2: The Chemistry of Life

Introduction Proteins
Molecules for Life Composition and basic
structure of proteins
Inorganic compounds
Types and sources of
Water
proteins
Mineral salts
Function of proteins
Activity 1: Minerals
Test for proteins: Biuret test
Fertilisers
Enzymes
Activity 2: Fertilisers
Enzyme action
Organic compounds
Factors that affect enzyme
Carbohydrates action

Composition and basic Activity 6: Proteins & Enzymes

structure of carbohydrates
Activity 7: Comparing organic
Function of carbohydrates compounds

Test for reducing sugars Nucleic acids

Activity 3: Benedict’s test Vitamins

Test for starch Nutrition

Activity 4: Carbohydrates Activity 8: Vitamins and

nutrition
Lipids
End of topic exercises
Composition and basic
structure of lipids

Types and sources of lipids

Cholesterol

Function/ Importance of
lipids

Test for fats and oils

Activity 5: Lipids
 CHAPTER 1: THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE

THE CHEMISTRY
OF LIFE

INORGANIC ORGANIC
COMPOUNDS COMPOUNDS

WATER MINERALS CARBOHYDRATES LIPIDS

FERTILISERS PROTEINS NUCLEIC ACIDS

VITAMINS

Introduction

All matter, living and non-living, consists of atoms. Atoms are the smallest units of elements and
can be chemically bonded together to form molecules.
The basic unit of life, the cell, consists of various atoms and molecules. The molecules combine in
specific ways to form organelles and other cell structures which make up the basic components of
cells.
Key Terminology
atoms The smallest unit of matter.
element A pure substance consisting of only one type
of atom.
molecules Two or more atoms that are chemically bonded
and that function as a unit; the fundamental
unit of a compound.
cells The basic units of living organisms.
organelles Tiny cellular structures that perform specific
functions within a cell.
Molecules for Life

The molecules found in cells can be divided into two main groups: organic molecules and
inorganic molecules.
Organisms require specific nutrients (organic and inorganic compounds) for survival. Nutrients are
required by the organism to perform important functions like growth, repair of body tissues and
regulation of body processes. Nutrients also serve as a source of heat and energy.
Key Terminology
organic compounds Compounds that contain the element carbon
and that are produced by living organisms.
inorganic compounds Compounds that do not contain carbon.
nutrient A substance used by an organism to survive,
grow, and reproduce.

Inorganic Compounds

Inorganic compounds do not contain the element carbon (C). These compounds are not produced
by living organisms. The exception is carbon dioxide (CO2), which is an inorganic compound found
in the atmosphere and is also a product of cellular respiration.
Other examples of inorganic compounds are water, oxygen gas and mineral salts.
Key Terminology
water An inorganic compound with the formula H2O
that is essential for life.
minerals Chemical elements that are essential to
perform functions necessary for life.
mineral salts The form in which minerals are
absorbed/ingested. A combination of the
required element bonded to another
element/compound.
macro elements Elements needed in large amounts by living
organisms.
micro elements Elements needed in small amounts by living
organisms.
deficiency A lack or shortage of something.
Rickets A skeletal disease in children where the bones
soften and bend as a result of nutrient
deficiency.
Chlorosis A disease in plants caused by mineral
deficiency which leads to the yellowing of
leaves.
Anaemia A medical condition which results from a
deficiency in the number of red blood cells or
can be caused by a lack of iron in the blood.
Kwashiorkor A deficiency disease caused by a lack of
nitrogen-containing protein.
 Goitre The swelling of the thyroid gland in the neck
due an iodine deficiency.
Fertilisers Chemicals added to soil to increase the soil
fertility.
Eutrophication Overgrowth of aquatic plants in aquatic
ecosystems due to the presence of fertilisers
or untreated sewage which leads to a
depletion of oxygen in the water.

Water

Water is the most important inorganic compound and is essential to sustain life.
The water molecule has the chemical formula H2O and consists of two hydrogen atoms bonded to
one oxygen atom.
The functions of water include:
• Water is a solvent for both organic and inorganic compounds.
• Water acts a medium in which chemical reactions can take place in living organisms.
• Water is required to transport nutrients and waste products in plants and animals.
• Water is required for photosynthesis to take place.
• Water helps to regulate body temperature in humans – humans cool off by sweating.

Figure 1: Water (H2O) molecules1

1
https://www.shutterstock.com/search/water+molecule
Mineral Salts

Minerals are inorganic substances that are essential for chemical activities in living organisms.
The minerals required by living organisms are elements of the periodic table, but they are
absorbed/ingested as mineral salts.
Minerals can be divided into two groups: macro elements and micro elements:
• Macro elements: Elements (minerals) needed in large quantities.
• Micro elements: Elements (minerals) needed in small quantities.
Animals obtain minerals from the food that they consume. Different foods contain different mineral
nutrients. Table 1 lists some of the macro- and micro elements required by animals.
Table 1: Macro elements and micro elements required by animals

Mineral Function Deficiency disease

or symptoms
Macro Calcium (Ca) • Development of strong teeth and Rickets (in children);
element bones. Osteomalacia (in
• Functions in blood clotting. adults)
• Plays a role in cell membrane
permeability.
Magnesium (Mg) • Required for the formation of Soft bones; crumbling
bones and teeth. teeth; muscle
• Required for the functioning of weakness and cramps
muscles and nerves.
Phosphorous (P) • Component of cell membranes Rickets
and nucleic acids.
• Required for the development of
bones and teeth.
• Helps release energy in the
body
Potassium (K) • Required for the functioning of Loss of appetite; poor
muscles and nerves. heart and muscle
• Needed for functioning of the function
heart.
Sodium (Na) • Required for the functioning of Muscle cramps
muscles and nerves.
• Important for maintaining water
balance in the body.
Sulfur (S) • Component of amino acids Metabolic activity
• Needed for muscle growth affected
Micro Iron (Fe) • Required in the synthesis of Anaemia
element haemoglobin (oxygen-carrier in
blood).
Iodine (I) • Important for the proper Goitre; retarded
functioning of the thyroid gland growth in children
(regulates metabolism and
growth).
 Figure 2: Goitre in humans is caused due to an iodine deficiency
2

Figure 3: Rickets - a childhood disease characterised by the softening and bending of bones.
3

2
https://www.edokita.com/goitre-causes-symptoms-and-treatment/
3
https://www.medicine.com/condition/rickets
Plants absorb dissolved mineral salts from the soil. Minerals can also be supplied to plants in the
form of fertilisers. A lack of nutrients in plants leads to a disease called chlorosis. Chlorosis is a
deficiency disease that leads to the yellowing of leaves due to an inhibition of chlorophyll
synthesis. Table 2 lists some of the macro- and micro elements required by plants.

Figure 4: Chlorosis in plants due to insufficient absorption of minerals.

Table 2: Macro elements and micro elements required by plants

Mineral Function Deficiency disease

or symptoms
Macro Calcium (Ca) • Component of cell walls. Chlorosis
element • Plays a role in cell membrane
permeability.
Magnesium (Mg) • Forms a part of the chlorophyll Chlorosis
molecule.
Nitrogen • Component of proteins and Undersized leaves;
nucleic acids stunted growth
• Required for the synthesis of
chlorophyll
Phosphorous (P) • Component of cell membranes Poor root growth;
and nucleic acids. stunted growth
• Essential for a strong root
system.
Potassium (K) • Needed for enzymes in Chlorosis; dead spots
photosynthesis and respiration on leaves
Sulfur (S) • Needed for root development Chlorosis
• Required for protein synthesis
Micro Iron (Fe) • Part of the enzyme that makes Chlorosis
element chlorophyll
Zinc (Zn) • Component of a wide variety of Poor leaf growth
enzymes

4
https://www.goodfruit.com/cool-wet-soils-trigger-chlorosis/
Activity 1: Minerals
Five foods have been tested to determine their inorganic salt content. Use the data in the table
below and answer the questions that follow:
FOODS
NUTRIENT Liver (mg/g) Spinach Fish (mg/g) Lemon Cheese
(mg/g) (mg/g) (mg/g)
Calcium 10 60 90 20 400
Iodine 0,6 0,4 1,6 0,0 0,0
Iron 1,9 3,1 0,7 0,0 1,0

Question 1
Refers to Table 1 and Table 2 in the text and list the nutrient(s) required…
1.1 for the synthesis of haemoglobin. (1)
1.2 to prevent goitre in humans. (1)
1.3 to avoid plants acquiring dead spots. (1)
1.4 for bone formation. (3)
1.5 to prevent chlorosis in plants. (3)
(9)
Question 2
2.1 Which nutrient represents a:
a) micro element (1)
b) macro element (1)
2.2 Which TWO foods will help a person with brittle bones and teeth? (2)
2.3 What type of food would be necessary for someone suffering from anaemia? Explain your
answer. (2)
(6)
Fertilisers

Plants require minerals to grow and obtain these minerals from dissolved mineral salts in the soil.
It can happen that the nutrients in the soil become depleted over time, which have a negative
impact on the plant growth.
Nutrients can become depleted (used up) due to poor farming methods such as:
• The overuse of the soil – replanting new crops soon after the previous crop has been
harvested and using the same soil year after year.
• Removal of plant material leading to less dead matter that can decompose to replace the
nutrients used.
Fertilisers can be added to the soil to replace the depleted nutrients. Fertilisers typically contain
the elements nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P) and potassium (K) and are added to the soil in the
form of mineral salts. Commonly used fertilisers contain mineral salts such as ammonium sulfate,
ammonium phosphate and potassium chloride.
Fertilisers can also be added to the soil to improve the growth of certain plants (crops) in order to
increase the yield.
The overuse of fertilisers can also have a negative impact on the ecosystem. One such negative
impact is eutrophication. When fertilisers are overused, the excess fertilisers can leach
(wash/drain) into the nearby dams and rivers. The minerals contained in the fertilisers promote the
growth of algae leading to an algal bloom. The algae cover the surface of the water, which then
prevents sunlight from reaching other photosynthesising organisms in the water. Many water
plants then die due to a lack of sunlight. The decomposition of the dead plants leads to an
increase in bacteria in the water, which then in turn depletes the oxygen supply in the body of
water. The shortage of oxygen then causes the death of other aquatic organisms.

Figure 5: Process of eutrophication

5
https://earthhow.com/eutrophication-causes-process-examples/
Activity 2: Fertilisers
1. From where do plants get their nutrients? (1)

2. If a plant in your vegetable garden is producing undersized leaves and shows stunted (little)
growth, what mineral is lacking in the soil? (1)

3. Explain why water is necessary for plants to be able to use mineral salts. (3)

4. Explain why fertilisers are necessary in the growing of crops. (2)

5. A village in a rural community is situated close to a natural lake. For many years the lake
has served as the community’s source of drinking water, water for washing and growing of
crops. A few years ago, the farmers started using fertilisers in order to increase the yield of
their mealie/maize crops. People have noticed that the lake has started to turn bright green
and that the fish are starting to die.
5.1) Give the scientific name for the phenomenon that has occurred in the lake. (1)
5.2) Explain the phenomenon in 5.1 and why it has occurred. (4)
5.3) The community leaders have approached you to ask for advice in dealing with
their problem. What advice would you give them? (3)

[15]
Organic compounds

Organic compounds contain the element carbon and are produced by living organisms. The
organic compounds found in living organisms contain the elements carbon, hydrogen (H), and
oxygen (O). Some organic compounds can also contain other elements like nitrogen (N),
phosphorous (P) and sulfur (S).
Examples of organic compounds include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, and
vitamins.

Carbohydrates

Key Terminology
monomer A molecule that forms the basic unit (building
block) of polymers.
polymer Large molecules that are formed by chemically
bonding monomers together.
carbohydrates A macronutrient that contains carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen. Polymer that is made
up of monomers called saccharides.
saccharides Ring-shaped units that make up
carbohydrates; sugars.
monosaccharide Simple, single sugar molecules.
disaccharide Double sugar molecules formed when two
monosaccharide molecules chemically bond.
polysaccharide Long chains of monosaccharides bonded
together.
cellular respiration The process by which living organisms release
energy by breaking down large molecules into
smaller molecules

Composition and basic structure of carbohydrates

Carbohydrates, commonly known as sugars, contain the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
in the ratio 1:2:1. Carbohydrates are polymers made up of monomers called saccharides and can
be divided into three groups: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
Table 3: Main groups of carbohydrates

Monosaccharides Disaccharides Polysaccharides

Description Single sugars - A
single ring structure
containing 6 carbon
atoms.
Monosaccharides
consist of a single
sugar molecule.
Monosaccharides
cannot be broken
down into smaller
units.
Monosaccharides
are water soluble
and taste sweet.
Double sugars. Two
monosaccharides
bonded together.
Disaccharides are
soluble in water and
sweet to taste.
Many sugars – long chains of
monosaccharides. Several
hundred monosaccharides are
bonded together.
Polysaccharides are mostly
insoluble in water and can easily
be converted into
monosaccharides and
disaccharides.

Structure

6 7

Important Glucose Glucose + Glucose = Starch (found in rice, bread,

examples Maltose potatoes, flour, pasta and some
Fructose (fruit vegetables)
sugar) Glucose + Fructose =
Sucrose Cellulose
Galactose
Glucose + Galactose = Glycogen
Lactose (milk sugar)

6
https://www.nutritionaldoublethink.com/carbohydrates.html
7
https://www.nutritionaldoublethink.com/carbohydrates.html
8
https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Structural_Biochemistry/Carbohydrates/Polysaccharides
Function of carbohydrates
Carbohydrates serve mainly as a source of energy in plants and animals.
Glucose is the building block of all carbohydrates and the breakdown of glucose during cellular
respiration produces the energy necessary for cellular activities to take place.
Polysaccharides also serve as energy reserves. Glycogen (in animals) and starch (in plants) are
molecules in which energy is stored – that is glycogen and starch which can easily be broken
down into glucose which can then be used in cellular respiration.
Carbohydrates also form a part of important body structures in plants and animals. The
polysaccharide cellulose also serves as a structural component in plant cells. Cell walls in plant
cells consist mainly of cellulose, which strengthens the cell wall. Pentose sugars form a part of the
nucleic acids (see topic on nucleic acids).

Test for the presence of reducing sugars (glucose)

Benedict’s solution is used to test for the presence of reducing sugars such as glucose, fructose,
galactose, lactose, and maltose. Benedict’s solution is a clear blue liquid consisting of copper (II)
sulfate, tartaric acid, and sodium hydroxide.
MATERIALS
• Heat resistant test tubes (one test tube for each sample to be tested)
• 10 mL measuring cylinder
• 5 mL Benedict’s solution per test tube
• Dropper
• Bunsen burner
• Water
• Heat-resistant beaker (water bath)
• Thermometer
• Tripod
• Wire gauze
• 5 mL of each sample to be tested
o Fruit juice
o Milk
o Energade sports drink
METHOD
1. Prepare a water bath by filling a heat-resistant beaker halfway with water. Place the beaker
on the tripod using the wire gauze and heat the water using the Bunsen burner.
2. Pour ± 5mL of Benedict’s solution into each test tube
3. Add ± 10 drops of the substance to be tested to the Benedict’s solution – each substance to
its own test tube. Mix the contents of the test tube.
4. Place the test tube into the water bath for roughly 5 minutes at 40°C to 50° C and examine
the solution. Do not heat the solution over an open flame.
5. Note the colour of the resulting solution.
 9

Figure 6: Experimental setup to test for the presence of reducing sugars using Benedict's solution
RESULTS
Table 4: Colours for interpreting results of test with Benedict's solution

Colour of solution Presence of reducing sugar

Blue No reducing sugar present (no colour change
observed)
Green Increasing concentration of reducing sugar
Yellow
Orange
Brick-red (orange-red) High concentration of reducing sugar

10

Figure 7: Benedict's test for reducing sugars possible results

Activity 3: Benedict’s test for reducing sugars
A learner prepares the experimental set-up to test for the presence of glucose in 4 different test
samples using Benedict’s solution.
He heats water in a water bath and whilst waiting for the water to be heated, he labels four test
tubes 1 to 4.
Test tube 1: starch solution
Test tube 2: protein solution

9
https://rocoscience.files.wordpress.com/2014/08/l-c-experiment-study-cards.pdf
10
https://microbiologyinfo.com/benedicts-test-principle-composition-preparation-procedure-and-result-interpretation/
Test tube 3: glucose solution
Test tube 4: water
He then places 5 ml of Benedict’s solution in each test tube, followed by 10 ml of the test sample.
The test tube contents is then thoroughly mixed.
He then places the test tubes with the samples in the water bath for 5 minutes, maintaining a
temperature of roughly 45°C.
He then removes the test tubes from the water bath and notes the colour changes.

11

1. What is the aim of this investigation? (1)

2. State the:
a. Independent variable (1)
b. Dependent variable (1)
3. Why is test tube 4 filled with water? (1)
4. In which test tube would you find a positive result for Benedict’s test for reducing sugars?
(1)
5. Mention TWO safety precautions the learner must take whilst performing the experiment.
(2)

[7]

Enrichment
Testing a sample for the presence of a substance is known as a qualitative test – it will only tell
you if the substance is present, but not give the exact amount of the substance present.
Tests done in order to determine the amount of a certain substance present, is called a
quantitative test. The test with Benedict’s solution can also be used semi-quantitatively – if the
test samples were prepared in an identical way, the resulting colour of the Benedict’s solution after
testing can give an indication of the relative concentration of reducing sugars in the sample.
Video demonstration of Benedict’s test: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PAKCgrnKeBA

11
https://www.siyavula.com/read/science/grade-10-lifesciences/the-chemistry-of-life/01-the-chemistry-of-life-04
Test for the presence of starch
Iodine solution is used to test for the presence of starch in a given sample.
The yellow-brown iodine solution will immediately turn blue-black in the presence of starch.
The sample used can be a solid or liquid. The darker the blue-black colour, the higher the
concentration of starch present.
MATERIALS
• Test tube (for a liquid sample)
• Petri dish / saucer for a solid sample
• Iodine solution
• Dropper
• Sample to be tested – e.g., bread or potato
METHOD
1. Place a piece of the sample (bread / potato) in a petri dish
2. Add 3 drops of iodine solution onto the sample
3. Note the colour of the sample after the addition of iodine solution

Figure 8: Test for starch using Iodine solution12

RESULTS
Table 5: Table for interpreting the results of the test for starch

Colour of solution Presence of reducing sugar

Yellow-brown No starch present (no colour change
observed)
Blue-black Starch present
The darker the blue-black colour, the higher the concentration of starch present.

12
https://mammothmemory.net/biology/nutrition-and-digestion/digestion/food-tests.html
Activity 4: Carbohydrates
Question 1
1.1. Which elements make up carbohydrates? (1)

1.2. What is the building block / monomer of carbohydrates called? (1)

1.3. Name the three main groups of carbohydrates. (3)

1.4. Name THREE reasons why carbohydrates are important. (3)

1.5. In which form are carbohydrates stored in:

a. animals (1)

b. plants (1)

1.6. Describe the test for the presence of:

a. Glucose (3)

b. Starch (2)
(15)
Question 2
A learner sets up an investigation to test for the presence of starch in various foodstuffs. He takes
a sample of each type of food to be tested and places a few drops of iodine solution on each
sample. He then notes the colour change due to the iodine solution.

Figure 9: Various foodstuffs tested for the presence of starch using Iodine solution13
2.1 What is the aim of this investigation? (1)
2.2 What is the independent variable? (1)

13
https://www.sciencebuddies.org/stem-activities/starch-food-test
2.3 State the dependent variable in this investigation. (1)
2.4 What colour is iodine solution? (1)
2.5 What colour would the learner observe if starch is present in the food sample? (1)
(5)
[20]
Lipids
Key Terminology
lipids Fats and oils; organic compounds containing
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen consisting of a
glycerol molecule combined with three fatty
acid chains
saturated A fatty acid with single bonds between the
carbon atoms.
unsaturated A fatty acid with multiple bonds (double or
triple) between the carbon atoms.
cholesterol A fat made from saturated fatty acids in the
human liver.
plaque A deposit of fatty material inside an artery (on
the arterial wall).
atherosclerosis The narrowing of arteries in humans due to the
build up of plaque within the arteries.

Composition of basic structure of lipids

Lipid is a common term for fats and oils.

Lipids, like carbohydrates, contain the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but in lipids the
ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is greater than 2:1.
Lipid molecules consist of two monomers: glycerol and fatty acids.
A single lipid molecule is composed of 4 parts: one glycerol molecule bonded with three fatty acid
chains (you should be able to draw this simplified structure).
Different types of lipids contain different fatty acid molecules.

Figure 10: Basic structure of a single lipid molecule.14

14
https://biology4isc.weebly.com/lipids.html
Types and sources of lipids
Table 6: Types of lipids

Saturated fatty acids Unsaturated fatty acids

Description Saturated fats have many
hydrogen atoms due to only
single bonds occurring
between the carbon atoms in
the fatty acid chain.
Saturated fatty acids are
mainly derived from animals.
Examples Lipids in animals are called
fats as they are in the solid
phase at room temperature.
An important example of this
is cholesterol.
Dietary sources Butter, lard, cheese, cream,
fatty meat, sardines.
Unsaturated fatty acids have a
pair of pairs of hydrogen
atoms less than the saturated
counterpart due to presence of
double bonds between the
carbons in the fatty acid chain.
Unsaturated fats are mainly
derived from plants
Lipids in plants are called oils
as they are in the liquid
phase at room temperature.
E.g.: sunflower oil, canola oil,
olive oil.
Oils (olive, sunflower, canola),
nuts, avocado pears,
sunflower margarine

Cholesterol
Cholesterol is a saturated fatty acid synthesised in the liver.
Ingesting high levels of saturated fats can be harmful as it can lead to an increase in the levels of
cholesterol in the blood stream. A high blood cholesterol level can cause plaque to form on the
inside of the arteries – leading to the arteries becoming narrowed. The narrowing of arteries in
humans is called atherosclerosis.
Atherosclerosis is dangerous as it clogs up the arteries and reduces blood flow. If the affected
arteries are found in the heart it can lead to heart failure (even a heart attack) as the heart muscle
will not receive enough oxygenated blood. If the affected arteries are in the brain it can lead to an
aneurysm (stroke).
People should limit their intake of foods that are rich in animal fats as animal fats have a high
concentration of saturated fatty acids.
 Figure 11: Comparison of an artery with and without atherosclerosis15

Figure 12: Effect of atherosclerosis on the heart muscle16

15
https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/atherosclerosis
16
https://www.health.com/condition/cholesterol/what-atherosclerosis-looks-like-in-your-body
Function of lipids

Table 7: Some of the functions performed by lipids

Function Description
Source of energy Fats contain twice the energy value of
carbohydrates and are used as long-term
energy stores.
Structural component Fats called phospholipids make up cell
membranes.
Insulation Animals in cold climates, such as whales and
seals, have a layer of fat under the skin
(blubber) to insulate their bodies against the
extreme cold.
Protection Fat surrounding the internal organs, like the
kidneys, acts as a shock-absorber to protect
them from mechanical damage.
Waterproofing In plants, the cuticle layer protects the internal
cells and prevents excessive water loss. Birds
also secrete oils to help keep their feathers
waterproof.
Absorption of vitamins Some vitamins only dissolve in fat – lipids are
thus required for the absorption of vitamins A,
D, E and K.
Source of water Stored fat can be broken down into carbon
dioxide and water during respiration – this is
useful for hibernating animals, as well as
animals in hot, dry climates such as camels.

Test for the presence of lipids

Lipids are insoluble in water, so a non-polar solvent like ether or carbon tetrachloride is used to
test for the presence of fats and oils. Substances containing lipids will results in a greasy spot /
translucent stain on filter paper.
MATERIALS
• Ether solution
• Test tube for each substance to be tested
• Filter paper
• Dropper
• Food substances to test
o Peanut butter
o Margarine
o Oil
METHOD
1. Add the material to be tested to a test tube.
2. Add approximately 5 ml of ether to the test sample and shake the test tube well.
3. Allow the test tube to stand for roughly 30 minutes.
4. Using a dropper, allow a drop of the mixture to fall onto a clean sheet of filter paper.
5. Allow the solvent to evaporate and observe the filter paper for any greasy stains. If any fats
are present in the food substance, a translucent greasy spot will form on the filter paper.
RESULTS
If any fats are present in the food substance, a translucent greasy spot will form on the filter paper.

Figure 13: Possible results of translucent stain test for lipids.17

Activity 5: Lipids
Question 1
1.1 Name the building blocks / monomers of lipids. (2)

1.2 Draw a simple diagram to show the structure of a lipid. (4)

1.3 Describe the main structural differences between saturated fatty acids and unsaturated fatty
acids. (2)

1.4 Other than energy storage, state four advantages to a mammal of having fats in its tissues. (4)

1.5 How would you test for the presence of lipids in some food? (3)
(15)

17
https://pdfcoffee.com/characterization-of-saponifiable-lipids-7-pdf-free.html
Question 2
Atherosclerosis is a disease in which plaque builds up inside your arteries. Plaque is a sticky
substance made up of fat, cholesterol, calcium, and other substances found in the blood. Over
time, plaque hardens and narrows your arteries. That limits the flow of oxygen-rich blood to your
body.
Atherosclerosis can lead to serious problems, including:

• Coronary artery disease. These arteries supply blood to your heart. When they are blocked,
you can suffer angina or a heart attack.
• Carotid artery disease. These arteries supply blood to your brain. When they are blocked
you can suffer a stroke.
• Peripheral arterial disease. These arteries are in your arms, legs, and pelvis. When they are
blocked, you can suffer from numbness, pain and sometimes infections.

Atherosclerosis usually doesn't cause symptoms until it severely narrows or totally blocks an
artery. Many people don't know they have it until they have a medical emergency.

A physical exam, imaging, and other diagnostic tests can tell if you have it. Medicines can slow the
progress of plaque build-up. Your doctor may also recommend procedures such as angioplasty to
open the arteries, or surgery on the coronary or carotid arteries. Lifestyle changes can also help.
These include following a healthy diet, getting regular exercise, maintaining a healthy weight,
quitting smoking, and managing stress.
https://medlineplus.gov/atherosclerosis.html#:~:text=Atherosclerosis%20is%20a%20disease%20in,rich%20blood%20to%20your%20body.

2.1 What is plaque? (1)

2.2 Why is the build-up of plaque within arteries dangerous? (2)
2.3 Name TWO serious health issues that are caused by atherosclerosis. (2)
2.4 Why is heart disease / high cholesterol sometimes referred to as “the silent killer”? (1)
2.5 Name TWO ways in which atherosclerosis can be treated. (2)
2.6 Which TWO lifestyle changes can help to prevent atherosclerosis? (2)
(10)
[25]
Proteins
Key Terminology
proteins Large organic molecules consisting of chains
of amino acids bonded together by peptide
bonds.
amino acids The building blocks (monomers) of proteins.
enzyme Specialised proteins that act as catalysts for
chemical reactions in living organisms.
catalyst Substances that are used to control the rate at
which chemical reactions take place without
changing itself. Catalysts can either speed
reactions up or slow them down.
Lock-and-key model A theory that explains how specific enzymes
react with specific substrates.
substrate The substance on which an enzyme acts.
active site The site on the surface of the enzyme that acts
on the substrate.
denaturation Protein loses its shape and can no longer
perform its function due to unfavourable pH or
too high temperatures.
metabolism All the building up and breaking down
reactions in a cell and the accompanying
energy changes.
catabolism The breaking down of complex molecules into
simple molecules with the release of energy.
anabolism The formation of complex molecules from
simple molecules due to the addition of
energy.

Composition of basic structure of proteins

Proteins are organic compounds that consists of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Some
proteins can also contain the elements sulfur, phosphorous, and iron.
The monomers of proteins are amino acids. 20 different amino acids serve as the building blocks
of all proteins. The type and order in which the amino acids bond will determine the type of protein
that will be formed. Amino acids can thus be compared to the letters of the alphabet – the 26
letters of our alphabet can be joined in different ways to form all the words in our vocabulary. In
the same way, all proteins are made up of the 20 amino acids bonded in varying combinations.
Amino acid molecules are bonded together by peptide bonds. We can thus classify the molecules
based on the number of peptide bonds present:
• amino acid: single molecule (one of the 20 different types)
• dipeptide: two amino acids bonded together by peptide bonds
• tripeptide: three amino acids bonded together by peptide bonds
• polypeptide: long chain of amino acids (between 10 and 50) bonded together by peptide
bonds
• protein: 50 or more amino acids bonded together by peptide bonds
 Figure 14: Structure comparison of amino acids, peptides, and proteins18

Types and sources of proteins

The type of protein formed depends on the type and order in which the amino acids bond. Two
main types of proteins are found in animal cells:
• Globular proteins: These proteins are soluble in water and include enzymes and
haemoglobin.
• Fibrous proteins: These proteins are insoluble in water, tough and provide structural
support. Examples of fibrous proteins include collagen (in bone), keratin (in hair and nails),
chondrin (in cartilage) and the polymer melanin (in skin cells).
Examples of food that are protein-rich include: fish, meat, beans, chicken, lentils, and milk.

18
https://prairieblissbotanicals.com/blog/2021/1/24/lipids-essential-oils-peptides-acids
Function of proteins
Proteins are polymers consisting of long chains of amino acids. The amino acid chains in proteins
are folded in a specific way for the specific function of the protein.
Table 8: Some of the functions performed by proteins

Function Description
Structure of cells All cell membranes contain proteins. Other
body tissues also contain proteins – e.g.:
muscles, nails, wool, and hair. The
permeability of the cell membrane is also
controlled by proteins
Building materials Body tissues consist of proteins – e.g.:
muscles, nails, wool, and hair. Proteins are
essential for the growth and repair of tissue.
Transport Haemoglobin acts as oxygen carrier in the
blood.
Protection Antibodies are blood proteins that respond to
antigens to protect the body against pathogens
Energy reserves Excess amino acids can be broken down into
urea and glucose via deamination. The product
of deamination (glucose) then serves as a
source of energy.
Metabolic processes Some hormones are proteins and hormones
act as chemical messengers in the body to
control metabolic processes.
Enzymes are proteins that accelerate chemical
reactions within cells.
Hereditary role Chromosomes are made up of proteins and
DNA and are responsible for carrying the
genetic material

If the structure of the protein is disrupted, it will not be able to perform its specific function.
Temperature and pH are factors that affect the structure of proteins. Denaturation is the change
to the molecular structure and function of a protein as a result of being exposed to extreme pH
conditions and high temperatures.
The effect of denaturation can clearly be seen when an egg is cooked – the egg white (albumin)
changes from a clear, gel-like substance to a stiff white substance when exposed to heat.

19

Figure 15: Irreversible denaturation of albumin protein in egg white due to the exposure to high
temperatures

19
https://scienceandfooducla.wordpress.com/tag/protein-denaturation/
Test for proteins: Biuret test
Biuret reagent is used to test for the presence of protein in a sample.
MATERIALS
• Raw egg white (or gelatine) as source or protein*
• Water
• Heat-resistant test tube
• 1% copper sulfate solution
• 10% sodium hydroxide solution
• A dropper
* Other samples that can be used include: beans, milk, soup powder, milk powder etc.
METHOD
1. Put some raw egg white in a test tube half-filled with water. Shake the test tube carefully
to mix the water and egg white well (homogeneous solution).
2. Add 2-3 drops of the 1% copper sulfate solution so that the solution becomes pale blue
in colour.
3. Pour 2,5 mL of the 10% sodium hydroxide solution down the side of the test tube.
4. Note the colour change and record your observations.
RESULTS
Table 9: Interpretation of the results of the Biuret test for the presence of proteins

Positive result Solution changes from pale blue to pink-purple

in colour – protein present in the sample.
Negative result Solution remains pale blue – no protein
present in the sample.

Figure 16: Biuret test for the presence of protein20

20
https://www.phdnest.com/biuret-test-for-protein-purpose-objectives-principle-procedure-reagents/
Enzymes
Enzymes are protein molecules that act as organic catalysts – they control the rate at which
metabolic reactions occur without undergoing permanent changes themselves.
Enzymes have the following properties:
• All enzymes are proteins (but not all proteins are enzymes!)
• Enzymes are catalysts – they speed up biological reactions without participating in the
reactions themselves.
• They speed up the reactions by lowering the activation energy necessary for the reaction
to take place – less energy is needed for the reaction to take place, so the rate of the
reaction increases.
• Enzymes can be re-used – because they are not altered during the reactions that they
catalyse.
• Enzymes can catalyse anabolic (building up) or catabolic (breaking down) reactions.
• Enzymes are specific as to the type of reaction they will catalyse – enzymes are thus said
to be substrate specific. E.g.: proteases will only break down proteins, whereas amylase
will only break down starch.
• Enzymes are sensitive to pH and temperature – because enzymes are proteins, they can
become denatured if exposed to extreme pH and high temperatures.
• Enzymes operate according to the Lock-and-key model
Therefore, an enzyme is an organic catalyst that accelerates a chemical reaction by lowering the
activation energy, without itself being permanently changed during the reaction.

Figure 17: Enzymes lower the activation energy necessary for a reaction to take place21

21
https://opentextbc.ca/biology/wp-content/uploads/sites/96/2015/02/Figure_04_01_06.jpg
Enzyme action
The Lock-and-key model is a theory of how enzymes act on a specific substrate molecule. The
theory states that enzyme molecules have a specific region with a specific active site that
corresponds to the shape of the substrate – much like a key is made to fit a specific lock.

Figure 18: Lock-and-key model for enzyme-substrate interaction22

Catalysed chemical reactions take place in the following simplified steps:
1. Substrate binds to enzyme’s active site
2. Reaction takes place – substrate is converted into product
3. Product leaves enzyme’s active site, allowing enzyme to be used by the next substrate
molecule

Figure 19: Lock-and-key model working23

During anabolic reactions, simpler substrates are combined to form more complex products,
whereas during catabolic reactions complex substrates are broken down into simpler products.

22
https://socratic.org/questions/58f64d5c11ef6b44e4d659b6
23
https://alevelbiology.co.uk/notes/biological-catalysts-enzymes/
 Figure 20: Catalysed anabolic and catabolic reactions24
The names of all enzymes usually end in “-ase”. For example, an enzyme that works on proteins
is called protease, one that works on carbohydrates is called carbohydrase and one that works on
lipids is called lipase.

Factors that influence enzyme action

Enzymes, being proteins, are sensitive to changes in temperature and pH. Enzymes are organic
catalysts used to control the rate of metabolic reactions within cells – the more active the enzyme,
the faster the reaction will take place and vice versa.
The effect of temperature on the working of enzymes
Table 10: Summary of the effect of various temperatures on enzyme working

Low temperatures Optimal temperature range High temperatures

• Enzymes • Ideal temperature for • At high temperatures (higher
become less enzyme to function in. than the optimal temperature)
active / inactive. • Highest possible rate enzymes will start to change
• Rate of for metabolic reactions shape.
metabolic will be at the optimum • The active site will no longer
reactions temperature. be able to accommodate the
decreases. • This is indicated by the substrate molecule and the
• Enzyme not peak in Figure 17 reaction the enzyme catalyses
permanently below. will not be able to take place.
affected by the • In humans, the optimal • Enzyme is said to be
low temperature temperature range for denatured – this is a
– as temperature enzyme action will be permanent change in the
is increased, between 35 °C and enzyme structure leading to
enzyme activity 40 °C, as human body the enzyme being unable to
will also temperature is 37 °C. perform its function.
increase. • Rate of metabolic reaction
decreases rapidly.

24
https://bryanmohd.wordpress.com/2013/04/06/theories-on-how-substrate-molecules-bind-to-enzymes-o/
 Figure 21: Effect of temperature on the working of enzymes25

The effect of pH on the working of enzymes

pH is the measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a substance. pH is measured on a scale of 1 to 14
– substances with a pH of 7 are neutral, whilst substances with a pH less than 7 are acidic and
those with a pH greater than 7 is alkaline (base).
Every enzyme has an optimum pH at which it will function best based on which substrate the
enzyme reacts with – e.g.: amylase is an enzyme found in saliva and works best at a pH of 7
(neutral) as it is found in the mouth, whereas an enzyme like pepsin works best at an acidic pH of
2 as it is found in the stomach.
At extreme pH levels (too acidic or too alkaline) enzymes will become denatured and no longer be
able to perform their function.

25
https://www.expii.com/t/temperature-enzyme-reaction-rates-effects-examples-10057
 Figure 22: Effect of pH on enzyme working26
Enzymes in everyday life
Enzymes are used commercially for a variety of purposes due to their ability to control reactions.
Examples where enzymes are used, include:
• Biological washing powders: Biological washing powders contain enzymes called proteases
(to break down proteins) and lipases (to break down lipids) which aid in removing protein
and fat stains by breaking down the proteins and fats into smaller, soluble molecules that
are more easily removed by the cleaning agents in the washing powder. Biological washing
powders are effective at removing protein-based stains like blood, sweat and egg yolk, as
well as lipid stains like oil.
• Proteases are also used in the food industry for the tenderising of meat, as well as in the
manufacturing of cheese. Lipases are also used to improve the taste of certain cheeses.
• Baking and brewing industries also rely on enzymes found in yeast cells to produce alcohol
and carbon dioxide.
• Carbohydrate-digesting enzymes (amylase) are also used to convert starch into sugars that
can be used to sweeten other food products.

26
https://www.savemyexams.co.uk/notes/as-biology-aqa/1-biological-molecules-as/1-4-proteins-enzymes-as/1-4-8-limiting-
factors-affecting-enzymes-ph-as/
Activity 6: Proteins and Enzymes
Question 1
1.1 Name the building blocks of protein molecules. (1)
1.2 Name the type of bond found between the monomers that make up proteins. (1)
1.3 Why is it important to have protein in the diet? (2)
1.4 How would you test for the presence of protein in a food sample? (3)
1.5 Define the term enzyme. (2)
1.6 What term is used for the process through which a protein loses its structure and can
no longer perform its function? (1)
(10)
Question 2
The table below shows the amount of product formed in an enzyme-controlled reaction at various
temperatures. Measurements were taken as a mass of product formed per minute at irregular time
intervals.
Temperature (°C) Rate of reaction (mg product per minute)
10 0,9
20 1,7
30 3,3
35 4,5
40 5,6
45 4,6
50 1,2

2.1 What is the aim of the above experiment? (2)

2.2 State a hypothesis for this investigation. (2)
2.3 Draw a line graph of the results of the experiment. (5)
2.4 From your graph, estimate the rate of the reaction at 25 °C. (2)
2.5 What is the optimum temperature for the working of this enzyme? (2)
2.6 Why does the rate of the reaction decrease when the temperature is higher than 40 °C? (2)
(15)
Question 3
Read the extract on biological washing powders and answer the questions that follow.

Biological washing powders contain enzymes that break down stains and dirt in fabrics. The first
protein-digesting enzyme was discovered and used as long ago as 1913. The enzyme was
obtained from the pancreases of animals. It was not very effective since it was not very stable and
was easily broken down when detergent was used. In the 1960s a far more useful enzyme was
extracted from a bacterium called Bacillus subtilis. The enzyme is stable in a detergent medium.
The enzyme could also function in temperatures up to 60 °C, a high pH, and in the presence of
phosphates and other chemicals in washing powder.
Since then, more enzymes have been extracted from bacteria, yeasts and other sources and
added to washing powders. Many of these are proteases, which can break down stains such as
blood, egg, and gravy. Others remove starch stains, and fats and grease. When the enzyme
cellulase is added to the washing powder, the microfibrils of cotton are broken down, which
brightens the colour of washed clothes. All these enzymes work at temperatures below 40 °C.
Soon designer enzymes with improved performance could be made. These genetically engineered
enzymes would have their amino acid sequence altered to change the shape of the active site.
This would result in enzymes with new and improved properties.
(Dawson, Holm, Jackson, & Skinner, 2008)

3.1 What is the substrate of proteases? (1)

3.2 Explain how the Lock-and-Key model of enzyme action works. (3)
3.3 Washing powders containing enzymes work well at 40 °C. Suggest two important
advantages of this. (2)
3.4 What are the advantages of using microorganisms such as bacteria to produce
enzymes? (2)
3.5 Enzymes are temperature and pH sensitive. What would happen to the enzymes in the
washing powder at extreme pH levels? (2)
(10)
[35]
Activity 7: Comparing organic compounds
Question 1
Create a table that compares carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins under the following headings:
1. The elements the compound contains
2. The monomers of the compound
3. The function and/or importance of the compound
4. Examples of substances containing this compound
Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins
Elements
Monomers
Function /
importance
Examples
(15)
Question 2
Complete the following table based on the chemical tests for the presence of organic compounds
in food:
Organic compound Chemical reagent(s) Change for a positive result
Starch 2.1 2.2
Proteins 2.3 2.4
Lipids (Fats) 2.5 2.6
Glucose solution (reducing 2.7 2.8
sugar)
(10)
[25]
Nucleic acids
Key terminology
nucleotides Monomers of nucleic acids.
DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid
RNA Ribonucleic acid
gene Segment of a DNA molecule that controls a
particular hereditary characteristic

Nucleic acids are made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorous.
The building blocks of nucleic acids are called nucleotides: each nucleotide consists of a sugar
molecule bonded to a phosphate group and a nitrogen base.

Figure 23: The structure of a basic nucleotide (building block of nucleic acids)27
Nucleic acids are important in controlling the structure and functions of a cell.
Two types of nucleic acids exist:
Table 11: Summary of the types of nucleic acids

DNA
Structure Double chain of nucleotides
Location Found in the nucleus – within
chromosomes.
Function Stores genetic information in
the form of genes from which
amino acids are produced to
form specific proteins.
RNA
Single chain of nucleotides
(three different types of RNA)
Found in the cell cytoplasm
and on the ribosomes.
Building the protein coded for
by the DNA by joining the
correct amino acids (protein
synthesis).

DNA carries all the genetic information in the form of a code. This code provides the necessary
information for the making of proteins which in turn controls the structure and life processes of the
cell. RNA copies the genetic code found in DNA to assemble the correct proteins.

27
https://ib.bioninja.com.au/standard-level/topic-2-molecular-biology/26-structure-of-dna-and-rna/nucleotides.html
Vitamins

Key terminology
co-factor A substance that needs to be present in
addition to an enzyme for a biochemical
reaction to take place.
deficiency A lack or shortage of something.

Vitamins are organic molecules that are required in small amounts (micronutrients) by animals for
normal growth.
Many vitamins are co-factors which assist enzymes with metabolic reactions and animals obtain
these vitamins from the food they consume. Most vitamins required by animals come from plants.
Deficiencies of specific vitamins causes specific disorders and diseases. Deficiency conditions
can be avoided by taking more of the vitamins that are lacking.
Vitamins are grouped based on their solubility in water – water soluble vitamins need to be
ingested regularly, whereas fat soluble vitamins are stored in the liver and fatty body tissue and
are not required daily.
Table 12: Summary of common vitamins required by the human body

Vitamin Solubility Function Sources Deficiency

condition
Vitamin A Fat soluble Ensures good Green Night blindness
(retinol) eyesight and vegetables and and
healthy skin; aids orange xerophthalmia
in strengthening vegetables and
the immune fruits such as
system peach, orange,
pawpaw, carrot,
and pumpkin
Vitamin B1 Water soluble Required for Lean meat, Beri-beri
(thiamine) muscle tone and eggs, cereals,
functioning of liver, legumes,
nerves; helps and unpolished
release energy rice
from
carbohydrates
Vitamin C Water soluble Antioxidant; Spinach (green Scurvy
(ascorbic acid) protects against leafy
colds and vegetables),
infections tomatoes, citrus
(quicker healing fruits, and
of wounds); grapes
important for
healthy teeth,
gums, and blood
vessels
Vitamin D Fat soluble Strengthens Eggs, cereals Rickets
(calciferol) bones and teeth and bread (children) and
as it aids the (fortified), milk, Osteomalacia
body in and fish oils; (adults)
absorbing sunlight (when
calcium and skin is exposed
phosphorous to sunlight, a
substance is
formed that
converts to
vitamin D)
Vitamin E Fat soluble Protection Vegetable oils, Anaemia,
(tocopherol) against free nuts, and green infertility
radicals that leafy vegetables
cause heart (spinach, lettuce)
disease and
cancer;
protection of cell
membranes
Table 13: Deficiency diseases caused by the lack of a specific vitamin

Diseases / Vitamin Effect of Graphical illustration

condition lacking the
deficiency
Xerophthalmia A Dry skin
and cornea

28

Beriberi B1 Wasting of
muscles,
nervous
complaints,
and
paralysis

29

Scurvy C Bleeding
gums and
wounds

30

Rickets D Soft bones

31

28
https://www.reddit.com/r/Pathognomonic/comments/1sxy5m/bitots_spots_vitamin_a_deficiency/
29
http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/motm/vitaminB1/vitaminb1h.htm
30
https://www.healthline.com/health/scurvy
31
https://www.ajtmh.org/view/journals/tpmd/105/1/article-p217.xml
 Osteomalacia D Bones of
leg bend
outwards
and
swollen
joints

32

Nutrition
The food we consume is not only used to produce energy, but it is also used for growth, repair,
and maintenance of the body. No single food provides all the nutrients required by the human
body, so it is very important to eat a variety of foods to ensure all the body’s nutrient requirements
are met. A balanced diet includes the full spectrum of nutrients: proteins, carbohydrates, lipids,
vitamins, water, and minerals.

Figure 24: A variety of foods ensure you acquire all the necessary nutrients.33
Food packaging labels indicate the type and amount of nutrient present in the food serving, along
with a value called the recommended dietary allowance (RDA) that represents the percentage of
the nutrient the food serving contains.
The information contained on food packaging labels will allow you to choose foods that contain the
nutrients you require, and in the correct amounts.

32
https://www.yashodahospitals.com/diseases-treatments/osteomalacia-causes/
33
https://theconversation.com/food-variety-is-important-for-our-health-but-the-definition-of-a-balanced-diet-is-often-murky-
149126
 Figure 25: Food label on the packaging of a loaf of white bread34
Activity 8: Vitamins and nutrition
Question 1
Consider Figure 25 above and answer the questions that follow:
1.1 State the number of grams of protein per 100 g of white bread. (1)
1.2 State the number of grams of saturated fat per 100 g of white bread. (1)
1.3 Discuss the structure of saturated fats and why eating too much of this type of fat can
be detrimental to your health. (3)
1.4 Name the mineral that is required to prevent anaemia. (1)
1.5 Over a third of the NRV (Nutrient Reference Value) of a specific vitamin is provided by a
100 g serving of white bread. Name this vitamin and state why it is important for health. (3)
1.6 Explain why vitamin A needs not be consumed daily. (1)
1.7 Would someone suffering from scurvy benefit from consuming white bread? Explain your
answer. (2)
1.8 Using the information in the table, calculate the recommended daily allowance of fat (in
grams). (3)
(15)

34
https://sasko.co.za/products/more-slices-white-bread/
Question 2
The pie charts below show the carbohydrate, fat and protein content of four different diet types
marked A to D.
A B

C D
Figure 26: Carbohydrate, fat, and protein content of 4 different types of diets35
2.1 Which diet is the least suitable as a source of insulation? Give a reason for your answer. (2)
2.2 Which diet will be the most suitable for structural growth? Give a reason for your answer.
(2)
2.3 Give a reason why diet D will be the richest source of energy. (1)
2.4 Draw a pie chart for a diet that consists of:
• 17 % protein
• 33 % fat
• 50% carbohydrates (5)
(10)
[25]

35
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Comparison-of-four-major-KDs-Pie-charts-depict-relative-proportion-of-calories-
provided_fig2_262533070