that the
instrument is the device and instrumentation is the
course of action (the process of developing, testing,
and using the device).
Validity - A research instrument is considered
valid if it measures what it supposed to measure.
Types of Validity of Instrument
Face Validity. It is also known as “logical
validity.” It calls for an initiative judgment of the
instruments as it “appear.” Just by looking at the
instrument, the researcher decides if it is valid.
Content Validity. An instrument that is judged
with content validity meets the objectives of the
study. It is done by checking the statements or
questions if this elicits the needed information.
Construct Validity. It refers to the validity of
instruments as it corresponds to the theoretical
construct of the study. It is concerning if a specific
measure relates to other measures.
Concurrent Validity. When the instrument can
predict results like those similar tests already
validated, it has concurrent validity.
Predictive Validity. When the instrument can
produce results like those similar tests that will be
employed in the future, it has predictive validity.
This is particularly useful for the aptitude test.
Reliability refers to the consistency of the
measures or results of the instrument.
Reliability of Instrument
Test-retest Reliability. It is achieved by giving the
same test to the same group of respondents twice.
The consistency of the two scores will be checked.
Prepared by: Nessel D. Auditor
School: Surigao del Norte National High School
Equivalent Forms Reliability. It is established by
administering two identical tests except for
wordings to the same group of respondents.
Internal Consistency Reliability. It determines
how well the items measure the same construct. It
is reasonable that when a respondent gets a high
score in one item, he will also get one in similar
items. There are three ways to measure the internal
consistency; through the split-half coefficient,
Cronbach’s alpha, and Kuder-Richardson formula.
Survey. Data gathering is done through interview
or questionnaire. By means of questionnaire you
use series of questions or statements that
respondents will have to answer. Basically,
respondents write or choose their answer from
given choices.
Interview is when you ask respondents orally to
tell you the responses.
A questionnaire is a research instrument that
consists of a set of questions that aims to collect
information from a respondent. A research
questionnaire is typically a mix of close- ended
questions and open-ended questions.
A questionnaire is an instrument used to collect
data while a survey is a process of collecting,
recording, and analyzing data. Questionnaires can
be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured.
There are three structures of questionnaires:
1.Structured questionnaires employ closed-ended
questions
2. Unstructured questionnaires, on the other hand,
use open-ended
3. Semi-structured questionnaires are combinations
of both the structured and
unstructured ones.
Advantages of Using Questionnaire
1. Bulk data can be gathered in less time.
2. Online survey is quick and cost-effective.
3. Less chance of bias.
4. Respondents can answer the questionnaire
without revealing their identity.
5. Easy analysis and visualization
 Republic of the Philippines
Department of Education
Caraga Administrative Region
Division of Surigao del Norte
Disadvantages of Using Questionnaire
1. Questionnaires may not be returned on time.
2. Questionnaires may be lost.
3. Understanding and interpretation of the
questions varies by the participants.
4. Participants may not be able to complete the
required responses.
5. Emotions and feelings are hard to convey.
6. Participants’ answer may lack depth.
Frequency distribution - It gives you the
frequency of distribution and percentage of the
occurrence of an item in an asset of data.
A frequency distribution of qualitative data is a
table of definite values and their frequencies that is
valuable since it provides a table of the values of
the observation as well as the frequency with which
it happens.
A measure of central tendency is a single value
that attempts to describe a set of data by identifying
the central position within that set of data. As such,
measures of central tendency are sometimes called
measures of central location.
A quantitative distribution is typically ordered
from the smallest count to largest count and
represented in one of the five graphical methods
listed above so we can eventually examine the
shape, center, and spread of the data.
Methods and Techniques of Quantitative Data
Analysis
Descriptive statistics as the name implies is used
to describe a dataset. It helps understand the details
of your data by summarizing it and finding patterns
from the specific data sample.
It is a quantitative data-analysis technique provides
a summary the orderly or sequential data obtained
from the sample through the data-gathering
instrument used.
Inferential statistics aim to make predictions or
highlight possible outcomes from the analyzed data
obtained from descriptive statistics. They are used
to generalize results and make predictions between
groups, show relationships that exist between
multiple variables, and are used for hypothesis
testing that predicts changes or differences.
Prepared by: Nessel D. Auditor
School: Surigao del Norte National High School
Experimental Statistical Technique - There is
more than one possible outcome. We can specify
each possible outcome in advance. And there is an
element of chance. This term is generally used for
controlled experiments. Like a coin toss, rolling
dice is a statistical experiment.
Exploratory data analysis is a technique data
scientists use to identify patterns and trends in a
data set. They can also use it to determine
relationships among samples in a population,
validate assumptions, test hypotheses and find
missing data points. Companies can use
exploratory data analysis to make insights based on
data and validate data for errors.
Measures of central tendency help you find the
middle, or the average, of a dataset. The 3 most
common measures of central tendency are the
mode, median, and mean.
The mode is the most frequently occurring value in
the dataset. It’s possible to have no mode, one
mode, or more than one mode.
The median of a dataset is the value that’s exactly
in the middle when it is ordered from low to high.
The arithmetic mean of a dataset (which is
different from the geometric mean) is the sum of all
values divided by the total number of values. It’s
the most used measure of central tendency because
all values are used in the calculation.
standard deviation (or σ) is a measure of how
dispersed the data is in relation to the mean. Low
standard deviation means data are clustered around
the mean, and high standard deviation indicates
data are more spread out.
Research Locale - This discusses the place or
setting of the study. It describes in brief the place
where the study is conducted. Only important
features which have the bearing on the present
study are included. Shows the target population.
Research Design - This describes the research
mode whether it is true experimental or quasi
experimental design, descriptive or survey
 Republic of the Philippines
Department of Education
Caraga Administrative Region
Division of Surigao del Norte
research, historical research, qualitative research,
ethnographic etc.
Validity and Reliability of Research Instrument
1. This explains the specific type of research
instrument used such as questionnaire,
checklist, questionnaire-checklists,
structured interview, teacher–made test,
standardized instrument which are adopted
or borrowed with permission from the
author or from other sources.
2. The parts of the instruments should be
explained and what bits of information are
derived.
3. The establishment of validity and reliability
should be explained and only experts
should be chosen to validate such
instrument. Specific and appropriate
statistical test used should be given and the
computed values derived. Interpretation
should be included in the discussions.
4. Equations used should also be presented in
the Appendices of the research paper.
Observation is way of gathering data which
involves systematically selecting, watching,
listening, reading, touching, and recording
behavior and characteristics of living beings,
objects, or phenomena. Observations can be
controlled, natural, or participant. It can be used in
quantitative research when the observable
characteristics are quantitative in nature (e.g.,
length, width, height, weight, volume, area,
temperature, cost, level, age, time, and speed).
Observations involves tracking of changes during
a specified period.
Participant Observation is a form of observation
wherein the researcher becomes a complete
observer or a participant in the study through the
experience of spending time with a group of people
and closely observing their actions, speech
patterns, and norms, which in turn the researcher
can gain an understanding. It allows the observer to
become a member of the group or community that
the participants.
belong to. It can be performed covertly (i.e.,
participants are not aware of the purpose behind the
observation. It can be done also overtly, wherein
participants know the intention or objectives of the
observation
Prepared by: Nessel D. Auditor
School: Surigao del Norte National High School
"data collection" refers to the process of
gathering, measuring, and analyzing correct
insights for research purposes through the use of
established approved methodologies
The primary goal of data collection is to ensure that
sufficient information-rich and reliable data is
collected for statistical analysis so that data-driven
research decisions can be made.
Editing raw data is the first step in analysis.
Editing detects errors and omissions, corrects them
whatever possible. Editor’s responsibility is to
guarantee that data are –accurate; consistent with
the intent of the questionnaire; uniformly entered;
complete; and arranged to simplify coding and
tabulation.
Coding refers to the process of assigning numerals
or other symbols to answers so that responses can
be put into a limited number of categories or
classes. Such classes should be appropriate to the
research problem under consideration. Coding is a
process wherein the collected data are categorized
and organized. It is usually done in qualitative
research. In quantitative research, coding is done to
assign numerical value to specific indicator
especially if it is qualitative in nature.
Tabulation is a system of processing data or
information by arranging it into a table. With
tabulation, numeric data is arrayed logically and
systematically into columns and rows, to aid in
their statistical analysis.
Presentation and Interpretation of Data
Table helps summarize and categorize data using
columns and rows. It contains headings that
indicate the most important information about your
study.
Graphs are visual representations which focuses
on how a change in one variable affects to another.
They are used to organize information to show
patterns and relationships. A graph shows this
information by representing it as a shape.
Line Graph illustrates trends and changes in data
over time, Bar Graph illustrates comparisons of
amounts and quantities, while Pie Graph (Circle
Graph) displays the relationship of parts to a whole.
 Republic of the Philippines
Department of Education
Caraga Administrative Region
Division of Surigao del Norte
vertical bar graph is a data representation In the process of elaborating the way you analyze
technique that depicts the data using vertical data to determine whether the hypotheses are true
rectangular bars. It makes comparison and data or false, the researcher must consider the
analysis easier.
following:
P-value Approach involves determining the A. The researcher must be observant to its
probability (assuming the null hypothesis were content.
true) of observing a more extreme test statistic in B. The researcher must be resourceful to
the direction of the alternative hypothesis than the support claims.
one observed. If the P-value is less than (or equal C. The researcher must be keen enough to
to) 𝛼 then the null hypothesis is rejected in favor of scrutinize data.
the alternative hypothesis. And, if the P-value is
greater than 𝛼, then the null hypothesis is not External validity refers to the extent to which the
rejected. results of a study are generalizable to patients in our
daily practice, especially for the population that the
The significance level is the probability of sample is thought to represent.
rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true. For
example, a significance level of 0.05 indicates a 5% The strongest linear relationship is indicated by
risk of concluding that a difference exists when a correlation coefficient of -1 or 1. The weakest
there is no actual difference. Lower significance linear relationship is indicated by a correlation
levels indicate that you require stronger evidence coefficient equal to 0. A positive correlation means
before you will reject the null hypothesis. that if one variable gets bigger, the other variable
tends to get bigger.
Recommendations of the study are the added
suggestions that you want people to follow when Non-experimental research is research that lacks
performing future studies. the manipulation of an independent variable.
Rather than manipulating an independent variable,
Research Implications are important content of researchers conducting non-experimental research
your conclusion. It refers to the logical relations simply measure variables as they naturally occur
and their result in each situation. The conclusions (in the lab or real world).
you draw from the findings, how you linked those
Intervention research is all about learning what
to a specific theory or practice comprises the
treatments or strategies work best to improve
implication of the study. There are two forms of outcomes and making a difference in what matters
implications: the practical and theoretical most to you. Although developing and testing
implications. interventions can be a challenging and lengthy
process, establishing the efficacy of a new
Practical Implication is also called as convenient intervention or treatment that improves the
implication. It is a realistic explanation of what health of a population for whom you care deeply
your research findings might mean and the fact that about is both personally and professionally
would arise if those circumstances were met. rewarding.

Conclusions are statements drawn from the Quantitative data are expressed through the
findings which present the implications of the following forms:
results and answer the research questions presented
1. Fractions
at the beginning of the paper. 2. Numbers
3. Percentages
A conclusion is the last part of something, its end
or result. When you write a paper, you always end
by summing up your arguments and drawing a
conclusion about what you've been writing about.
Prepared by: Nessel D. Auditor
School: Surigao del Norte National High School
 Republic of the Philippines
Department of Education
Caraga Administrative Region
Division of Surigao del Norte
Data gathering procedure.
You may include your manner of asking Data is raw, unorganized facts that need to be
permission from the institution or school you will processed. Data can be something simple and
be conducting the study, how you will do the seemingly random and useless until it is organized.
informed consent for the participants in the study, Data are the facts or details from which
and explain that you will be ensuring information is derived. Individual pieces of data are
confidentiality in personal data collected from rarely useful alone. For data to become
participants as well as explain the research information, data needs to be put into context.
purposes of the collected data.

Statistical Tools - You may ask the help of your

teacher in Statistics or your research teacher if you
get lost in this part.

Data turn to numbers.

To analyze quantitative data means to quantify or
change the verbally expressed data into numerical
information.

Null hypothesis is rejected in a two-tailed test,

when the test value falls in any of the two critical
regions.

A type I error occurs during hypothesis testing

when a null hypothesis is rejected, even though it
is accurate and should not be rejected. The null
hypothesis assumes no cause-and-effect
relationship between the tested item and the stimuli
applied during the test.

validity is harder to assess than reliability, but it is

even more important. To obtain useful results, the
methods you use to collect data must be valid: the
research must be measuring what it claims to
measure. This ensures that your discussion of the
data and the conclusions you draw are also valid.

What is validity?
Validity refers to how accurately a method
measures what it is intended to measure. If research
has high validity, that means it produces results that
correspond to real properties, characteristics, and
variations in the physical or social world.

High reliability is one indicator that a measurement

is valid. If a method is not reliable, it probably isn’t
valid.

Prepared by: Nessel D. Auditor

School: Surigao del Norte National High School
 Republic of the Philippines
Department of Education
Caraga Administrative Region
Division of Surigao del Norte

Prepared by: Nessel D. Auditor

School: Surigao del Norte National High School