Tutorial Letter 501/0/2023: Child Development in The Early Years

CDE2601/501/0/2023
Tutorial Letter 501/0/2023
Child Development in the Early Years
CDE2601
Year module
Department of Early Childhood Education
This tutorial letter contains important information about the module.
BARCODE
CONTENTS
Page
1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................ 9
1.1 Getting started .......................................................................................................................... 11
2 OVERVIEW OF CDE2601 ........................................................................................................ 11
2.1 Purpose .................................................................................................................................... 11
2.2 Outcomes ................................................................................................................................. 12
3 LECTURER AND CONTACT DETAILS .................................................................................... 12
3.1 Lecturer .................................................................................................................................... 12
3.2 Department ............................................................................................................................... 12
4 RESOURCES ........................................................................................................................... 12
4.1 Join myUnisa ............................................................................................................................ 12
4.2 Recommended book ................................................................................................................. 13
4.3 Electronic reserves (e-reserves) ............................................................................................... 13
4.4 myUnisa tools ........................................................................................................................... 13
5 CONCLUSION .......................................................................................................................... 14
LEARNING UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORIES .................................... 15

THE AIMS OF LEARNING UNIT 1 ......................................................................................................... 15
LEARNING OUTCOMES ....................................................................................................................... 15
1.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................... 15
1.2 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND EARLY CHILDHOOD
DEVELOPMENT....................................................................................................................... 16
1.2.1 What is child development? ...................................................................................................... 16
1.3 WHAT IS EARLY CHILDHOOD? .............................................................................................. 17
1.4 UNDERSTANDING THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN IN THE GRADE R YEARS ........... 18
1.4.1 The preschooler ........................................................................................................................ 18
1.4.1.1 Who is the preschooler? ........................................................................................................... 18
1.4.1.2 Explanations of preschool institutions ....................................................................................... 19
1.4.1.3 Characteristics of the preschooler ............................................................................................. 19
1.4.2 Developmental milestones of the preschooler ........................................................................... 20
1.4.2.1 The preschooler's cognitive development ................................................................................. 20
1.4.2.2 The preschooler's language development ................................................................................. 20
1.4.2.3 The preschooler's physical development .................................................................................. 20
1.4.2.4 The preschooler's social and emotional development ............................................................... 21
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1.5 THE INFLUENCE OF THE ENVIRONMENT ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN

................................................................................................................................................. 21
1.5.1 The home environment ............................................................................................................. 21
1.5.1.1 The nature of the family ............................................................................................................ 21
1.5.1.2 Parenting styles ........................................................................................................................ 22
1.5.1.3 The socio-economic status of the family ................................................................................... 25
1.5.2 Early learning centres and the Grade R environment ................................................................ 25
1.5.3 The school environment............................................................................................................ 26
1.6 THE INFLUENCE OF CULTURAL PRACTICES ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN
FROM BIRTH TO SIX YEARS OLD.......................................................................................... 27
1.7 THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE ON CHILD DEVELOPMENT ................................................. 30
1.7.1 Biological perspective theories.................................................................................................. 30
1.7.2 Psychodynamic perspective theories ........................................................................................ 30
1.7.2.1 Freud's psychosexual theory .................................................................................................... 31
1.7.2.2 Erikson's psychosocial theory ................................................................................................... 32
1.7.3 Learning theory perspective ...................................................................................................... 34
1.7.3.1 Early learning theorists ............................................................................................................. 34
1.7.3.2 Social cognitive theory .............................................................................................................. 35
1.7.4 Theoretical perspective of cognitive development ..................................................................... 35
1.7.4.1 Piaget's theory of cognitive development .................................................................................. 35
1.7.4.2 Information-processing theory................................................................................................... 36
1.7.4.3 Gardner's multiple-intelligence theory ....................................................................................... 37
1.7.4.4 Bruner's constructivist theory of learning................................................................................... 38
1.7.5 Theories in relation to the context of children's lives ................................................................. 40
1.7.5.1 Contextual perspective theories ................................................................................................ 40
1.7.5 2 Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory ........................................................................................... 42
1.7.6 The African perspective theory ................................................................................................. 44
1.8 CONCLUSION .......................................................................................................................... 44
1.9 SELF-EVALUATION ASSESSMENT ........................................................................................ 45
1.10 ADDITIONAL LEARNING EXPERIENCES ............................................................................... 45
LEARNING UNIT 2: UNDERSTANDING THE GRADE R YEARS .......................................................... 47

THE AIMS OF THE LEARNING UNIT .................................................................................................... 47
2.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................... 47
2.2 WHO IS THE GRADE R CHILD? .............................................................................................. 48
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2.2.1 Explanation of the Grade R years ............................................................................................. 48
2.2.2 Characteristics of Grade R children .......................................................................................... 48
2.3 DEVELOPMENTAL MILESTONES OF THE GRADE R CHILD ................................................ 50
2.4 PLAN AND ARRANGE THE GRADE R CLASS........................................................................ 52
2.4.1 The Grade R class .................................................................................................................... 52
2.4.1.1 Examples of good Grade R classes .......................................................................................... 53
2.4.1.2 Planning the arrangement of the classroom .............................................................................. 53
2.5 THE ROLE OF THE GRADE R TEACHER ............................................................................... 55
2.6 THE IMPORTANCE OF PLAY IN GRADE R ............................................................................ 56
2.6.1 Play as a method of promoting development in Grade R .......................................................... 56
2.6.2 The play pedagogy ................................................................................................................... 57
2.7 THE ROLE OF PARENTS IN PROMOTING THE GRADE R CHILD'S DEVELOPMENT.......... 60
2.7.1 What should parents do? .......................................................................................................... 60
2.8 CONCLUSION .......................................................................................................................... 61
LEARNING UNIT 3: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF THE GRADE R CHILD ..................................... 63

3.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................... 63
3.2 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN THE GRADE R YEARS ........................................................ 63
3.2.1 What is cognitive development? ............................................................................................... 64
3.3 UNDERSTANDING PIAGET'S THEORY OF COGNITIVE PROCESSES ................................. 64
3.3.1 The use of schemes to acquire knowledge ............................................................................... 64
3.3.2 Assimilation, accommodation and equilibrium ........................................................................... 65
3.4 STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT ACCORDING TO PIAGET'S THEORY ................ 67
3.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHILD................................. 68
3.5.1 Children in the sensory-motor stage (birth to two years) ........................................................... 68
3.5.2 Children in the preoperational stage (two to seven years) ......................................................... 68
3.5.2.1 The preoperational stage of cognitive development .................................................................. 69
3.6 COGNITIVE MILESTONES OF CHILDREN ............................................................................. 70
3.6.2 Cognitive milestones of children in the Grade R years .............................................................. 70
3.7 THE ROLE OF TEACHERS IN THE GRADE R'S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT .................... 71
3.7.1 Active engagement and exploration .......................................................................................... 71
3.7.2 Knowledge of rates of cognitive development ........................................................................... 72
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3.7.3 Knowledge of thinking at different cognitive levels .................................................................... 72

3.7.4 Adoption of appropriate strategies for cognitive development ................................................... 72
3.8 CONCLUSION .......................................................................................................................... 74
LEARNING UNIT 4: LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT OF THE GRADE R CHILD ..................................... 76

4.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................... 76
4.2 DEFINITIONS OF LANGUAGE ................................................................................................ 77
4.3 THE LANGUAGE RULE SYSTEM ............................................................................................ 78
4.4 STAGES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT ............................................................................. 79
4.4.1 The pre-linguistic stage ............................................................................................................. 79
4.4.2 Adult-like language ................................................................................................................... 79
4.5 THEORIES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT ......................................................................... 81
4.5.1 The behaviourist approach in the Grade R class....................................................................... 81
4.5.2 Nativist approach in the Grade R class ..................................................................................... 82
4.5.3 Social interaction approach in the Grade R class ...................................................................... 82
4.5.4 The cognitivist theory in the Grade R class ............................................................................... 84
4.5.4.1 The Preoperational stage in language development (two to seven years)................................. 85
4.6 FAMILY AND CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT ........................... 87
4.7 PLAY IN LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT ................................................................................... 88
4.7.1 Common language games ........................................................................................................ 89
4.7.2 Cultural language games .......................................................................................................... 89
4.8 LANGUAGE MILESTONES IN GRADE R ................................................................................ 90
4.9 CONCLUSION .......................................................................................................................... 90
LEARNING UNIT 5: PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN ........................................... 92

DEFINING KEY CONCEPTS ................................................................................................................. 92
5.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................... 92
5.2 THE NATURE OF PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE GRADE R YEARS ............................ 93
5.3 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT BETWEEN ONE AND THREE YEARS ....................................... 93
5.4 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT DURING THE GRADE R YEARS ............................................... 95
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5.4.1 Growth of the body ................................................................................................................... 95
5.4.2 The development of the Grade R child's motor skills ................................................................. 97
5.4.2.1 Gross motor skills ..................................................................................................................... 99
5.4.2.2 Fine motor skills ...................................................................................................................... 100
5.5 THE IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT ............................................................ 103
5.6 PHYSICAL MILESTONES IN GRADE R................................................................................. 103
5.7 ACTIVITIES THAT ENHANCE THE PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE GRADE R CHILD
............................................................................................................................................... 104
5.7.1 Teacher preparation for promoting gross motor development ................................................. 104
5.7.2 Teacher preparation for promoting fine motor development .................................................... 105
5.7.3 Parent involvement in the promotion of physical development ................................................ 106
5.8 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE GRADE R CHILDREN109
5.8.1 The effects of nutrition and obesity on physical development.................................................. 109
5.8.2 The effects of heredity and environment on physical development ......................................... 110
5.8.3 The effects of cultural practices on physical development ....................................................... 110
5.8.4 The effects of gender differences on physical development .................................................... 110
5.8.5 The effects of illness and accidental injuries on physical development ................................... 111
5.8.6 The result of individual differences .......................................................................................... 111
5.9 CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................ 113
5.10 SELF-EVALUATION ASSESSMENT ...................................................................................... 113
5.11 ADDITIONAL LEARNING EXPERIENCES ............................................................................. 113
LEARNING UNIT 6: THE SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN ....... 114
THE AIMS OF LEARNING UNIT 6 ....................................................................................................... 114
LEARNING OUTCOMES ..................................................................................................................... 114
DEFINING KEY CONCEPTS ............................................................................................................... 114
6.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 114
6.2 DEFINITIONS OF SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT ........................................... 115
6.3 THE IMPORTANCE OF SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT .................................. 115
6.4 COMPONENTS THAT SHAPE SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT ....................... 118
6.4.1 The influence of the components on children's social development ........................................ 121
6.4.2 The influence of the components on children's emotional development .................................. 122
6.5 A THEORY OF SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT................................................ 124
6.5.1 Erik Erikson's theory of social development ............................................................................ 124
6.6 SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT MILESTONES FOR THE GRADE R CHILD .... 126
6.6.1 Social development milestones in Grade R............................................................................. 127
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6.6.2 Emotional milestones in Grade R ............................................................................................ 127

6.7 TEACHERS' ROLE IN PROMOTING CHILDREN'S SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL SKILLS ...... 128
6.8 PARENTS' ROLE IN PROMOTING CHILDREN'S SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL SKILLS ......... 129
6.9 CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................ 130
LEARNING UNIT 7: THE MORAL DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN ...................................... 132

LEARNING OUTCOMES ..................................................................................................................... 132
7.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 132
7.1.1 What is moral development?................................................................................................... 132
7.2 KOHLBERG AND PIAGET'S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT. ................................... 133
7.2.1 Kohlberg's theory of moral development ................................................................................. 133
7.2.1.1 Kohlberg's stages of moral development ................................................................................ 134
7.2.2.2 Moral development of the Grade R child ................................................................................. 135
7.2.2 Piaget's theory of moral development ..................................................................................... 136
7.2.1.1 Piaget's stages of moral development..................................................................................... 137
7.3 A SENSE OF BELONGING .................................................................................................... 139
7.3.1 The concept of sense of belonging ......................................................................................... 139
7.3.2 The importance of a sense of belonging ................................................................................. 139
7.3.3 Ways of promoting a sense of belonging ................................................................................ 140
7.3.4 Implications of morality (moral development) and a sense of belonging .................................. 140
7.3.4.1 Implications for the children .................................................................................................... 140
7.3.4.2 Implications for the teacher ..................................................................................................... 141
7.4 CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................ 142
LEARNING UNIT 8: CREATIVE DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN ......................................... 143

LEARNING OBJECTIVES .................................................................................................................... 143
DEFINING KEY CONCEPTS ............................................................................................................... 143
8.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 143
8.1.1 What is creativity?................................................................................................................... 143
8.1.2 What is creative development? ............................................................................................... 144
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8.1.3 The importance of the creative process .................................................................................. 144
8.2 CREATIVE DEVELOPMENT OF A GRADE R CHILD ............................................................ 144
8.3 THE BENEFITS OF PLAY AND CREATIVE DEVELOPMENT ............................................... 145
8.4 THE IMPORTANCE OF IMAGINATION AND CREATIVITY ................................................... 146
8.4.1 Creative thinking and imagination ........................................................................................... 146
8.5 THE GRADE R TEACHER'S ROLE IN FACILITATING OR NURTURING CREATIVITY IN
CHILDREN ............................................................................................................................. 146
8.5.1 Spend time outdoors with children (play) ................................................................................ 147
8.5.2 Invent scenarios/situations ...................................................................................................... 147
8.5.3 Verbal activities....................................................................................................................... 147
8.5.4 Ask open-ended and thought-provoking questions ................................................................. 147
8.5.5 Limit screen time (TV movies, computer, tablets, smartphones, video games) ....................... 147
8.5.6 Encourage art activities........................................................................................................... 147
8.5.7 Share library activities ............................................................................................................. 148
8.5.8 Do not overcontrol or overprescribe ........................................................................................ 148
8.5.9 Encourage internal motivation................................................................................................. 148
8.6 IMPORTANT FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN PLANNING CREATIVE ACTIVITIES FOR
GRADE R CHILDREN ............................................................................................................ 148
8.7 CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................ 150
REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................................... 151
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1 INTRODUCTION
Dear Student
Welcome to the module Child Development In The Early Years (CDE2601), I trust that you will
have an interesting, stimulating and successful academic year.
Because this is an online module, you will need to use myUnisa to study and complete the learning
activities for this module. Visit the website for CDE2601 on myUnisa frequently; the website for
the module is CDE2601-23-Y.
We trust that you will find the course rewarding and hope you will integrate the knowledge and
skills you acquire in this module to become successful in your teaching career.
Broadly speaking, the field of early childhood development is shared among three government
departments in South Africa, albeit from different perspectives. The Department of Social
Development (DSD) focusses on the wellbeing and care of young children from birth to the age
of five years, hence the title they use is "early childhood development and care" (ECDC). The
Department of Health is concerned with the health of young children from birth up to the point
where children have received the necessary medical treatment. The field of education focusses
on young children to understand how they develop and to plan educational activities that can
promote their learning. The Department of Basic Education is responsible for this development
stage of the child. Their education is based on the curriculum for the foundation phase that is
guided by the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS).
This module is one of the core modules in the Early Childhood Education (ECE) curriculum. It is
thus important that you learn and understand the content since it cuts across all other modules in
the B.Ed curriculum. Please read this section carefully to understand how it links to other modules
in the B.Ed Foundation Phase curriculum.
The foundation phase curriculum is what we call an integrated curriculum. It consists of

Language, Mathematics and Life Skills. Each of these three subjects' different knowledge, skills
and values are taught simultaneously under a real-life theme or topic to which the child can relate.
The closest link is with the language modules because language is an important milestone in child
development and it is how thought is expressed. Language can take various forms, such as
talking, singing, dancing and drawing. The language subject content includes Home Language
and Emergent Literacy and are briefly discussed in the following paragraphs.
Emergent Literacy, or sometimes referred to as incidental literacy, refers to studies about the
developmental stages of speaking, reading and writing that young children go through before
they start school formally. This module (CDE2601) is written for Grade R children and younger.
Explanations about language development in the Emergent Literacy module focus on preschool
and Grade R children. The acquisition of reading and writing skills are also based on the ages of
children. The development stage of a typical five- and six-year-old child is the core of discussion
in this module.
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The content of Home Language follows on that of Emergent Literacy and is for learners typically
between the ages seven to nine years, or Grades 1 to 3. Again, we see how the module provides
the base from which to study language development. The main emphasis between these two
groups is the informal and formal approach to acquiring language. The content is gradually built,
scaffolded and sequenced according to the child's language ability. For instance, learners have
to learn individual words and formulate sentences before learning the alphabet to read and write.
This Child Development in the Early Years module (Grade R) is closely connected to modules
such as Children's Literature, Emergent Mathematics, Movement, Grade R Teaching, and
Foundations for Teaching. The golden thread between all these modules is that they are
informally introduced to children by using play as pedagogy. When you study the modules, you
will realise that the content of this module (Grade R) serves as the foundation of their content.
The purpose of the Children's Literature module is to encourage and develop the love for reading
in young children. Good reading skills are shaped by the child's good language skills and use.
Child Development in the Early Years for Grade R provides the necessary information on how
language develops. In addition, Children's Literature is age-related and promotes reading and
writing at different developmental stages.
Emergent Mathematics is a development-based module where tasks are matched to children's

readiness to learn certain skills such as counting. Beginning content starts with number-
readiness; for instance, classification, serration, and conservation. These may be followed by
patterns and algebra when the child's cognitive development has advanced. Jean Piaget's theory
will be introduced and used to explain how age precedes stages for intellectual development in
the Child Development module.
The module on Teaching and Learning in the Foundation Phase also notes these links. The
content of the module reflects age-related approaches or pedagogies on how to teach content
and skills to the young child.
Seeing that there are so many aspects to cover, it was decided that this learning guide will adopt
the holistic approach to elucidate child development. It is just a fancy word for seeing the child as
one whole or an integrated human being. The following illustration depicts what is meant.
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COGNITIVE
CREATIVE LANGUAGE
HOLISTIC
DEVELOPMENT
MORAL PHYSICAL
SOCIAL AND
EMOTIONAL
Figure 1.1: Holistic development of the child
1.1 Getting started
Owing to the nature of this module, you can read about the module and find the study material in
print and online. Go to https://my.unisa.ac.za and log in with your student number and password.
You will see [CDE2601-23-Y] in the row of modules displayed in the orange blocks at the top of
the page. Select the More tab if you cannot find the module you require in the blocks displayed.
Then click on the module you want to open.
We wish you much success in your studies!
2 OVERVIEW OF CDE2601
2.1 Purpose
Students who have completed this module successfully will have the knowledge, skills and values
related to the development of the young child through the framings of a reflective teacher.
Students will explore each domain of child development in the early childhood phase from birth
to six years. As the students engage with the domains of development, they will be afforded
opportunities for understanding child development in diverse contexts with sensitivity to varying
capabilities of children. In this way, students will enhance their understanding of the variations
and complexities of child development. The age and stage contextual approach will assist in
developing appropriate activities for supporting early learning.
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2.2 Outcomes
In this module, you will have to master the following outcomes:
Specific outcome 1: Engage with various theories of child development and learning.
Specific outcome 2: Understanding the Grade R years.
Specific outcome 3: Explain cognitive development of the Grade R child.
Specific outcome 4: Language development of the Grade R child.
Specific outcome 5: Address physical development of young children.
Specific outcome 6: Discuss social and emotional development of young children.
Specific outcome 7: Address moral development of young children.
Specific outcome 8: Discuss creative development of young children.
The above-mentioned outcomes constitute the learning units of this module.
3 LECTURER AND CONTACT DETAILS
3.1 Lecturer
The primary lecturer for this module is Dr T Dyosini

Department: Early Childhood Education
E-mail: dyositp@unisa.ac.za
3.2 Department
You can contact the Department of Early Childhood Education at +27 12 429 4583 or
makgome1@unisa.ac.za.
4 RESOURCES
4.1 Join myUnisa
The myUnisa learning management system is the University's online campus that will help you to
communicate with your lecturers, with other students and with the administrative departments at
Unisa.
Go to the myUnisa website at https://my.unisa.ac.za and click on the Claim UNISA Login at the
top of the screen. You will then be prompted to give your student number to claim your initial
myUnisa details as well as your myLife e-mail login details. For more information on myUnisa,
consult the brochure Study @ Unisa, which you received with your study material; it is also
available at www.unisa.ac.za/brochures/studies.
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4.2 Recommended book
Conkbayir, M. & Pascal, C. 2014. Early Childhood theories and contemporary issues: An
introduction. London: Bloomsbury.
4.3 Electronic reserves (e-reserves)
There are different e-reserves articles for the different learning units. E-reserves can be
downloaded from the Library catalogue; for more information, go to
http://libguides.unisa.ac.za/request/request.
4.4 myUnisa tools
The main tool that we will use is the Lessons tool, which provides the content of and the
assessments for the module. At times you will be directed to join discussions with fellow students
and complete activities and assessments before you can continue with the module.
You must log in to myUnisa regularly. We recommend that you log in at least once a week to do
the following:
• Check for new announcements. You can set your myLife e-mail account so that you
receive the announcement e-mails on your cellphone.
• Do the Discussion Forum activities. When you do the activities for each learning unit,
we want you to share your answers with the other students in your group. You can read
the instructions and even prepare your answers offline, but you will need to go online to
post your messages. We have provided a Social Cafe where you can socialise with the
other students in the module.
• Do other online activities. For some of the learning unit activities, you might need to
post something on the Blog, take a quiz or complete a survey under the Self-
Assessment tool. Do not skip these activities because they will help you to complete the
assignments and activities for the module.
We hope that these extra ways to study the material and practise the activities will help you to
succeed in this online module. To get the most out of the online module, you MUST go online
regularly to complete the activities and assignments on time.
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5 CONCLUSION
Do not hesitate to contact us by e-mail if you experience problems with the content of this tutorial
letter or with any academic aspect of the module.
We wish you a fascinating and satisfying journey through the learning material and trust that you
will complete the module successfully.
Enjoy the journey!
T Dyosini
LECTURER FOR CDE2601
DEPARTMENT OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION
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LEARNING UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORIES
THE AIMS OF LEARNING UNIT 1
Learning unit 1 aims to introduce you to the meaning of child development and early childhood
development as concepts and to discuss theories underpinning child development.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After the completion of this learning unit, you should be able to do the following:
• Define the concepts of child development and early childhood development.

• Differentiate between child development and early childhood development.
• Demonstrate your understanding of development in the Grade R years.
• Highlight the influence of the environment on the development of young children.
• Illustrate how cultural practices can influence the development of children from birth to
six years old.
• Identify and critically discuss theories underpinning child development.
• Reflect on and record the implications of theories for practice with children with diverse
needs.
DEFINING KEY CONCEPTS
➢ Child development: growth that takes place from birth to the beginning of adulthood,
which is approximately age 13.
➢ Early childhood development: a period between birth and eight years.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Learning unit 1 explains the concepts of and differences between child development and early
childhood development (ECD). Grade R is a term for a pre-formal class that caters for five to six-
year-old children. In other countries, it is known as kindergarten, preschool, and Grade R or
reception year class. These children are accommodated in the foundation phase schools,
meaning that Grade R is school-based. Children between the ages of five and six are also catered
for in centre-based organisations and usually referred to as the ECD group. We refer to them as
centre-based Grade R children.
For our purpose, the Early Childhood Education (ECE) department focusses on the Grade R child.
In this learning unit, you will learn about factors that influence child development such as the
child's home environment and the culture in which the child is raised. A brief reference to the
preschool child, who is between the ages of one and three years, is given to help you gain a full
picture about development in the Grade R years, its origin, and how the development has
manifested itself over the years.
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Theories on child development in this section will help you to understand the development of the
human species. Theories are vital in providing knowledge regarding children's development as
they provide reasons behind any developmental stage. Child development is important because
it provides information on cognitive, emotional, physical, social and educational growth that
children go through from birth and into early adulthood.
Activity 1.1
In your own words, define the concepts of child development and early childhood development.
Feedback to activity 1.1
Your definition of child development should have incorporated at least the following two key
themes: from birth and the beginning of adulthood.
In defining the concept of early child development, you should have incorporated at least the
following key theme: the period between birth and eight years.
1.2 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND EARLY CHILDHOOD

DEVELOPMENT
1.2.1 What is child development?
Child development is a broad concept that is widely used for explaining growth that takes place
from birth to the beginning of adulthood, which is approximately age 13. Although it is accepted
that development is a process that consists of stages with different characteristics, it is important
to note and highlight the differences within this broad explanation. Some of the differences may
be seen in the following explanations of child development:
❖ Child development is the scientific study of the patterns of growth, change, and stability
that occur from conception through adolescence (Feldman 2010).
❖ Child development refers to the sequence of physical, language, thought and emotional
changes that occur in a child from birth to the beginning of adulthood
(https://childdevelopment.com.au/areas-of-concern/what-is-child-development/).
❖ Child development is the biological and psychological development in human beings

between birth and the end of adolescence (Collins English Dictionary).
❖ Child development entails the biological, psychological and emotional changes that
occur in human beings between birth and the end of adolescence (12-18 years), as the
individual progresses from dependency to increasing autonomy (Wikimedia Commons).
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Grade R children are said to be in the early childhood developmental stage. The definitions
referred to are broad and general and are not restricted to the early childhood period or in the
foundation phase. To have an understanding of this developmental stage, we will begin by
defining the concept of early childhood development.
1.3 WHAT IS EARLY CHILDHOOD?
The following are different definitions of ECD:
❖ Early childhood is the most rapid period of development in human life. The years from
conception to eight years are critical to the complete and healthy cognitive, emotional,
and physical growth of children (UNICEF 2001).
❖ ECD encompasses the holistic emotional, physical, and cognitive development of

children aged 0 to 8 years (Martin 2012).
❖ ECD encompasses physical, socio-emotional, cognitive and motor development

between birth and eight years of age. (WHO & UNICEF)
❖ Aspects of development in ECD include the physical, cognitive, linguistic and socio-
emotional development of a child from the prenatal stage up to age eight (Garcia &
Neuman 2010).
In the stated definitions, it is clear that ECD is generally referred to as a period between birth and
eight years at which children develop certain skills. However, in South Africa, the period is referred
to as birth to nine years (DoE 1996). There is also a strong agreement about what is developed
during this phase. That development includes cognitive and language development, social and
emotional development and physical development. This learning unit briefly refers to the period
before Grade R (toddler or preschool phase (0-3 years)) to give you a full developmental picture
of the Grade R child.
Activity 1.2
Having read the meaning of child development and early childhood development, please answer
the next questions:
(1) List all the areas of development that are referred to when early childhood development
is discussed.
(2) Provide the difference between child development and early childhood development.
(3) Write all the stages of child development in the correct order with the ages up to the end
of the foundation phase.
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(1) When listing the areas of development during early childhood development, you should
have included cognitive, language, social, emotional and physical development.
(2) One way of answering this question is to use the definitions provided for both concepts
to highlight the difference, such as child development is a broad term that explains
development from birth up to the onset of adolescence. On the other hand, ECD is the
development of children from birth up to the age of nine years or the end of the
foundation phase.
(3) You should have included the following stages of child development in your answer:
infancy (0-1 year), preschool (1-3 years), Grade R (4-6 years) and school-going age
(6-9 years) at the end of the foundation phase.
1.4 UNDERSTANDING THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN IN THE GRADE R YEARS
To get a complete picture of development in the Grade R years, it is necessary to look at children
in a developmental stage that comes before the Grade R years, that is, the preschool years.
1.4.1 The preschooler
Although this module focusses on the Grade R child, we start by discussing the preschooler to
help you link with the next stage, namely Grade R. If you are a student teacher who aspires to
own a nursery school, this knowledge will stand you in good stead.
1.4.1.1 Who is the preschooler?
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❖ A preschooler or toddler is a child between 12 to 36 months old. The preschool years

are a time of great cognitive, emotional and social development. The word "toddler" is
derived from "toddle", which means to walk unsteadily, like a child of this age.
(Merriam-Webster dictionary).
It may be necessary at this stage to look at the different places where preschoolers are catered
for or programmes that deal with children at this level.
1.4.1.2 Explanations of preschool institutions

❖ Preschools are programmes for three- to five-year-old children before they enter
kindergarten (Morrison 2012).
❖ A preschool is an early childhood programme, with curricula, in which children acquire
knowledge and skills through play, and it is implemented by professionally trained
adults/teachers.
❖ Preschools are different from traditional daycare in that they emphasise learning and
development rather than enabling parents to work or pursue other activities.
❖ Preschools vary widely in their setting, format and educational philosophy. They may
be full-day or half-day and may be sponsored by a church, operate as an independent
non-profit or a run-for-profit organisation. They may also be part of the public school
system (http://www.healthofchildren.com/P/Preschool.html).
❖ Preschools offered at public schools are called pre-kindergarten programmes and may
be administered by the local school board or paid for by the state.
In the South African situation, the first two points are applicable. Our public and private schools
offer school-based Grade R classes that are similar to the international kindergarten.
1.4.1.3 Characteristics of the preschooler

❖ At age two to three years, preschoolers learn new skills such as drinking from a cup.
❖ They learn language very quickly.
❖ They begin to control their hands better.
❖ They act independently and enjoy playing with other children.
❖ Preschool children want to touch, taste and smell, hear and test things for themselves.
❖ They are eager to learn and learn by experiencing and by doing things.
❖ Preschoolers learn by playing. They learn new skills and struggle to understand their
environment.
❖ At three years, preschoolers socialise with a broader range of people and are willing to
share with other children.
❖ They become more accommodative and reduce tantrums.
❖ Their language has improved, and they can express themselves fairly well.
❖ They can use their preferred or dominant hand and foot more skilfully.
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1.4.2 Developmental milestones of the preschooler
The preschooler's stage of development is explained in terms of the different aspects of

development referred to earlier in this learning unit. The stages are presented as developmental
milestones in the growth of the preschooler. According to Morin (2017), skills such as taking the
first step, smiling for the first time, and waving are called developmental milestones.
Developmental milestones are things most children can do by a certain age.
Children reach milestones in how they play, learn, speak, behave and move. However, there is
considerable variation in the achievement of milestones with some children being ahead of others.
You must remember that every child is unique and achieving milestones are not the same for all
children. For the preschooler, cognitive, language, physical and social development that are
prominent areas of development.
1.4.2.1 The preschooler's cognitive development

According to Piaget, preschoolers have passed the sensorimotor stage of infancy and are at the
preoperational stage, which occurs between the ages of two and seven years. During this stage
of development, preschoolers familiarise themselves with their environment by using objects in
that environment. They learn to associate the objects with words and manipulate them to make
sense of them. They also learn to read situations; for example, dangers associated with fire or
falling down steps.
However, Piaget's main focus on this stage and named it "preoperational" because children at
this point cannot apply specific cognitive operations. Three-year-olds remain egocentric, which
means they are not as likely to consider someone else's point of view; they feel as if every other
person is experiencing the same events and feelings that they are experiencing.
According to Morin (2017), children between one and two years know the use of everyday objects,
such as a spoon, a toothbrush or cellphone. They can follow simple instructions such as "blow
me a kiss" or "sit down." They learn how to point to their head, eyes, ears, nose or mouth and can
recognise pictures of their nursery rhymes.
1.4.2.2 The preschooler's language development

Between the ages of one and two years, children use five to 20 words, can say two-word
sentences and express their wishes by saying words like "more" or "up", and they understand the
word "no". Between two and three years of age, the toddler can refer to him-/herself as "me",
combine nouns and verbs, has a vocabulary of about 450 words and use short sentences.
1.4.2.3 The preschooler's physical development

Between 12 and 24 months, children typically can stand by themselves and walk, holding on to
your hands, put out their arms, legs and feet to help get dressed and undressed, walk without
help and begin to walk up stairs.
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As they approach the age of two, children can typically drink from a regular cup and can use a
spoon, although in a clumsy way. Their fingers are developed to the point of picking up small
objects such as peanuts. They can point, poke and maybe even pinch and put things into a bucket
and take them out again.
1.4.2.4 The preschooler's social and emotional development

Three-year-olds develop different social skills. They learn to cooperate in a playful moment,
although with difficulty. They interact more freely with other children as opposed to playing near
the mother or siblings. Emotionally they acquire different feelings; they may be excited, fearful or
uncomfortable. They remain egocentric and may still throw tantrums but may feel concerned
about those close to them.
1.5 THE INFLUENCE OF THE ENVIRONMENT ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG

CHILDREN
The environment in which children grow and develop has a great impact on the rate and quality
of their development. Child development must be understood within the context that it occurs and
not in isolation of the specific environment. The home and school environments are important in
this regard.
1.5.1 The home environment
Promoting child development through parental training, among other factors, promotes excellent
rates of child development. It is a known fact that parents play a large role in a child's life,
socialisation and development. The nurturing interactions between the newborn baby and the
parents, especially the mother, serve as the first and basic environmental influence on the
developing child. The quality of the home environment determines the quality of the parents' care
to their children and, therefore, the quality of the children's development. The following facts have
an influence.
1.5.1.1 The nature of the family

The nature of the family often is described when child development is discussed, with the typical
family being a husband and wife and some siblings. However, there are different types of families
that impact differently on child development. In contemporary South Africa, for instance, some
resemble the western description, extended families that include grandparents and relatives
considered as part of the nucleus; polygamous families where one man has more than one wife,
each with a number of children; same-gender families with either two mothers or two fathers
looking after children, and child-headed families.
If a large polygamous family is very loving and caring to the young children, the children may
benefit in all aspects of their development from this overdose of affection and attention. If, on the
contrary, there is strife and tension because of a struggle for shared resources, the child's
development will be negatively impacted. According to Eloff and Ebersöhn (2004), the sameness
of gender influences child development. For instance, boys whose fathers are absent, tend to be
confused with gender-role identity, which could affect their social adjustment in future and a family
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with two mothers could have the same effect on development. A major challenge of child-headed
families is a lack of resources and, as indicated earlier, poverty limits intellectual development,
among other things.
1.5.1.2 Parenting styles

In the home environment, a healthy parenting style has a positive effect on child development;
however, it is also true about the opposite. It is the parents' responsibility to create the right
environment for their children, as it will affect their intellect, physical well-being, personality, and
social development. Psychologists have identified parenting styles that are most beneficial to
children's development. One of the most influential psychologists in this regard is Diana Baumrind
(1971, 1972, 1989) who focuses on the following dimensions of parenting:
➢ Warm and nurturing. Children with warm and nurturing parents are usually more
securely attached than children of cold and detached parents. They generally show
positive development in most areas.
➢ Consistent control. Parents who set clear rules and consistently apply them, usually
have children who are likely to be obedient or compliant. The form of control is also
important.
➢ Expectations. Children of parents who have high expectations of them (Baumrind calls
this maturity demands) tend to fare better, especially regarding their self-esteem and
altruistic behaviours.
➢ Communication. Open, clear and regular communication between a parent and child
has been linked to positive outcomes. Listening to the child is just as important as
talking to him or her. Children of such parents tend to be emotionally and socially more
mature.
Baumrind also identifies three parenting styles and Maccoby and Martin (1983) later added a
fourth style. In the following section, we will focus on these different parenting styles.
a) Authoritarian parenting
These parents are dominant and highly demanding, commanding and unapproachable.
They dominate and control the child and put a high emphasis on obedience with strict
family rules, so they can feel secure and better about themselves. Authoritarian parents
are in general more concerned about the child obeying them than a loving relationship.
They think children "should be seen and not heard" and want to "break" the child's will
to reform him or her to the projection they have for the child. The parent makes decisions
on behalf of the child without consulting or listening to the child's desires, opinions or
problems. When this dominance works, they feel proud because their soldiers obey.
There is no warmth or playfulness in the parent-child relationship. There is no
communication between the child and the parent. The only communication is negative
critique, lack of understanding, or pointing out mistakes. Because they dominate the
child, they interfere too much in the child's actions and restrict the child from becoming
independent. This implies that the child cannot develop independence and will take no
social responsibility, because "mom or dad will sort it out".
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The parent sets very high demands and expectations. This implies that no give-and-
take relationship develops and a case of "I order and you obey without question". They
further tend to control their children through shaming them, withdrawing love or
punishing them. Children of dominant parents tend to abstain from silly behaviours
because they fear their parents and they have poor self-concepts and feel helpless and
inferior. Children further can be achievement orientated. They may be very successful
and well-behaved, but at the expense of a sense of the self, their creativity and
independence. The children can rebel against authority, normally in their teens, or be
overly submissive. As adults, they may find themselves in relationships with a controlling
partner or they become controlling (Maccoby & Martin 1983).
b) Authoritative parenting
Authoritative parenting is about setting limits, reasoning with children and being
responsive to their emotional needs. It is a more moderate approach that emphasises
setting high standards, being nurturing and responsive, and showing respect for children
as independent, rational human beings. The authoritative parent expects maturity and
cooperation and offers children lots of emotional support. This is the healthiest and most
balanced approach to parenting. The parent sets limits and considers the child's point
of view. This is a common middle-class approach throughout the world.
The parent enforces principles with respect without being overly harsh – children have
a voice and an opinion. When the children make mistakes or misbehave, they reason
with the children and explain the consequences of good and bad behaviour. They are
all partners in the relationship who need to come up with ideas and solutions to
problems. Therefore, the authoritative parent will not control their children through harsh
or arbitrary punishment, shaming them or withdrawing love. By nature, it is a middle
ground between granting too much freedom and being too strict. This results in children
who are independent, self-reliant, socially accepted, academically successful and well-
behaved. It is because there is a balance between permissive and authoritarian
parenting styles. The balance can be explained as follows: unlike the authoritarian
parent, authoritative parents show high levels of warmth and emphasise the reasons for
rules; and unlike the permissive parent, authoritative parents do not let their kids get
away with bad behaviour (Maccoby & Martin 1983).
c) Permissive parenting
The permissive parent may be seen as uncaring or distant and the child arranges his or
her own activities without the parent. They have rules, but they do not follow through
with the necessary consequences. The children have too much freedom. They say "no"
but eventually the "no" vanishes into thin air. The parent does not see him-/herself as a
teacher with direct responsibility for the child's actions. The parent has a few demands
for school achievements and does not take action if it is not achieved. The parents do
not demand socially responsible behaviour, nor do they reward positive behaviour. The
permissive parent asks the children's opinions, rather than making decisions as parents.
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The children are free to explore, express their feelings and opinions, and make their
own decisions. This leads to spoiling the children and creating little negotiators, which
makes the parent proud when referring to the child, as "he or she will grow up to become
a lawyer". The children tend to demand more and more from their parents and do not
show respect. The children of permissive parents are very self-centred, bossy,
controlling, demanding and attention seeking. They are egocentric and selfish. This can
lead to poor relationships as these children are poorly prepared for disappointment.
Thus, as they grow older, they are at risk of depression, substance abuse or lack of
independence because of their need for love, guidance and authority (Maccoby & Martin
1983).
d) Neglecting/uninvolved parenting style
The parent is hands-off regarding their children's development and needs. It is normally
a result of their own feelings of rejection and they are often too overwhelmed by their
own problems, wants and needs to deal with their children. The communication between
the parent and the child is that of blame, suspicion, criticism or threats. Neglecting
parents typically do not have time, expectations or demands regarding their children's
behaviour; therefore, they do not show interest in their children's achievements or praise
them. They show little warmth, love and affection towards their children. They can be
unfair by comparing siblings or friends to their children's achievements and be cruel or
physically punish them if they do not feel satisfied.
They do not consider their children's primary needs. Because these parents’ distance
themselves from their children, the children have absolute freedom and "run wild". Often
these children have responsibilities by filling the parental role for younger siblings,
meaning that they "miss out on childhood". The parents do not give sympathetic
guidance to the children because they are selfish and irresponsible. When punishment
must be given, the parents withdraw. The "us" relationship is inadequate and does not
fulfil the child's needs. Some may neglect the child's health, physical and emotional
needs, clothing and education, while some do provide basic needs, like food and shelter,
they are uninvolved in their children's lives. Children of the neglecting parent have
negative self-concepts and are often at risk of discipline problems because of a lack of
external structure that results in a lack of internal structure. They further lack external
exposure of warm love and thus seek it from whatever source crosses their path. It
further results in difficulty to establish healthy relationships in adulthood (Maccoby &
Martin 1983).
Parenting styles are closely associated with the socio-economic background of the
family and may affect the development of children in different ways.
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1.5.1.3 The socio-economic status of the family

The socio-economic background children grow up in and how they exist in such an environment
influences their development and early learning. This includes the character of the home and
the resources that children need for their development. The reason for the academic success of
children from middle-class families is their home environment where they have easy access to
their daily needs, where they are exposed to a rich culture valued in education, and where there
are good role models to shape their development. Their performance on average is significantly
better than that of children without such advantages. They are motivated and have the
fundamental skills that are needed in all learning, such as adequate concept and language
acquisition, positive self-image and confidence to interact or express themselves.
Poverty in early childhood has more serious effects than at any other stage in the lifecycle, as
it can seriously impede fundamental skill acquisition. Children from poor socio-economic
backgrounds do not have the advantages of the middle- or average-class group. They may not
be exposed to successful role models or acquire the basic skills necessary for school learning
because the character of the home does not support it.
They are not only at risk intellectually, but their health and social development are also
threatened. The disadvantaged link between low socio-economic background and low academic
achievement can be reinforced by the lack of access to adequate primary education. Usually,
poor families are surrounded by poor communities who cannot provide good resources for the
schools. Closing the performance gap between children from underprivileged backgrounds and
those from middle-income homes thus remains a challenge even in the school environment.
1.5.2 Early learning centres and the Grade R environment
It is generally agreed that good early learning programmes are essential for addressing
developmental delays and giving children at risk the opportunity to catch up with their peers. A
well-funded, integrated, socio-educational programme can improve the cognitive and social
functioning of children who are at risk.
In South Africa, early learning programmes for young children, including Grade R programmes,
focus strongly on cognitive development, early literacy and numeracy. These are the three basics
of schooling that children must be competent in for success in grades 1 to 3. In this way, the
intellectual and social disadvantage of children from poor backgrounds is addressed. However,
to realise the potential positive returns on early childhood, the programmes must meet the
following criteria:
❖ Integrated, comprehensive and good quality content

❖ Accessible for application and reinforcement in the home, the community and at ECD
centres
❖ Provide support for parents to develop and raise their capacity
❖ Prioritise the most vulnerable, including children with disabilities, from rural areas and
those living in poverty (Bierstreker, 2012)
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1.5.3 The school environment
The school environment should always be seen in the context of developing children holistically.
The goals of the curriculum are better achieved if the school environment is cognisant of the
needs of the children it serves. In South Africa, it is important to have inclusive schools that are
incorporating the diversity in the country and accommodate children from all walks of life. In
poverty-stricken areas, the school environment must facilitate the implementation of the
curriculum by making it possible for impoverished children to participate confidently in the
classroom. In affluent areas, the environment must urge the children to perform at higher levels
and increase their intellectual capacities. In general, the school environment must:
❖ support all learners' personal development;

❖ provide ways of promoting all learners' development; and
❖ link with children's families and the communities in which the school is situated.
Activity 1.3
Read the following case study and answer the questions.
CASE STUDY: Kgotso and Thato
Kgotso and Thato, both five years old, are close friends and their parents live in the rural Free
State. Kgotso goes to the local school-based Grade R class, which is a cleaned-out storeroom
with no windows and little space for everyone to fit in. Thato stays home with his mother who
sells woven grass mats for a living. Kgotso's day is spent reciting rhymes and running wildly
in the schoolyard. Thato helps his mother gather dry grass, tie it into bunches and choosing
coloured strings to tie the grass, especially red. He takes instructions on how to thread the
needle for weaving and looks forward to the end of the day when he will be rewarded for his
hard work.
(1) Which of the two environments is supportive or not supportive of the development of
five-year-old children?
(2) Support your answer in question 1.
(3) List the developmental areas or domains that you think are supported or should have
been supported in the case of the two children and explain the role of the environment
in influencing the domains.
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Take note: The case study indicates how the environment can influence a child's
development.
When answering the questions, you should have included the following:
(1) Thato's home environment is supportive while Kgotso's is not as supportive.

(2) Kgotso's Grade R class environment, which was previously a storeroom, is very poor
since it does not have the required structured areas to promote development. The
teacher does not teach activities that can facilitate development, except for singing
rhymes. Thato's home environment is more supportive because his activities are varied
and cover different areas of development, like gross motor muscles, fine motor
development, intellectual or cognitive development, social and emotional development.
(3) Developmental domains for Kgotso are minimal. It could be gross motor from running
around and language from reciting rhymes. Thato receives support cognitively.
Choosing and using colours is an intellectual or cognitive function, so is counting grass
bundles. Linguistically, he benefits from responding to his mother's instructions.
Physically (both gross and fine motor), he develops from cutting and chopping grass;
fine motor development from threading the needle and trying to weave the grass. He is
also supported socially and emotionally through pleasant interaction with his mother and
through receiving rewards for work he did.
Another important factor in children's development is the culture into which they are born and
raised, which will be discussed in the next section.
1.6 THE INFLUENCE OF CULTURAL PRACTICES ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF

CHILDREN FROM BIRTH TO SIX YEARS OLD
Another important factor in children's development is the culture into which they are born and
raised. Culture is defined mainly from a social perspective of which education is part and from
natural science and anthropological point of view. The study of early childhood development
should consider cultural influences that may play a part in the development of children. Culture
determines the way children are raised in families and communities and it could influence child
development in various ways. Read the following definitions to understand it better.
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Culture refers to the following:
❖ "The beliefs, norm, customs and general way of life of a specific group of people, which
are passed on from generation to generation" (Louw & Louw 2014).
❖ "The customary beliefs, social forms, and material traits of a racial, religious, or social
group" (https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/culture).
❖ "The sum of attitudes, customs, and beliefs that distinguishes one group of people from
another. Culture is transmitted, through language, material objects, ritual, institutions,
and art, from one generation to the next" (The New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy 2005).
Although the definitions of culture emphasise society as the main determining factor, you must
be aware that every child is born with core knowledge traits regardless of the culture to which he
or she belongs. Some genetic factors shape a child's growth and even separate the development
of girls from that of boys. In this module, we remain focused on developmental implications for
the foundation phase child.
Cultural practices have an influence that can be seen as different aspects of child development.
It may not be obvious to note how family beliefs and practices impact on child development and
how these could affect children's behaviour and learning at school. However, it is an accepted
fact that cultural differences may encourage or restrict the development of children in different
ways. Smidt (2013) writes at length about cultural influences.
Children from restrictive families and communities where, for instance, it is considered taboo for
them to interact freely with adults and to address them verbally, may experience challenges with
the school culture. Such children may lack expressive and descriptive vocabulary that could have
been learned from adults and may not perform as well as children from a more permissive culture
in the classroom.
In our earlier discussion we indicated that language and thought are two sides of the same coin.
If children cannot interact freely with adults and they cannot satisfy their inquisitive nature, they
may not grow intellectually like their counterparts. Restrictive cultures stifle mental growth by
putting a lot of "don'ts" in their child-rearing practices.
In recent years, children from middle-class homes spend a large part of their day playing passive
games like those played on screens. Some of the games may stimulate them mentally but they
are seldom involved in physical activity. Their gross motor development may be poorer than, for
instance, those of children climbing in trees and playing group games where a lot of running is
involved. The latter group of children is usually from deprived homes where parents cannot afford
toys.
Smidt (2013) explains that children possess cultural capital. Loosely explained, it means that
children bring knowledge and other attributes to school. If they belong to a culture that is not
cherished by the school and the majority of the other children, they may be saddened by the
rejection and teasing. This could be children from a township attending a former model C school
or immigrant children in a township school who cannot speak the language of the school. These
children may also develop a low self-esteem and feel isolated. The opposite is true about children
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who belong to the majority culture and who come to school already equipped with the knowledge
that the school requires from them and they become unstimulated.
In addition to learning that language and intellectual development are closely linked, you must
know that it is a vehicle of culture. Cultural norms, standards and beliefs are transmitted through
language. Children's use of language is controlled by cultural norms. Therefore, in cultures where
children's language is very restricted, their language level and quality can be adversely
influenced.
It is important to know that culture is not cast in stone but that it evolves as society, technology
and education change. There can also be differences between some cultures, depending on the
area/geographical space of the people. The paths of development in one culture may be different
from paths in other cultures, resulting in different rates of development among children. What may
be considered a competence that children must acquire in one culture, may be seen as child
abuse in another culture. Can you think of examples?
Activity 1.4
Read the following case study and respond to questions.
CASE STUDY: THE JOHNSON FAMILY
The Johnson family lives in an affluent suburb of Johannesburg in Gauteng with their
five-year-old son, Peter. Mrs Johnson asks Peter about the day's activities when he
returns from the nursery of a private school to strengthen what he learned. When he
refuses to talk to her or draw pictures, she plays with Peter outside because she knows
that he will unwittingly repeat some of the nursery activities of the day. Mr Johnson
often takes the family to the coast on holiday when schools are closed to rest from his
managerial responsibilities and to expose Peter to new experiences. This close-knit
family interacts regularly with their extended family, including members of their church
where Peter gets a chance to play with other children.
(1) To which socio-economic class does the Johnson family belong?

(2) Substantiate your answer in question 1.
(3) How can the Johnsons' family culture enhance or disadvantage Peter' academic
performance when he enters school?
(4) In what way does the Johnsons' family culture promote or retard Peter's (a) intellectual
development; (b) language development; (c) physical development; (d) social and moral
development; (e) emotional development; and (f) personality development? Discuss
each aspect in a separate paragraph.
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Take note: Case study 2 contextualises family practice and the possible areas of child
development that may be affected.
In your response, you should have included the following key points:
(1) They belong to a high socio-economic class.

(2) They live in a rich suburb of Johannesburg and Peter attends a private nursery school.
Mr Johnson takes the family to the coast for holiday and he works as a manager, which
is usually a high-paying job.
(3) The family belongs to a rich culture and it is a fact that children from rich backgrounds
perform better than their poor counterparts at school.
(4) (a) The family enrolled Peter in a nursery school to promote his intellectual development.
The experiences that Peter gains when on holiday enhances his intellectual
development. (b) By engaging Peter in a conversation about his activities at the nursery,
helps to develop his language. (c) Playing with his mother outside can help develop his
gross motor skills and his fine motor skills by drawing pictures. (d) The close-knit family
culture can contribute to Peter's social skills and his morals by the fact that they attend
church. (e) Peter's emotional development is positively influenced by the family's culture
of interacting with the broader family and church members. (f) The love and care showed
to Peter can develop him into a person with a warm personality.
1.7 THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE ON CHILD DEVELOPMENT
1.7.1 Biological perspective theories
Theorists of the biological perspective view child development as primarily determined by

biological factors. These theorists do not deny the influence of the environment or context on
child development, but they regard the latter (environment) as a secondary factor in influencing
the child's development. The biological perspective emphasises the role of heredity (genes), the
nervous system (brain) and the endocrine system (hormones) in the child's development or
behaviour.
The biological perspective gained much recognition because research proved that there is a direct
relationship between biological factors and certain forms of behaviour that were thought to be
strictly of psychological origins (Louw & Louw 2014).
1.7.2 Psychodynamic perspective theories
According to the psychodynamic perspective, behaviour is influenced by unconscious

psychological motives such as drives or urges and is the oldest theory on child development.
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1.7.2.1 Freud's psychosexual theory

The psychodynamic theory is rooted in the work of Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Freud was a
physician with specific specialisation in diseases of the nervous system. During his work as a
physician, Freud found that the ailments of his adult patients were not caused by any biological
factors. After listening to his patients as they described their problems, Freud was convinced that
early experiences and established patterns endure throughout a person's life. Through the case
history of his patients, Freud created the first psychodynamic theory, called psychoanalysis.
Psychoanalysis theory holds the view that development is determined by how well people resolve
the unconscious conflicts that they face at different ages (Louw & Louw 2014).
Freud maintained that the personality of a person includes three primary components, namely the
id, ego and superego.
"The id is the reservoir of the primitive instincts and drives" (Louw & Louw 2014: 20) According
to Freud, the id consists of instincts or drives and is present at birth. These drives or instincts
seek immediate satisfaction of bodily needs and wants. For example, a hungry baby's cry
illustrates id in action. The ego is a practical and rational component of personality. Its
appearance emerges during the first year of life. The ego tries to strike a balance between the
instinctive desires of the id in the real world by resolving that conflict. For example, one child has
a toy while the other does not have a toy. According to Freud, the id will urge the child to grab the
toy, but the ego would encourage the child to play with the friend and, in the process, with the
desirable toy. The third component of the personality is the superego, which is the 'moral agent'
of the child's personality. The superego begins to emerge during the preschool years as children
start to adopt adult standards of right and wrong. For instance, the child who wanted a toy
ultimately grabs the toy and runs away, then the superego would remind the child that it is wrong
to take another child's toy (Louw & Louw 2014).
Freud furthermore identified six psychosexual stages of child development that move in a fixed
sequence and is determined by maturation. Freud believed that each stage focuses on a
different part of the body, called the erogenous zone, which is dominated by sexual instincts.
Allowing too much or too little gratification of these urges will result in problems that Freud calls
fixation. This means that development is halted at a certain stage. Freud's theory was criticised
by many scientists, but it paved a way for many current accepted theories (Louw & Louw 2014).
Table 1.1: Freud's psychosexual developmental stages
PSYCHOSEXUAL APPROXIMATE DESCRIPTION

STAGE AGE
Sexual energy is central to the mouth. Babies derive oral

gratification from sucking. If oral needs are not met
Oral Birth to one year appropriately, the individual may develop habits like thumb
sucking and fingernail biting in childhood.
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Sexual energy centres on the anal area, especially regarding control and
elimination functions. Toilet training becomes a major issue between the
Anal One to two parent and child. If parents insist that children be trained before they are
years ready, or make too few demands, conflict about anal control may appear
in the form of extreme orderliness and cleanliness or messiness and
disorder.
Sexual impulses transfer to the genitals and the child finds pleasure in
genital stimulation. Freud's Oedipus conflict in boys and Electra conflict in
Phallic Three to six girls arise and young children feel a sexual desire for the same-sex parent.
years Because of the anxiety this cause, they identify with the same-sex parent's
characteristics and values. As a result, the superego is formed. The
relations between the id, ego and superego established at this time
determine the individual's basic personality.
Sexual instincts subside and the superego develops further. The child
acquires new social values from interacting with other adults and with
Latency Six to 11 years same-sex peers. Energy is channelled in school and social activities.
Puberty causes sexual impulses to reappear. Adolescents have to learn to

express these urges in socially acceptable ways. If development has been
Adolescence successful during earlier stages, it leads to mature sexuality, marriage, and
the birth and rearing of children.
Source Berk (2012)
Watch this video on child development theories to better understand it:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=15HncOVohTo
1.7.2.2 Erikson's psychosocial theory

Eric Erikson (1902-1994) was influenced by Freud's theory and became his student. Erikson
embraced the idea of unconscious conflict but put specific emphasis on social aspects of
conflict rather than the biological and sexual aspects. Erikson's psychosocial theory indicates that
development consists of a sequence of stages, each defined by a unique crisis or challenge.
Erikson argued that the earlier stages of psychosocial development lay the foundation for the later
stages. For example, adolescents who do not meet the challenge of developing an identity, will
not establish truly intimate relationships as adults; on the contrary, they will become overly
dependent on other partners as a source of identity (Louw & Louw, 2014).
1.7.2.2.1 Erikson's stages of psychosocial development
Stage 1: Trust vs Mistrust (birth to one year)
Important events: Feeding
❖ Children develop a sense of trust when caregivers provide reliability, care and affection.
❖ A lack of this will lead to mistrust.
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Stage 2: Autonomy vs Shame and doubt (one to three years)
Important events: Toilet training
❖ Children need to develop a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense
of independence.
❖ Potty training plays an important role in helping children develop this sense of autonomy.
❖ Children who struggle and who are shamed for their accidents may be left without a
sense of personal control.
❖ Success during this stage of psychosocial development leads to feelings of autonomy,
while failure results in feelings of shame and doubt.
Stage 3: Initiative vs Guilt (three to six years)
Important events: Exploration
❖ Children need to begin asserting control and power over their environment. Success in
this stage leads to a sense of purpose.
❖ Children who try to exert too much power, experience disapproval, resulting in a sense
of guilt.
Stage 4: Industry vs Inferiority (six to 12 years)
Important events: School
❖ Children need to cope with new social and academic demands.

❖ Success leads to a sense of competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority.
Stage5: Identity vs Role confusion (12 to adolescence)
Important events: Social relationships
❖ Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal identity.

❖ Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while failure leads to role confusion
and a weak sense of self.
Stage 6: Intimacy vs Isolation (18 years and older)
Important events: Relationships
❖ Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people.
❖ Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation.
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Stage 7: Generativity vs Stagnation (middle adulthood)
Important events: Work and parenthood
❖ Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children or
creating a positive change that benefits other people.
❖ Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in
shallow involvement in the world.
Stage 8: Integrity vs Despair (late adulthood)
Important events: Reflection on life
❖ Look back on life and feel a sense of fulfilment.

❖ Older adults' need to succeed at this stage, leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure
results in regret, bitterness and despair.
1.7.3 Learning theory perspective

Most learning theories accept Kohn Locke's (1632-1704) theory that an infant's mind is a blank
slate. Lock believed that the way to get children to learn something is to have them practice it
over and over again until it becomes a habit (Fein 1978). Learning theorist such as John Watson,
BF Skinner and Albert Bandura developed their theories from John Lock.
1.7.3.1 Early learning theorists

Watson (1878-1858) is known as the father of behaviourism and was the first to apply this
approach to child development. (Behaviourism refers to the theory that behaviour is primarily
learned from one's environment). Watson was influenced by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian Nobel Prize
winner who repeatedly paired the sound of the bell with food presented to the dog, causing the
dog to salivate. According to the learning theory, behaviour is shaped by external events. The
change in behaviour involves associative processes. Learning theorists see the organism
(animal or person) as reactive to particular external stimuli with a particular response. This
symbolises as S-R (stimulus-response). The stimulus can be any action or agent that causes
or changes an activity of the subject. The response is the reaction of the organism to the stimuli
(Fein 1978). According to early learning, the phenomenon of the repeated pairing of stimuli that
led to new behaviour is called classical conditioning. Classical conditioning refers to the process
of learning whereby initially neutral stimuli (e.g. sound of the bell) comes to elicit a particular
response (e.g. saliva) after repeatedly being paired with an unconditional stimulus (e.g. food)
(Louw & Louw 2014).
Skinner (1904-1990) is another learning theorist who was influenced by behaviourism; however,
he took a different route. Regarding child development, Watson focused on children's responses
(reactions) to the environment while Skinner believed that children learn through responses from
the environment. Skinner called this process operant conditioning. The term operant
conditioning is derived from the word 'operate': Skinner believed that children operate in their
environment to attract more rewarding reactions and to avoid punishment. The basic principle of
operant conditioning is that if a child's behaviour is rewarded, it is more likely to be repeated, but
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if the behaviour is met with a negative reaction (punishment), it is less likely to occur again (Louw
& Louw 2014). For example, if a child is grounded for unacceptable behaviour, the chances are
that bad behaviour may not be repeated.
1.7.3.2 Social cognitive theory

Learning theory further developed from social learning theory. Researchers discovered that
children sometimes learn without reinforcement or punishment. Instead, they learn by simply
watching those around them, which is known as imitation, modelling or observational learning.
For example, when a small child swears at another child, it is because he or she heard an adult
swearing.
Albert Bandura (1925-present), an American psychologist, is viewed as the father of social

cognitive theory. Initially, he called it social learning theory but later realised that cognitive factors
also play an important role, hence it changed to social cognitive theory. By so doing, Bandura
refined this theory by placing more emphasis on children's ability to decide which behaviour to
model. This decision is influenced by the child's expectation of the consequences of imitating the
model's behaviour together with his or her personal standards and value systems and how
powerful and dynamic the model is. Furthermore, Bandura maintains that children's self-efficacy
(beliefs about their abilities and potentials) play a role in their decisions to imitate others (Louw &
Louw 2014). For example, children with soccer skills would much rather imitate Hlompho Kekana
(Sundown's player) than they would imitate those without such talent.
Learning theories have contributed greatly to child psychology and made us aware of the
importance of environmental factors. Learning theories have widely researched scientifically and
scientific criteria and contributed to the development of child psychology as a widely recognised
science.
1.7.4 Theoretical perspective of cognitive development

Advocates of cognitive theories are Jean Piaget and the information-processing theorists. The
cognitive development perspective focuses on how children think and how their thinking changes
over time (Louw & Louw 2014).
1.7.4.1 Piaget's theory of cognitive development

Piaget's theory of cognitive development is a well-explained theory of the way human intelligence
develops. He did not agree that children are born with an empty brain but believed that every child
has potential and is actively involved in his or her development of intelligence or any other domain.
According to him, cognitive development is a continuous reorganisation of mental processes
that originate from our genetic makeup and maturation and are shaped by environmental
experiences.
Piaget believed that children make sense of the world around them and gain knowledge from
interacting with their environment. He refers to this knowledge as schemes. When they
experience new things, they add these new things into their existing schemes. Piaget refers to
this process as assimilation. In the instance where the new knowledge is added to the existing
knowledge and the child needs to adjust the existing knowledge to make sense of it, Piaget refers
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to the process as accommodation. When children reach a state of balance between what they
know and what they have newly learned, they are in a state of mind that Piaget refers to as
equilibrium.
Table 1.2: Piaget's stages of cognitive development
Name of stage Age of the stage
Sensory-motor phase Birth to two years – The preschooler

stage
Preoperational phase Two to seven years – The Grade R

years
Concrete operational phase Seven to 11 years – The school-age

stage
Formal operational phase 11 years and older – The period

leading to the adolescence
stage and over.
Source: Joshua Seong – Verywell (2018)
1.7.4.2 Information-processing theory

According to the information-processing theory, the focus is on how incoming information is
processed for a person to make sense out of it. This theory draws knowledge on how a computer
functions and explains thinking and its development from childhood to adolescence. Information-
processing theory holds the view that human cognition consists of mental hardware and mental
software. Mental hardware refers to cognitive structures, including different memories where
information is stored.
Mental software includes organised sets of cognitive processes that permits children to complete
specific tasks, such as reading a sentence, playing a video game or hitting a tennis ball.
Information processing assume that the memory system is made up of multiple components: the
sensory memory (where information is recognised, the short-term memory (the working
memory where information is processed) and the long-term memory (where information is
permanently stored). Each memory manages information differently. The short-term memory is
limited and only holds information for a short period of time such as a grocery list, while the long-
term memory is unlimited in capacity and stores more information in associations. Age difference
in memory capacity is also acknowledged. Older children can hold more information than younger
children.
According to information-processing psychologists, developmental change in thinking is

explained by comparing two computers. The old -fashioned computer has lesser or inadequate
competence than the latest computer that has more sophisticated hardware. Like modern
computers, older children and adolescents have better hardware and software than younger
children. For instance, older children can solve problems better than younger children because
they have a greater memory capacity to store the facts of the problem as well as methods for
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performing operations that are more efficient (Louw & Louw 2014). Information processing will be
discussed more in the next units where it is relevant in the developmental stages of the child.
Look at the following facts about the information-processing theory, as adapted from Conkbayir
and Pascal (2014).
• Likens human cognition to the functioning of a computer, with hardware and software;
an explanation of how people process and store new information.
• Mental hardware consists of components of varying capacity that acquire, store and
retrieve information
• These components include the sensory memory, where information is quickly
recognised, the short-term memory, where information is held for a limited time, and
the long-term memory, where information can be stored semi-permanently or even
permanently.
• Long-term memory is divided into episodic memory (memory of events), semantic
memory (memory of facts), procedural memory (memory of how to perform certain
tasks), implicit memory (habits and routines one is largely unaware of), and explicit
memory (knowledge actively acquired).
• Mental software includes the following cognitive processes:
❖ Memory strategies, which are deliberate cognitive activities intended to improve the
processing and storage of information, including rehearsal, the conscious repetition of
information that the individual wants to remember, and retrieval, the process of
accessing information that has previously been cognitively represented.
❖ Metacognition refers to the knowledge about and control over one's own cognitive
processes.
❖ Executive functioning refers to consciously controlling thoughts, emotions and
behaviour to achieve a specific goal.
1.7.4.3 Gardner's multiple-intelligence theory

Howard Gardner developed the theory of multiple intelligences, which advocates that people
possess at least eight different forms of intelligence to a greater and/or lesser degree. These eight
different types of intelligence are not subject specific and can be related to many different learning
areas. Grade R teachers should be aware of the different multiple intelligences that children bring
to the classroom and be able to identify them. This intelligence is of utmost importance in guiding
the choice of appropriate teaching and learning strategies (Gardner, 1983; 1999; 2006).
This represents different intellectual abilities and goes along with different learning styles. The
following are the different criteria for multiple intelligence as adapted from Conkbayir and Pascal
(2014):
• Logical/mathematical: Highly logical or mathematical children will be interested in

problem-solving and hypothesis-testing strategies.
• Verbal/linguistic: Children with strong oral language abilities like to read and to think
out loud.
• Spatial: Children who are visually/spatially strong, learn best from information that they
see or read.
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• Bodily/kinaesthetic: Children who are highly bodily/kinaesthetic enjoy learning while
moving about freely and touching.
• Interpersonal: Children enjoy engaging in learning experiences in a social setting.
• Intrapersonal (emotional): Children who are highly emotional, sensitive, enjoy
solitude, like thinking and are happy to work alone.
The following video explains multiple intelligences visually:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s2EdujrM0vA
Read more about multiple intelligences at:
https://www.wikihow.com/Find-out-Your-Multiple-Intelligences
1.7.4.4 Bruner's constructivist theory of learning

Jerome Bruner's most notable theoretical contributions towards the understanding cognitive and
language development are built on Vygotsky's sociocultural theory (Conkbayir & Pascal 2014).
He focused on the social and cultural context in which learning and development take place.
Some of these contributions are the concepts of scaffolding, the spiral curriculum and the three
modes of representation.
Scaffolding a task entails revealing only the parts of a task that the child will be able to do, thus
allowing the child to achieve higher levels of cognitive development (Conkbayir & Pascal 2014).
This process usually comes quite naturally to those working with children, such as teachers and
parents, without having to give it much thought. Children's thinking can be scaffolded by
motivation and encouragement, providing models to imitate, simplifying a task or idea, and
highlighting errors or important elements of a task. Because of the similarity between scaffolding
and the processes described by Vygotsky in explaining how children can move to higher levels
of accomplishment with assistance (in their Zone of Proximal Development), the term scaffolding,
is commonly used in association with Vygotsky's theory.
An essential aspect of the spiral curriculum is the belief that any learning content needs to be
taught in line with what the child already knows and can do. The child is said to benefit from
learning experiences that can be revisited continuously in more depth in the future, as it results
in the consolidation of their understanding (Conkbayir & Pascal 2014). This gives children the
opportunity to reflect on learning experiences and build on their existing knowledge, and thereby
enhance their ability to meet new learning experiences with creativity.
Bruner suggested three modes of representation that explain how a child stores and processes
information at different ages, namely enactive representation, iconic representation, and symbolic
representation:
Here is a summary of Bruner's constructivist theory of learning, as adapted from Conkbayir and
Pascal (2014).
• Bruner's constructivist theory of learning focuses on social and cultural context.
• It describes the concept of scaffolding: when others support children's thinking

according to their level of development, by motivating them, providing models,
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simplifying tasks or ideas, or identifying important elements of a task, and then gradually
decreasing the support as the children become more capable.
• The spiral curriculum refers to aligning learning content with children's existing
knowledge and providing opportunities to revisit previously learnt topics in more depth
to consolidate understanding.
• Three modes of representation may be identified. These explain different ways for
children to store and process new information, which emerges at various ages:
o Enactive representation (birth to one year): information is stored through hands-on

experiences and experiences of real-life or 3D objects.
o Iconic representation (one to six years): information is categorised as cognitive images

and children can relate to a 2D representation.
o Symbolic representation (from seven years): the child can think abstractly and
information can now be stored as symbols (e.g. language/numbers).
• Language Acquisition Support System (LASS), consisting of meaningful interaction

with adults and peers, is crucial for language development.
Activity 1.5: Article
Read the article titled "Piaget, Vygotsky and the cultural development of the notions of possibility
and necessity: Experimental study among rural South African learners" under e-reserves on
myUnisa to enrich your understanding on the theories of cognitive development. Outline the key
concepts of each theory.
When answering the activity, think of the learning objective: Identify and critically discuss theories
underpinning child development.
In this activity you have to reflect on the possible implications that each theory of cognitive
development may have for your practice as a Grade R teacher.
39
Keep the following in mind when answering the questions:
Piaget
❖ Learning activities should be child-centred and allow children to engage in the active
discovery of concepts.
❖ Grade R children will likely be in the preoperational stage of development.
Vygotsky
❖ It is important to consider the cultural context of the child to plan appropriate learning
experiences.
❖ Children will benefit from group work and learn from each other.
❖ It is essential to determine what children can currently do to support them to move to
higher levels of achievement, within their ZPD.
❖ Focus on the importance of language development.
Information-processing theory
❖ Activities that enhance the development of memory can be incorporated into the
classroom daily.
❖ Children can be supported to develop their memory strategies, metacognition and
executive functioning.
Bruner
❖ Children's learning may be scaffolded by providing motivation, models, simplifying ideas
or tasks, and so forth.
❖ As children may be on different levels of development, they may benefit from working in
groups with similar needs and who receive similar amounts of scaffolding.
❖ To incorporate the spiral curriculum, teachers need to plan teaching experiences that
will revisit concepts, rather than dealing with a topic only once.
❖ Grade R children will have developed the first two modes of representation.
1.7.5 Theories in relation to the context of children's lives
1.7.5.1 Contextual perspective theories

Contextual perspective theorists advocate for environmental forces that affect children directly
during their development. Parents and peers are the direct environmental influences on the child's
development. According to the contextual perspective, parental influence on the child's
development are simply one part of the larger system where each element of the system
influences all other elements. The larger system includes one's parents and siblings, as well as
important individuals outside the family; for example, the extended family, friends and teachers.
This system includes institutions that influence development like schools, television, the
workplace and the church, temple or mosque.
Together, people and institutions form a person's culture, that is, knowledge, attitudes and
behaviour associated with a group of people. A culture provides a context in which a child
develops and, therefore, is a source of many important influences in the development throughout
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childhood and adolescence. Vygotsky and Bronfenbrenner are the contributors of cultural
influences on the child's development.
1.7.5.1.1 Vygotsky's socio-cultural theory
Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was one of the first psychologist to emphasise the cultural context in
children's development. Vygotsky, the Russian psychologist, paid attention to the ways that adults
use to convey beliefs, customs and skills of their culture to children. Vygotsky placed substantial
emphasis on social factors contributing to cognitive development (McLeod 2018). He maintained
that the aim of all societies is to enable children to acquire essential cultural values and skills and
every aspect of a child's development should be considered against this background. For
example, most parents from developed cultures want their children to work hard in school to be
admitted to a university or college, because earning a degree or diploma is one of the keys to
getting a good job. Parents in the developing nations want their children to learn skills to provide
in specific needs that are key to their survival in their specific environments (Louw & Louw 2014).
Furthermore, Vygotsky suggested that the child's acquisition of new skills is guided by an adult
or older child who models and structures the learning experience. Such learning occurs favourably
in what he called zone of proximal development. This refers to tasks that are too difficult for a
child to do alone but that he or she can manage with the help of an adult (Louw & Louw 2014).
Shaffer (1996) gives the example of a young girl who is given her first jigsaw. Alone, she performs
poorly in attempting to solve the puzzle. The father then sits with her and describes or
demonstrates some basic strategies, such as finding all the corner/edge pieces and providing a
couple of pieces for the child to put together herself and offers encouragement when she does
so.
As the child becomes more competent, the father allows the child to work more independently.
According to Vygotsky, this type of social interaction involves cooperative or collaborative
dialogue and promotes cognitive development. Therefore, it is important to understand that the
zone of proximal development relates to the difference between what a child can achieve
independently and what a child can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a skilled
partner (McLeod 2018).
Here is a summary of Vygotsky' sociocultural theory, as adapted from Conkbayir and Pascal
(2014).
• It focussed on the importance of social and cultural context in child development.
• Cultural tools provided by their cultures, such as language, memory strategies, writing
and numerical systems are essential for cognitive development.
• Zone of proximal development: The area between a child's actual level of

development and skills, and the level of achievement they are able to attain with the
guidance and support of another.
• Differentiation can be made between lower mental functions, which is similar to

Piaget's sensorimotor reasoning, dependant on senses and movement, and higher
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mental functions, such as language and logical thinking, which develop out of lower
mental functions.
• During critical periods, which occur around the ages of one, three and six years,
children's entire systems of mental functions undergo major changes.
• Concerning language development, Vygotsky believed social interaction is essential

to language acquisition and development.
Language initially develops as a separate process from thought, and they only later start mutually
influencing each other.
1.7.5 2 Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory

Vygotsky was the first pioneer of the contextual view on child development, though
Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005) is probably the best-known theorists on the importance of the
context. According to Bronfenbrenner, child development is embedded in a series of complex and
interactive systems. He divides the environment into four levels: the microsystem, the
mesosystem, the exosystem and the macrosystem (Louw & Louw 2014).
Microsystem: The prefix "micro" comes from the Greek word for "small," and is the first and
immediate layer of the nested systems (Bronfenbrenner & Morris 2006). Microsystem consists
of the child and the persons in the child's immediate environment. The structures in the
microsystem include family, school, peer group and neighbourhood environments. In these
immediate environments, a child's development depends on the opportunities and structures
that exists or are provided (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006). For example, the children with a
sociable nature will produce more positive interactions, from their environments, which in turn
may have a positive influence in their overall development, than children from a more difficult
nature (Louw & Louw 2014).
In the play centre, Grade R, the microsystem is very important. Different aspects will have an
impact on the child. For example: the teacher's attitude. Is it a structured classroom? Is it a calm
environment? This will all influence the way in which the children engage in activities and interact
with both their friends and the teacher. Thus, the microenvironment will influence proximal
processes.
The microsystem can also be a safe place for a child. If the child comes from an unstable home,
the classroom can be a place of comfort.
Think of the atmosphere in the classroom – a teacher-centred classroom will feel strict and
inaccessible, where a child-centred classroom will have a relaxed atmosphere where the
children and the teacher can be themselves.
Mesosystem: It is second layer from the individual, surrounding the microsystem and the different
interactions between the characters of the microsystem (Bronfenbrenner & Morris 2006).
Mesosystem represents reciprocal interactions between various microsystems (such as the
home, school and neighbourhood). This means that what happens in one microsystem might
influence the other microsystem. For example, a child's academic progress is related not only to
classroom activities, but also to parents' involvement in the school and the academic support that
the child receives at home (Louw & Louw 2014).
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Children coming from strict households, where the parents are authoritarian, will struggle to adjust
in a classroom where the atmosphere is authoritative or democratic and vice versa.
Bronfenbrenner's systems will thus help teachers and children to know that different environments
require different types of behaviour and afford the learning of new roles and new ways of acting
and interacting.
Exosystem: It is the third layer and contains elements of the microsystem that do not affect the
individual directly; however, it may do so indirectly during the child's development
(Bronfenbrenner & Morris 2006). These environments may be formal institutions such as parent's
work environments, the media, religious and judicial institutions, availability of healthcare and
social welfare institutions or informal social networks of friends and family who offer friendship,
advice, help and support to the parents (Louw & Louw 2014).
The parents' workplace can have an indirect influence on the child's development. For example,
if the parents are retrenched from their work and no longer have income to provide in the family's
needs, it may have a negative impact on the child. The child may lack food or clothing due to
poverty. Thus, the exosystem has an indirect effect on the child' development.
Macrosystem: The prefix "macro" comes from the Greek word for "large," and is used as this
system was thought to be all-encompassing. This is the broadest environment that encompasses
cultural and societal beliefs and programming that influence an individual's development
(Bronfenbrenner & Morris 2006). The macrosystem has an indirect and important influence on
the child' development.
It is thus important that a teacher understands that the home experiences of children coming from
various ethnic or racial groups are different from his or her own. This will make the transition
between house and school, the mesosystem, easy, since the teacher can plan activities and
interactions in such a way that no child will feel excluded.
As all children and the teachers are exposed to variations in the microsystem, they might start
seeing issues such as different values, beliefs or practices from different perspectives, and might
adjust their own identity. The adjustments of the differences in the microsystem reflect in the
macrosystem.
Microsystem Macrosystem
Figure 1.1: shows that the micro- and macrosystems influence one another.
In this sense, the parent's choice of the child's care centre will stem from values and beliefs shared
by the cultural group of which the parent is a part, but also from the macrosystem, meaning what
kind of care they can afford in that specific environment.
Chronosystem: Bronfenbrenner believed that the child's environment does not remain static.
Instead, it constantly changes, not only regarding the child's social environment (e.g. death of
parent, divorce, relocation school entry), but also regarding the physiological changes related
child's developmental process. He calls this aspect the chronosystem (chrono refers to time),
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which incorporates the temporal (time) dimension of this model (Bronfenbrenner 1994; Louw &
Louw 2014).
1.7.6 The African perspective theory
Louw and Louw (2014) point out that theories of human behaviour are usually described within
the context of a specific world view. According to the traditional African worldview, theory of
human behaviour is based on a holistic perspective of human behaviour and the universe.
Human behaviour is understood only in terms of the greater whole of which the individual is a
part. This perspective assumes a hierarchical view of the universe namely, inanimate (lifeless)
objects form the lowest level of the hierarchy, followed by plants and animals. Humans are placed
in the middle, followed by the living dead (dead people who are still remembered, who are still
regarded as members of the society and who still exert an influence in people's daily lives).
Humans are viewed from an anthropocentric framework because humans are placed in the
middle of the universe, from which everything else's position is understood. African perspective
holds the view that humans are influenced by their relationship with the environment, other people
and ancestors. This perspective furthermore places great emphasis on spirituality because all
behaviour is spiritual and therefore humans are spiritual.
African theories of child development are rare due to lack of scientific research, especially in
South Africa. Information on child development and rearing techniques are enormous but
unfortunately not based on researched. Nsamenang (1992; 2006; 2008; 2011) regards human
development as a social ontogenesis (ontogenesis is the development from conception to
death) as it is situated within the ecological and social environments in which it takes place.
Louw and Louw (2014) indicate that Ntsamenang describes the human lifespan and lifecycle as
three phases of selfhood. The first is spiritual selfhood, which begins with conception or earlier,
as rebirth of an ancestral spirit. This phase ends when the newborn's umbilical stump falls off and
he or she is incorporated into the living community through a name-giving ceremony.
Mwamwenda (2004) highlights that the naming of the child is viewed as an important event as
the name of the child reveals a great deal about the feelings of the parents when the child was
born or the circumstances that prevailed in the community during the birth of the child. For
example, the child may be called Nomvula (rain) because when she was born when it was raining.
The second phase is social selfhood, which begins at birth (or generally after the naming
ceremony) and ends with death. The final phase is the ancestral selfhood that follows a person's
biological death. When the person is dead and buried, he or she is incorporated into the spiritual
selfhood (as the person joins the ancestors and becomes one) that is accompanied by ritual
initiations. Ancestors continue to influence in their daily lives (Louw & Louw 2014).
1.8 CONCLUSION
Learning unit 1 introduced the study of Child Development in the Grade R years. It discussed the
early years and background information that is basic to child development. This learning unit
explains the two concepts of child development and ECD in detail. The environment and the
culture from which children were raised is referred to as influencing factors that contribute to
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development. It was also necessary in this unit to refer to the development of the preschooler as
a way of providing background to the study of the Grade R child, who is central in this module.
Different theories were also identified and discussed for you to understand child development
from different perspectives or world views.
1.9 SELF-EVALUATION ASSESSMENT
This section contains self-assessment questions to evaluate your understanding of the content
presented in this learning unit.
❖ Define the concepts, child development and early childhood development.

❖ Differentiate between child development and early childhood development.
❖ Demonstrate your understanding of development in the Grade R years.
❖ Highlight the influence of the environment on the development of young children.
❖ Illustrate how cultural practices can influence the development of children from birth to
six years old.
❖ Identify and critically discuss theories underpinning child development.
❖ Reflect on and record the implications of theories for practise with children with diverse
needs.
1.10 ADDITIONAL LEARNING EXPERIENCES
To summarised what you have learned about child development and early childhood
development, take a few minutes and watch the following videos.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vWsBMyfyeFY (Broad explanation about child

development)
• https://study.com/academy/lesson/history-of-early-childhood-education.html (Child
development)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hS9sGOSTHU0 (Early childhood development)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7qmkxytBeDs (The importance of early childhood
development)
• https://youtu.be/E5wsK75Y4Xs (Some theories of child development)
• https://www.verywellmind.com/erik-eriksons-stages-of-psychosocial-development-
2795740 (Erikson's stages)
• https://study.com/academy/lesson/erik-eriksons-eight-stages-of-psychosocial-
development-conflicts-growth.html (Erikson's theory)
• https://study.com/academy/lesson/piagets-theory-of-cognitive-development.html (Jean
Piaget theory)
• https://study.com/academy/lesson/lev-vygotskys-theory-of-cognitive-development.html
(Lev Vygotsky)
• https://study.com/academy/lesson/zone-of-proximal-development-and-scaffolding-in-
the-classroom.html (Lev Vygotsky)
• https://study.com/academy/lesson/jerome-bruner-scaffolding-and-constructivism-
theories.html (Jerome Bruner)
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• https://study.com/academy/lesson/howard-gardner-theory-impact-on-education.html
(Howard Gardner)
• https://study.com/academy/lesson/bronfenbrenners-ecological-systems-theory-of-
development-definition-examples.html (Uri Bronfenbrenner)
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LEARNING UNIT 2: UNDERSTANDING THE GRADE R YEARS
THE AIMS OF THE LEARNING UNIT
Learning unit 2 aims to equip you with knowledge about the Grade R years. The unit also aims to
provide you with skills to prepare and promote development in the Grade R class.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• List the characteristics of the Grade R child.

• Explain how to plan and arrange the Grade R class.
• Outline the role of the Grade R teacher.
• Discuss the importance of play in Grade R.
• Outline the role of parents in promoting the Grade R child's development.
➢ Grade R is the first formal year of schooling where children are received and helped at
school.
➢ Grade R child is a child who is between the ages of four to six years old.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Learning unit 2 builds on the discussion about the development of the toddler or the preschool
child between the ages of one and three years. In South Africa, a Grade R child is a child who is
between the ages of four to six years. In this learning unit, we start by defining children in the
Grade R years to explain the transition from one stage of development to the next and understand
the changes during these years more clearly.
The explanation on the characteristics of the Grade R child is followed by a table illustrating
developmental milestones during the Grade R period. Pictures of good Grade R classes provide
examples of how a good Grade R class looks and can help you with ideas of how you should plan
and arrange the class in future. A good teacher not only plans and arranges the class; he or she
facilitates the development of children in his or her care. Also, a class should not remain stagnant,
it should change and offer new challenges as the child progresses and develops throughout the
year. The role of the teacher is discussed in detail to fulfil this purpose. Play as a method of
teaching in Grade R is discussed in detail in the paragraphs that follow the teacher's role. The
parents' role is discussed before the learning unit concludes.
In the next paragraphs, the Grade R years and Grade R children are discussed to provide you
with the context within which the children's development is explained.
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2.2 WHO IS THE GRADE R CHILD?
A child between the ages of four and six years is referred to as a Grade R child. Children in this
phase differ from preschoolers in terms of their developing skills.
2.2.1 Explanation of the Grade R years
❖ The White Paper 5 of the Department of Education in South Africa (DBE 2001)
stipulates that Grade R includes children between the ages of four and six years.
❖ According to Morin (2017), a child between four and six years is regarded as a
kindergarten child. Commonly, this child is referred to as a Grade R child in South
Africa.
❖ Grade R is an unusual year in that it is often perceived as a bridging year between
home life and formal schooling (Janse van Rensburg 2015).
Children are most commonly enrolled in Grade R between the ages of four and five, although
those as young as three can attend some schools
(http://www.healthofchildren.com/P/Preschool.html). A common feature in the stated definitions
is the beginning and end of the Grade R period, except in South Africa where the entry age is
five years. These age cut-offs have implications for the characteristics of Grade R children.
2.2.2 Characteristics of Grade R children
The characteristics of Grade R children provides a broader understanding of who Grade R

children are. It is important to remember that each child is unique and that he or she will develop
in a unique pattern.
Woolfolk (1995) describes five-year-old children as children with creative skills who are concerned
with dealing and solving new challenges. They are interested in the environment around them
and will spend time trying to solve or understand new challenges. Often, they get absorbed in an
activity and will not stop until they are satisfied that they have completed what they needed to do.
They ask a lot of questions as they deal with a situation to get a better understanding. They
become more sociable and enjoy working with other children.
Five-year olds are fascinated by the way things work in their environment. They are interested in
the "how" and "why" of things and can manipulate objects with ease since they are physically well
developed. (Could this be the reason why they break their toys?) They like using objects or even
try to make tools and instruments for their play. They can use things like a hammer or pliers to
make something. The children's language skills have grown to the extent that they can use
descriptive language to ask questions or state their position in an argument.
Other common characteristics of children between the ages of four and six years are listed in the
following statements:
❖ Grade R children become more independent and learn new basic life skills.
❖ They acquire new knowledge that will help them to adjust easily and learn when they
start formal schooling.
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❖ They are very active and enjoy engaging in different physical activities like running and
climbing, including riding a bicycle with training wheels.
❖ They can identify a number of colours and count beyond 10.
❖ They improve their drawing skills and will draw everywhere, including on the walls of
your house.
❖ They can cut basic figures out of paper and paste them on another piece of paper.
❖ They are known for asking questions (sometimes silly ones) and can have extended
conversations.
❖ They begin to understand right and wrong and can follow rules set for them.
❖ They begin developing relationships with peers but remain egocentric and self-serving.
❖ They can play with peers and sometimes create an imaginary friend.
Figure 2.1: A class of Grade R children (source: https://www.shutterstock.com)
Figure 1 shows Grade R children sitting on the floor looking at a picture that the teacher is
explaining to them.
Another way of explaining the characteristics of Grade R children is through case studies. Read
the next case study to understand how their characteristics can be observed in daily interactions.
CASE STUDY: A conversation between five-year-old Johnny and his father
Father: Johnny what have you drawn on the paper you are holding?
Johnny: Why are you asking me?
Father: I want to see what you have drawn
Johnny: Don't you know what little boys like me can draw?
Father: All right Johnny, I'll ask your little sister to show me her drawings.
[Johnny hands the drawing to his father. It is a recognisable picture of a person with eyes and
other body parts in the correct place and correct proportion. There is a house, a yellow sun,
a green tree and a brown dog with four legs all in appropriate places].
Johnny: Look, this dog is standing under the tree and is barking at that man [pointing to the
picture of the person he has drawn] because it does not know him. Dogs don't like strangers
and can bite them if they go into our house.
Father: Johnny, this is good, you are a clever boy!
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Johnny: [happily and confidently] I still want to cut out flowers from this book and paste them
on paper for my sister.
Father: You have all the crayons. Give some to your little sister.
Johnny: No, they are all mine.
Look at Johnny's language development. What Johnny is saying to his father, how is he saying
it, what he is doing, what body parts are used in those activities, and how well or badly does he
use them?
Characteristics of Grade R children are general behaviours that are noted in the children as they
interact with people around them. On the other hand, the development of children's domains is
more about biological changes seen in children as they grow in age. The achievements gained
during the stages are referred to as milestones and include children's cognitive, linguistic,
physical, emotional, social and moral development. This learning unit focuses on the Grade R
child's developmental milestones.
2.3 DEVELOPMENTAL MILESTONES OF THE GRADE R CHILD
The Grade R child's stages of development are explained in terms of the different domains of
development. The stages are presented as developmental milestones. According to Morin (2017),
skills such as talking in an understandable manner, climbing trees, colouring pictures, and playing
well with other children are called developmental milestones. Developmental milestones are
things most children can do by a certain age.
However, it is important to note that there is considerable variation in the achievement of

milestones. Some children achieve ahead of others and continue to lead in their development.
You must remember that every child is unique and that milestones are not rigid cut-off
achievements. For the Grade R child, areas of development that are prominent are cognitive,
language, physical and social development.
Table 2.1: Developmental milestones in Grade R children
Developmental Developmental milestones

domain
Cognitive According to Piaget, children in this age group are in the

development preoperational stage. The children begin to do the following:
• Understand the difference between real and make-believe.

• Understand that pictures and symbols stand for real things.
• Explore relationships between ideas, using words like if and
when to express themselves.
• Start thinking in logical steps, which means seeing the "how-
to's" and consequences of things.
• Get abstract ideas like "bigger," "less," "heavy," and "now".
• Put things in order, such as from biggest to smallest, shortest
to tallest.
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• Stick with an activity for 10 to 15 minutes.
Language Language development tends to explode in this year. This may

development include developing a vocabulary of more than 1 000 words and
using complicated sentences that combine more than one thought.
Children start asking who, what, why, when and where questions
— and can maybe even answer some. By the end of this year,
most children can do the following:
• Sing silly songs, make up goofy words and start rhyming.

• Follow simple, unrelated directions, like "Go find your shoes
and pick up that toy."
• Change speech patterns depending on who he or she is
having a conversation with, such as speaking in short
sentences to a younger sibling.
• Pronounce most sounds correctly, but still have trouble with s,
w and r sounds. In African languages the q, tl, nx, kgw,
sounds are usually problematic.
• Ask for the meaning of unfamiliar words.
• Make up stories and talk about what he or she is thinking.
• Argue, even though the argument might not be logical.
Physical Children grow in weight and height during this period. Eyesight
development continues to get better, so too does eye-hand coordination. By the
end of this period, most children can do the following:
Gross motor skills

▪ Control movement more easily; start, stop, turn and go around
obstacles while running
▪ Roll, do somersaults, skip and trot
▪ Get dressed with minimal help (zippers, snaps and buttons
may still be a little hard)
▪ Throw and bounce a ball
▪ Jump over objects and climb playground ladders
▪ Pedal and steer a tricycle or bike
Fine motor skills

▪ Draw or copy basic shapes and crosses (this is a milestone
known as "being able to cross the midline")
▪ Write some letters
▪ Begin to use scissors purposefully
▪ Stack a tower at least 10 blocks high
▪ String beads or rings to make necklaces
▪ Pinch and shape clay or playdough into recognisable objects
Social and The child may start to develop his or /her unique personality. He or
emotional she may get along with peers and work out things that bother him
development or her through play. Most children can also do the following:
• Share, cooperate, be helpful and take turns

• Enjoy telling silly jokes and find other things funny
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• Begin telling small lies to get out of trouble, even though he or
she knows it is wrong
• Do or say things he or she should not, to see what the
reaction will be
• Have imaginary friends and play the same imaginary games
over and over
Remember that children develop at different paces. Your child may

gain some skills later than other children or have some skills that
are advanced for his age. If your child does meet many of these
milestones, consider speaking to a doctor to see if an evaluation of
his or her skills is recommended. There are a number of ways in
which you, your child's doctor and even his preschool teacher can
work together to help boost the child's skills.
Source: Morin (2017)
Table 2.1 shows a typical four-year-old Grade R child's developmental milestones, which include
cognitive, language, physical, social and emotional development. The child's achievements in
every domain are listed in bullets. This list is not cast in stone and can be added to or explained
differently. As a teacher, you must know what the children in the class should be doing and help
them improve their development.
2.4 PLAN AND ARRANGE THE GRADE R CLASS
2.4.1 The Grade R class
In South Africa, the Grade R class is situated in learning centres or at schools in the foundation
phase and there are challenges. The question has always been which of the two positions is best
suited to prepare children for entry into Grade 1? The concern arises because of the fact that
centre-based Grade R is controlled by the Department of Social Development (DSD) and school-
based Grade R by the Department of Basic Education (DBE). The core business of the DBE is
education and the Grade R class is considered as the first entry into the foundation phase. The
DSD focusses on care and the wellbeing of children, which is central to their functioning.
Fortunately, a number of centre-based Grade R classes adhere to the curriculum and assessment
policy statement (CAPS).
The Grade R class in centre-based facilities may emphasise care over education. The advantage
is the informal approach they adopt and the fact that children are nurtured according to their
developmental levels. However, there may be challenges in poor environments where the centres
are privately owned and are for profit. Such facilities may lack resources and may not be able to
have different learning areas because of space resulting in a poor-quality service.
The school-based Grade R class follows a formal approach to teaching and learning, which is not
encouraged for Grade R children. The situation is dire in poor township schools where there are
no appropriate facilities for Grade R children as illustrated in the case study about Kgotso's
classroom (see learning unit 1), which was a converted old storeroom with no resources that
could assist in proper teaching. In richer environments, however, the teaching focuses on
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children's functioning levels and follows a developmentally appropriate programme (DAP). The
Grade R class is strategically positioned to accommodate a structured learning environment,
including an outdoor play area that does not interfere with the running of other classes.
The learning environments that were explained and displayed in learning unit 1, intend to make
you aware of the diversity that exists in early learning institutions in South African and to prepare
you to teach in such environments if you find yourself there. Within the two classroom examples,
more diversity could exist. This could include the absence of guidance for Grade R teachers,
overcrowding, a lack of physical space and complete lack resources.
Currently, Grade R classes or learning environments exist in different locations under diverse
conditions. There are those that are well planned and resourced at different centres controlled by
the DSD or are privately owned, and those in township backyards or rural areas that have nothing.
Some school-based Grade R classes, usually in the suburbs, are properly designed and well
resourced. There are also well resourced and good Grade R classes in township schools,
including those that are empty makeshift classrooms with no resources at all. In all instances,
you are the key factor. You must be a knowledgeable, creative, committed, enthusiastic,
reflective and qualified Grade R teacher who can plan and arrange a good classroom even with
meagre resources. We are now going to look at examples of good Grade R classes.
2.4.1.1 Examples of good Grade R classes

Before describing a good Grade R class, we will look at the three basic goals that each learning
environment must meet to promote successful learning. They are the following:
❖ The room and yard must accommodate all the resources that are needed for a
Grade R class. Such resources are physical, as in the different learning areas, or
temporary like the space at the discovery table that can be moved after the children
have explained what they have brought to school. It must also be interactive, meaning
that the resources in the room must compel the child to interact with them. The
resources must be attractive and inviting to children.
❖ The arrangement in the room must accommodate the Grade R schedule and allow
for planned activities to take place when and as planned. For instance, the reading
corner must be in a secluded corner where there will be minimum interference and
where children can relax either on the mat or on sofas. The block area must not be
next to an area with breakable resources.
❖ The atmosphere in the room must be warm and promote interaction with the
teacher and/or other children. When children enter the room they must know where to
go for their activities and which areas they can be at only in the teacher's presence.
In addition to these goals that need to be met when planning a good Grade R environment, there
are suggestions on what to do to design a good environment that will promote the child's holistic
development.
2.4.1.2 Planning the arrangement of the classroom

A well-planned and resource-rich classroom environment has a great impact on young children.
The manner in which the learning spaces are planned, the furniture arrangement, and the way
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the resources are arranged on the floor and walls all influence children in a remarkable way. In
other words, the planning and arrangement of the classroom can be used to develop children's
specific areas of development in different ways:
❖ Physically, children's development can be promoted through a well-demarcated

learning environment where, for instance, blocks or the painting stand can be placed to
encourage children's gross and fine motor development respectively.
❖ Cognitively, a well-planned classroom can promote development by creating an area

where children can play with puzzles. The area may include material such as the abacus
to develop children's mathematical skills.
❖ Linguistically, a good classroom environment has space for a book corner where
children can snuggle comfortably and enjoy looking at pictures and the captions under
those pictures. Children get to know and see different pictures and "read" stories from
such pictures.
❖ Behaviourally, a good classroom environment with well-laid out areas teaches children
to behave in certain ways in the different areas. They know for instance that they must
be silent when they are in the book corner and that they can be free and communicate
with one another when in the creative corner.
According to Gordon and Browne (2009), a good Grade R classroom is one that has the following
characteristics:
❖ It follows the developmentally appropriate principle. The class focuses on approaches

and activities that suit the level at which children are in terms of their abilities in all
developmental domains.
❖ It builds a culturally accommodative environment that provides experiences known to
children in the group and exposes them to the culture of other children with respect.
❖ It provides experiences that children from poor environments lack. These may include
resources for language development, such as books, pictures of all kinds, and play
resources that can develop children's gross and fine motor development.
❖ It accommodates children's safety and mistakes. The arrangement and planning of
learning areas must accommodate children's mistakes without any harm. For instance,
in the art area children may drop the container and spill the water on the floor. Note
that the container must not be a glass one that can cut the child's finger and that the
floor must be tiled and not a carpet so that children can easily dry the water with a
mop.
❖ It stimulates intellectual development that is needed in Grade 1 and further classes. It
exposes children to a rich cognitive environment that opens up their thinking abilities.
❖ It gives children the opportunity to choose what they want to play with. Indoors, this
can be achieved in the fantasy area. Children must be able to choose from a variety of
toys to have fun in their make-believe play.
❖ It provides children with enough time to play in the different learning areas. Children
learn best when they repeat the same activity over and over again. For instance, when
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they build puzzles, which is a good intellectual activity, they need enough time to do it
and repeat it before they can master it on their own.
❖ It allows children to teach one another in a free way with no restrictions of a small
space or few resources. Sometimes children learn best and respond better when they
are guided by their peers. In a culturally diverse class the teacher can encourage such
activities to teach children how other cultures do things.
It provides opportunities for children to self-correct. For instance, after a child realises that he or
she cannot pick up a completed puzzle to show the teacher, he or she could build it on a board
that can be lifted and shown to the teacher. This implies that there must be other resources that
facilitate or ensures the success of activities in the room, in this instance, a board.
Figure 2.2: View of a Grade R class with resources on the walls (https://www.shutterstock.com)
Under-resourced schools can make efforts to plan the Grade R class similar to the one in the
picture by using affordable materials or materials found around the school. For instance, you can
go to a factory or a light industry and collect offcuts or discarded materials to make resources.
However, in poor overcrowded areas like the informal settlements, the lack of space remains a
challenge.
A good Grade R classroom on its own does not promote child development. It is important that
the who plans, arranges the class and carries out activities with children to promote their
development. What must a good Grade R teacher do to promote the holistic development of
children in his or her class?
2.5 THE ROLE OF THE GRADE R TEACHER
For a teacher to promote development in the ideal classroom environment, he or she must:
❖ Know how to use the classroom environment to promote children's development,

meaning knowing which activities to use in the different learning areas.
❖ Follow the Grade R curriculum and routine with understanding and creativity to
develop children differently.
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❖ Help children to know what to do in the different learning areas throughout the day.
❖ Support children in all their efforts to discover things and learn from their environment.
❖ Interact with all the children in his or her group by using different strategies to
accommodate children's different learning styles.
Being a good Grade R teacher requires more than having the knowledge to plan a good Grade R
class and undertaking activities that promote child development. It demands that the teacher
adopt certain qualities that will enhance his or her interaction with the children. Often, we speak
of a creative and reflective teacher. Read more about the qualities in table 2.2.
Table 2.2: Qualities of a good Grade R teacher
The nurturing and reflective teacher The creative teacher

Nurtures and cares for children in his or her Is open to new ideas to improve his or her teaching and
group to ensure their emotional development. promotes a positive and productive learning
environment.
Is sensitive to children's needs and Is committed to his or her work and finds ways of going
shortcomings and shows compassion to the around problems creatively.
children in his or her care.
Is patient towards the children so they can Shows creativity in all indoor and outdoor planning and
develop in an enabling and loving environment. in all the activities that he or she planned for the two
sections of Grade R classroom environment .
Respects children and their family cultures as Adopts a positive outlook as he or she guides and
he or she interacts with them. assists children to grow in all their domains of
development.
Is empathetic to children's challenges and Displays enthusiasm as he or she leads children to
encourages them to go over these challenges perform those planned activities that will lead to their
gently. development.
Is supportive to children's efforts of learning and Encourages children to help one another as they play
is keen to include parents in some of the and puts trust in their capabilities.
planned activities.
Keeps children's safety in mind when carefully Interacts with other Grade R teachers so that he or she
selecting classroom materials and designing can learn from them and improve teaching.
the daily schedule.
Source: Adapted from Excell and Linington (2015)
All the activities and qualities of a good Grade R teacher are carried out in a very informal but
planned way. The most effective and appropriate approach for children in Grade R is 'play'. It is
the best approach that is recommended for a number of reasons.
2.6 THE IMPORTANCE OF PLAY IN GRADE R
2.6.1 Play as a method of promoting development in Grade R
Children of between four and six years old, Grade R, learn by playing. They learn by experiencing
and doing, using language, and using their bodies to gain the understanding of their environment.
They want to touch, smell taste, hear and test things for themselves
(https://www.kaplanco.com/ii/preschool-classroom-lay). Everybody who work with children have
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recognised this, including school-based Grade R teachers. The fact that most South African
school-based classroom layouts resemble those at community-based centres, shows their
recognition of the importance of play. Play has become so important in the development of
children that it is referred to as a pedagogy or method of teaching children to acquire various skills
as they develop.
2.6.2 The play pedagogy
Play and the development of young children's cognitive, linguistic, physical, social and emotional
skills are intricately interwoven and complementary. However, it is important to plan activities for
specific developmental domains or aspects, to arrange an environment conducive to child
development. Play can be shaped to assess whether your planned activities achieved the goal
for which they were planned. In addition, the planning of play should involve time allocation, play
variations, a selection of resources and the support of a teacher. All of the mentioned factors
cause play to be referred to as a pedagogy or method of teaching (Wood 2009).
Therefore, the pedagogy of play refers to the approach used by early childhood professionals to
make play an instrument of promoting teaching and learning. Play determines the nature of
activities and the strategies to be used for the achievement of specific goals. It is also used as a
means of designing the learning environment indoors and outdoors and for making learning
materials that will be used for the different activities that promote aspects of development. (Excell
& Linington 2015).
Although we emphasise the importance of planning and guiding children in their play, we do not
lose sight of the importance of encouraging free play where teachers are not involved. The
strategy of free play promotes a different aspect of development such as 'individual creativity' and
'intrinsic motivation'. Play is healthy fun for children. Different forms of play may support the
development of children's different developmental domains as can be seen in tables 2.3 (indoor
play activities) and 2.4 (outdoor play activities).
Table 2.3: Indoor play activities
Play area/objects Example of play Domain of development

Large building blocks Making a car with wooden blocks Gross motor development
and driving it around
Beads and strings Threading beads to make a Fine motor development
necklace or bookmark
Drawings and Drawing any figure or colouring in a Knowledge of colours promotes
paintings picture book by using crayons or cognitive development and colouring
water colours within the lines develops fine motor
muscles
Books and nursery 'Reading' picture books or singing Cognitive and language development.
rhymes rhymes Emotional development from the joy
they get when singing rhymes
Puzzles Building puzzles and naming items Cognitive development and fine motor
in the completed picture development
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Resources on the Naming materials on the walls, Cognitive and language development
walls their characteristics and what they
are used for
The creative corner Using different toys to imitate Playing creatively with other children
various situations; for example, develops children socially,
their parents, the teacher, or the emotionally, linguistically and
dentist physically depending on the nature of
the game played
There are many ways of using play indoors and outdoors to promote child development, a lot
depends on the creativity of the teacher to adapt the landscape into a place of fun for children.
Figure 2.3 shows children playing in a well-equipped indoor play area.
Figure 2.3: Indoor play activities (source: https://www.shutterstock.com)
Table 2.4 Outdoor play activities
Play Example of play Development domain

area/objects
Sandpit Building sandcastles with bare feet The sense of touch develops from the
texture of the soil. Social development
from competing about the size of the
castle
Jungle gym Climbing up and swinging down the Gross motor development
poles
Crawling facilities Crawling under the objects like old Gross motor, social development as
motor tyres dug into the ground they play and share with other
children
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Throwing and Throwing a ball and catching it Eye-hand coordination and perceptual
catching objects before it drops to the ground development
Open field Running freely on the field for Gross motor, social and emotional
enjoyment. development
Outdoor resources, just like indoor learning materials, can be made from local materials, as long
as the teacher is committed and is creative. Look at examples of outdoor facilities in figure 2.4.
Figure 2.4 Example of a good outdoor facility (source: https://www.shutterstock.com)
Activity 2.1
(1) Describe five points about a good Grade R class.

(2) Mention five roles of a good Grade R teacher
(3) Explain why play in the early years is important.
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You should have included the following key ideas in your answers.
(1) Follows the developmentally appropriate principle; provides experiences that children
from poor environments lack; accommodates children's safety and mistakes;
stimulates intellectual development that is needed in Grade 1 and further classes; and
provides opportunities for children to self-correct.
(2) Know how to use the classroom environment to promote children's development;
follow the Grade R curriculum and routine with understanding and creativity to develop
children in different ways; help children to know what to do in the different learning
areas throughout the day; support children in all their efforts to discover things and
learn from their environment; and interact with all the children in the group by using
different strategies to accommodate children's different learning styles.
(3) Children learn through play. Through play you can assess whether your planned
activities were achieved. Play promotes individual creativity and can be used to
motivate the child.
2.7 THE ROLE OF PARENTS IN PROMOTING THE GRADE R CHILD'S DEVELOPMENT
All parents want the best for their children. School teachers, including nursery practitioners,
should recognise and take advantage of this fact. Parents must participate in school activities and
their children's development; they should be vigilant and assist teachers in their work.
Parents must know what to observe as their children grow. For instance, by the age of five years,
the child must be able to run and climb, to draw a circle or to colour pictures within lines, to write
some numbers, to know some colours, to hold a conversation for an extended period, to control
their tantrums, to play and share with other children. Do you note that these examples refer to
gross and fine motor, cognitive, language, social and emotional development? The
developmental domains referred to will be discussed in detail in the learning units that follow.
2.7.1 What should parents do?
Once parents notice deviation from what could be a standard pattern, they must do the following:
❖ Attend to their child's learning capabilities. They need to go to the child's Grade R
teacher to inquire how their child is coping in class. It is particularly important to report
a poor or a lack of skills related to school learning, such as inability to hold a pencil,
stuttering and uncontrolled crying. In severe cases parents should go to the child's
paediatrician. They must encourage them to explore, experiment and try things. They
must talk about what is happening and encourage them to talk.
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❖ Communicate with their children. Parents must remember that five-year-old children
are still learning to understand the world around them and must respond to the many
questions that this age group asks. They are keen to understand more and more
complex ideas. They are curious about everything, which leads to a lot of 'why'
questions. Answering their questions can sometimes take patience but it is important to
encourage them as learners. It is important to acknowledge to them if you do not know
the answer to their questions.
❖ Play with their children. Play is a social activity that involves other children. Playing
with your child prepares him or her to practice playing with other children and becoming
socially adjusted. Play helps children to learn about themselves and where they fit in the
group. As you may have seen in our discussion on the importance of play in
development, play can support learning across physical, social, emotional and
intellectual areas of development.
❖ Shape their children's behaviour. Parents need to be firm but understanding to their
children's behaviour. Their firmness must be within reasonable limits and avoid being
too protective or too harsh. Parents must not take for granted that five-year-olds
understand all that they are requested to do. Children must not be overwhelmed by long
instructions or heavy chores that makes it appear as if they are not willing to obey.
Children in this age group are easily distracted and parents can think the child is not
listening or they are defiant.
❖ Motivate and encourage children to undertake activities that will influence their
development in one way or another. A good parenting skill will involve motivating and
inspiring children during their upbringing to help them to achieve or function at their level
of development. Parents must strive to emphasise self-motivation more than motivation
through rewards.
❖ Attend teacher-parent meetings that schools organise to get advice on how to improve
their children's shortcomings. Such meetings provide the parents opportunity to know
what the school expects of them and why. A common example is the request by the
school for parents to help with their children's homework or projects. Getting involved in
the child's schoolwork not only helps them to learn, but it also strengthens a closer
parent-child relationship.
2.8 CONCLUSION
The purpose of learning unit 2 was to provide you with the knowledge and skills to work with
children in the Grade R years. This was accomplished through discussions on the definitions and
explanations about the Grade R years and the children in this phase. Further discussions on the
role of the teacher and parents completed the picture about the development of children in this
phase.
In learning unit 3, the Grade R child's cognitive development will be discussed in detail.
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This section aims to evaluate your understanding of the content presented in this learning unit.
❖ List the characteristics of the Grade R child.

❖ Explain how you could plan and arrange the Grade R.
❖ Outline the role of the Grade R teacher.
❖ Discuss the importance of play in the early years.
To summarised what you have learned about the Grade R years, watch the following videos.
• http://www.healthofchildren.com/P/Preschool.html (Explanation of the Grade R year)

• https://www.kaplanco.com/ii/preschool-classroom-lay (Grade R classroom layout)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q0hSxcsJc3M (Teachers prep for first day classes)
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LEARNING UNIT 3: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF THE GRADE R CHILD
Learning Unit 3 aims to discuss Grade R children's cognitive development and to provide you with
the skills to develop the children's cognitive abilities in readiness for formal schooling.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Understand cognitive development in the Grade R years.

• Explain your understanding of Piaget's cognitive processes.
• Name the cognitive stages of development according to Piaget's theory.
• Describe the cognitive characteristics of the Grade R child.
• List cognitive milestones of the Grade R child.
• Discuss the role of the teacher in the Grade R child's cognitive development.
➢ Cognitive development: A process by which children learn to reason, solve problems

and think consciously.
➢ Schemes: Cognitive/mental structures that organise information gained from
experiences based on prior experiences and memory.
➢ Assimilation: When children experience new things and they add the new things into
their existing schemes.
➢ Accommodation: A process in which a child modifies what he or she already knows to
figure out a new experience when the new knowledge.
➢ Equilibrium: A child's ability to reach a balance after continuously using assimilation
and accommodation to understand the environment.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Grade R children in the South African context are between the ages of four and six years.
Cognitively, based on Piaget's theory of cognitive development, they are in the preoperational
stage, which ranges from two to seven years. Their cognitive functions and abilities are
determined by their age, their genetic makeup and their environmental background, especially
their home environment. At the same time, each child should be seen as a unique individual who
develops in a unique way and at his or her own pace. A discussion of cognitive development in
the Grade R years follows.
3.2 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN THE GRADE R YEARS
Cognitive development in this learning unit is studied is from Piaget's point of view and will only
focus on the stage at which Grade R children are at. The aim is to provide you with the knowledge
about cognitive or intellectual development during the Grade R years so that you can understand
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how children in these years think and reason and you can then plan appropriate activities for them
to develop further.
3.2.1 What is cognitive development?
Cognitive development is a process by which children learn to reason, solve problems and think
consciously. In the Grade R years, it is a process where four- to six-year-old children learn to
question what happens in their environment, how things around them function and how they
happen. During these years, children learn by playing, copying, listening and observing what
adults around them do. These activities help to develop their brain and they learn different
things (https://childmind.org/guide/developmental-milestones ).
Jean Piaget's cognitive theory is most popularly known and widely read. It is discussed in the next
paragraph.
3.3 UNDERSTANDING PIAGET'S THEORY OF COGNITIVE PROCESSES
Piaget's theory of cognitive development is a well-explained theory that explains the way human
intelligence develops. He did not agree that children are born with an empty brain but believed
that every child has potential and is actively involved in his or her development of intelligence or
any other domain. According to him, cognitive development is a continuous reorganisation of
mental processes that originate from our genetic makeup and maturation and are shaped by
environmental experiences.
Piaget believed that children make sense of the world around them and gain knowledge from
interacting with their environment. He refers to this knowledge as schemes. When they
experience new things, they add the new things to their existing schemes. Piaget refers to this
process as assimilation. In the instance where the new knowledge is added to the existing one
and the child needs to adjust the existing knowledge to make sense of it, Piaget refers to the
process as accommodation. When children reach a state of balance between what they know
and what they have newly learned, they are in a state of mind that Piaget refers to as equilibrium.
The next paragraphs explain the meanings of these concepts.
3.3.1 The use of schemes to acquire knowledge
Children understand their world by building schemes (scheme for one) from the experiences they
gain as they interact with their environment. In more simple terms, Piaget called the scheme the
basic building block of intelligent behaviour – a way of organising knowledge. It is useful to think
of schemes as "units" of knowledge, each relating to one aspect of the world, including objects,
actions and abstract (McLeod 2015).
For instance, when a crawling child wants to get what is inside the kitchen cupboards, he or she
will perform a number of actions to try to open the cupboard doors until he or she accidentally
pulls the door towards him- or herself and opens it. Opening the door can be regarded as a
scheme or layer of knowledge. The child will build on this scheme to form other schemes or
patterns of behaviour to develop more knowledge.
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Piaget believed that people are constantly confronted by new information – be it mental, physical
or social activities in their environment. They then build new knowledge, which means they
develop cognitively. According to him, cognitive development takes place through three
processes: assimilation, accommodation and equilibrium. These processes are explained as
follows.
3.3.2 Assimilation, accommodation and equilibrium
Assimilation occurs when a child comes across new situations and builds it into what he or she
already knows. For example, when the child wants to open another door (the dining-room
cupboard) in the house, the he or she will apply the same strategy used to open the kitchen
cupboard, that is, pull it towards him- or herself. Next, when the child wants to open a drawer, the
same strategy will be applied but the child may realise that the drawer falls out if pulled to the
same extent as the cupboard doors. The child will learn that the door of the medicine cupboard
opens by sliding and not by pulling. This process of acquiring new knowledge is called
assimilation. In the process of learning about the opening of other doors, the child adjusted his or
her previous knowledge to open the other doors. Piaget called this 'accommodation'.
Accommodation is a process in which a child modifies what he or she already knows to figure
out a new experience. In the door example, the child adapted the knowledge of opening the
cupboard door to open the drawer and to open the medicine cupboard. The child's schemes were
patterned differently or were changed a little to accommodate the new experiences. The
adaptation process continues until the child reaches 'equilibrium'.
Equilibrium refers to a child's ability to reach a balance after continuously using assimilation and
accommodation to understand the environment. In terms of the cupboard doors examples, when
a child reaches a stage where he or she easily adapts to open all the doors, the child reaches a
balance between existing schemes and equilibrium. In other words, equilibrium is reached when
the child has learned new experiences or has developed new cognitive skills. As children progress
through the stages of cognitive development, they maintain a balance between applying previous
knowledge (assimilation) and adapting patterns of knowledge to account for new knowledge
(accommodation). Equilibration helps to explain how children can move from one stage of thought
into the next.
This process is not a once-off phenomenon, it is a continuous process that takes place as children
grow and experience their environment. Read case studies 1 and 2 to understand the meanings
of assimilation, accommodation and equilibrium.
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Activity 3.1
Case study 1: Tom's visit to a farm
Tom is a four-year-old boy who lives in a suburb and had never visited a farm before.
He sees a sheep for the first when visiting his aunt in the village.
Tom: Look at the fur of that dog Aunt. It is very thick!
Aunt: No Tom, it is not a dog, it is a sheep.
Tom: No Aunt, it has four legs and fur. It is a dog.
[The sheep bleats and moves towards its lamb.]
Aunt: Did you hear that Tom? A sheep bleats and its young is a lamb.
Tom: What an ugly sound! I like the barking of Spotty and her puppies.
Aunt: A sheep is also beautiful, but it is not a dog even if it has fur and four legs.
Tom: Yes Aunt I know. I still don't like a sheep.
In this case study, Tom had the knowledge of a dog. This means that he had an understanding
of what a dog is. He sees a sheep for the first time and calls it a dog. Tom adds new knowledge
of a sheep to his existing knowledge of a dog. He then uses the 'dog' knowledge to understand
the new animal, the sheep. When his aunt tells him that the animal is a sheep Tom adjusts this
new knowledge into his existing 'dog' scheme. He now realises that a sheep is different from a
dog even if it has four legs and fur. Tom understood his aunt and was happy to learn about the
new animal.
Now take a moment and respond to the following questions:
(1) Which sentence shows that Tom had a scheme of a dog?

(2) Refer to evidence of assimilation in this case study.
(3) Explain if there is 'accommodation' in this case study.
(4) Did Tom reach the equilibrium stage? Explain.
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Case study 1 gives you an understanding of the meanings of schema, assimilation,

accommodation and equilibrium. When responding to the questions, look at the following:
(1) The definition of the concept scheme. Ask yourself if Tom managed to explain what he
learned about the schema of the dog. Identify the sentence that describe Tom's
description of a sheep.
(2) The concept assimilation and how it applies in the case study. "Tom saw a sheep for
the first time, he will assimilate it to the scheme of the dog as having four legs and fur".
(3) The explanation of the concept accommodation. Look how the aunt responds to Tom.
When she says, "No Tom, it is not a dog, it is a sheep", Tom will accommodate this
new information and he will call the animal a sheep not a dog.
(4) The concept of equilibrium. Establish if Tom could reconcile what he knew with the
new knowledge and information he gained from his aunt.
3.4 STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT ACCORDING TO PIAGET'S THEORY

Cognitive development, in terms of Piaget's theory, happens in a linear or straight pattern
according to children's ages and developmental stage.
Table 3.1 explains developmental levels at different ages. It shows cognitive development from
infancy up to 11 years and older. We will focus on the preoperational stage since it is the stage
at which Grade R children are. However, we will refer briefly to the sensory-motor stage that
depicts the cognitive development level of the toddler or preschooler that we discussed in learning
unit 1 to show you where the Grade R child is coming from cognitively.
Table 3.1: Stages of cognitive development
Name of stage Age of the stage

Sensor-motor phase 0-2 years – The preschooler stage
Preoperational 2-7 years – The Grade R years
phase
Concrete operational 7-11 years – The school-age stage
phase
Formal operational 11 years and higher – The period leading to the
phase adolescence stage and over.
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Table 3.1 shows how Piaget's stages of cognitive development are aligned to children's ages. As
can be seen from the figure, the stages are in a linear pattern, which means they follow
chronologically. Grade R children fall into the preoperational stage between the ages of two and
seven years. However, we briefly refer to the characteristics of children in the sensory-motor stage
that comes before the preoperational stage to show you where Grade R children are coming from
intellectually.
3.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHILD
Children show different behaviours at different phases of their development. This is also true with
cognitive development.
3.5.1 Children in the sensory-motor stage (birth to two years)
The sensory-motor stage is the first cognitive stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development.
It is a stage associated with preschool children between the ages of one and three years. A
preschooler's total experience during this phase occurs through basic reflexes, senses and motor
responses, as can be seen in the characteristics explained in table 3.2.
Table 3.2: Characteristics of cognitive development in the sensory stages
Cognitive stage Age Characteristics

Sensory-motor Birth to two 1. Preschoolers learn to know their environment through
stage years their senses – touching, looking, smelling, tasting and
listening.
2. They learn to know that they are individuals separate
from their parents and want to know more about
themselves.
3. It is at this stage that preschoolers discover what is in
their environment and how the world works
4. They realise that their actions can cause things to happen
in the world around them. They experiment with the
physical world around them.
5. Preschoolers develop language skills from listening to
the language they hear around them. This is how they
learn to attach names to objects in their environment.
6. They develop to the next stage – the preoperational
stage.
3.5.2 Children in the preoperational stage (two to seven years)

Preoperational thinking is illogical thinking and a phase when children are unable to perform
certain mental activities. The word 'operation' is used to explain an action or a mental activity
performed through logical thinking. Grade R children who are between the ages of four and six
years are in this stage. This stage begins around the age of two years as children begin to talk
and last until approximately age seven when they have just started school. The age overlaps with
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the preschool years and the school years makes the Grade R years to have vast differences
within the same stage.
Table 3.3: Characteristics of children in the preoperational stage (two to seven years)
Preoperational Two to seven 1. During this stage, children begin to engage in symbolic
years play; for instance, girls enjoy playing house to imitate their
mothers and boys may imitate their fathers or characters
like Superman. They benefit cognitively from playing roles
such as doctor and gather new vocabulary associated
with health and medical conditions. Their knowledge
increase by the roles they play.
2. They play by using advanced language and other symbols
to represent their environment. For instance, boys can use
blocks of wood as cars and girls can use dolls as babies.
Language is typically their strong point of making sense in
their environment; hence, their insistence of asking 'why'
questions.
3. They do not yet understand concrete logic and cannot
mentally manipulate information.
4. They cannot take the point of view of other people; hence,
are still regarded as egocentric. Egocentricity makes it
difficult for the children in this stage to see things from a
different perspective. If asked about situations or feelings,
they usually project themselves. They reflect on their
feelings and see things from their viewpoint.
5. A well-known characteristic about children in the
preoperational stage (within the Grade R years) is their
inability to conserve. Conservation is one of Piaget's key
points of explaining cognitive development in the
preoperational stage.
3.5.2.1 The preoperational stage of cognitive development

A commonly known feature about this phase is children's inability to show their understanding
that things remain the same, even if their position change. They cannot conserve. Children in this
cognitive stage have not developed the mental structure that helps them to understand certain
mental activities such as conservation.
3.5.2.1.1 Conservation, constancy and centration in the preoperational stage
Conservation refers to logical thinking ability, which children in the operational stage display, but
it is not present in children during the preoperational stage (two to seven years). Conservation is
the awareness that altering a substance's appearance does not change its basic properties.
However, children in the preoperational stage do not have this awareness and can only focus on
a single aspect of an object or a situation.
The children struggle to understand the idea of constancy. They are not aware that the properties
of an object remain the same even if its position changes. However, they can still perform
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operations. Operations are tasks that need to be done mentally, rather than physically. To clarify
this phenomenon, Piaget conducted a number of experiments on the conservation of quantity,
weight and volume, among others. He found that most children in the preoperational stage did
not show any understanding of conservation and showed centration.
Centration is seen when children focus all attention on one characteristic or dimension of a
situation and disregard all other characteristics. Children at this stage show centration and can
therefore not conserve. Both centration and conservation can be more easily understood once
explained through Piaget's most famous experiments.
You might be aware that Piaget's cognitive theory has a number of concepts that bring meaning
to its point of view. Without these concepts, there is no theory. You are therefore compelled to
understand the concepts and to explain them in your own words.
3.6 COGNITIVE MILESTONES OF CHILDREN
Once more, a brief overview of the cognitive milestones during the preschool period (one to three
years) is given to provide the background to the discussion of the milestones reached in the
preoperational stage.
3.6.1 Cognitive milestones of preschool children (one to three years)
Cognitive development during this stage occurs within a short space of time. Cognitive milestones
between the age of one and three are captured in table 3.4.
Table 3.4: Cognitive milestones in the preschool years
Milestone Age Development
Cognitive Birth to 1. Learn through exploration of their environment.

three 2. Realise object permanence, that is the understanding that objects
years continue to exist even when they are out of sight.
3. Note that objects are separate entities and that they have an
existence of their own; hence, their ability to name some of them.
4. Understand and respond to some words.
5. Copy the actions and imitate the language of adults.
6. Can name and point to objects in a picture and people in their
environment.
7. Stack objects from largest to smallest.
8. Identify own reflection in the mirror.
3.6.2 Cognitive milestones of children in the Grade R years
Children in the Grade R years fall within the preoperational stages, which ranges from two to
seven years. They have developed to the extent of analysing the situation and objects in their
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environment. They have become much more active in their learning and have an improved span
of attention.
Table 3.5: Cognitive milestones in the Grade R years
Milestone Age Development
Cognitive Four to 1. Ask 'why' and 'how' questions about things they want to learn
six years about.
2. Concentrate for a longer time.
3. Say rhymes with enjoyment.
4. Identify and name objects in their environment.
5. Know colours and can count beyond five.
6. Draw pictures and explain things in their drawings.
7. Realise that pictures represent real things.
8. Understand basic abstract ideas like 'bigger', 'longer' or
'heaviest'.
9. Make plans about how to play, what to build or draw.
10 Recalls parts of a story.
3.7 THE ROLE OF TEACHERS IN THE GRADE R'S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Although Piaget's theory of cognitive development cannot be applied directly to teaching and
learning, it can provide insights into how children think. Teachers can learn something of value
from Piaget's theory and apply it in their classrooms in the following ways:
3.7.1 Active engagement and exploration
The theory shows that children learn new experiences through active interaction with their
environment. Throughout all four stages of Piaget's cognitive theory, children are active
participants of their cognitive development. They initiate activities, manipulate objects and deal
with new situations in their environment. While it is true that children's genetic makeup, the
environment they grow in, and the people in that environment contribute to their learning, the
children's own initiatives also play a significant part in their cognitive development.
What can teachers do?
❖ Teachers should involve children actively in their learning. Children must be allowed to
explore, to try things out, to do things on their own and to ask questions.
❖ Teachers' approach to teaching must be child-directed and less teacher-initiated.
Sometimes children learn best through self-discovery and teachers must allow it.
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3.7.2 Knowledge of rates of cognitive development
Teachers must recognise that the rate of cognitive development at different stages has
implications for teaching. Cognitive development is not a smooth, uniform and quick process.
There are variations within the same stage and the duration of the cognitive stages may not be
uniform. What should teachers know about supporting children's mental growth?
❖ Teachers should know that Grade R children of the same age could be at different points
of cognitive development, even though they are all in Grade R. This awareness means
that children can follow different paths to reach certain cognitive levels.
❖ Teachers must know how to accommodate individual differences among children of the
same age group. Each child needs to be approached as an individual with different
characteristics and different ways of learning. Children's quality of thinking changes as
they progress to the next level.
3.7.3 Knowledge of thinking at different cognitive levels
Piaget's cognitive stages are aligned to children's ages. As children grow in age, so does the
quality of their thinking. They start with a few schemas (mental experiences) and keep on adding
(assimilating) new ones and modifying what they knew (accommodation) until they reach a point
where they are comfortable with their understanding about something (equilibrium). What should
teachers do about the changing quality of mental thinking?
❖ Teachers need to adapt their level of interaction with children. They must determine
what logic the children are using to solve problems. Their approach must match the
children's advancing mental activities. However, they need to remember that at Grade
R level, children's mental capacity remains at the preoperational level.
❖ Teachers must, therefore, remember that children, for instance, still struggle to see that
the qualities of an object remain the same, even when its position is changed (they
cannot conserve). They should adopt appropriate strategies that are developmentally
appropriate to stimulate children's mental capacities.
3.7.4 Adoption of appropriate strategies for cognitive development
The importance of interacting with Grade R children at the preoperational level should not be
confused with lowering interactive activities below their capabilities. Children need to be treated
according to their mental levels. Some children are capable of dealing with problems at a higher
level than others. As a result, Grade R teachers need to be flexible, innovative and come up with
ways of accommodating different abilities of learners in their classrooms. The question to ask is
'which are suitable strategies for children with a higher level of thinking?'
Children with an advanced mental structure may need challenging work to keep them occupied.
However, it is important not to over-stretch their thinking as they may be discouraged when they
fail to perform at that level. It is best to start them where they can master things and gently urge
them on. Look at the following example.
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Figure 4: A picture of a cat (Source: Shutterstock)
A teacher could ask questions of ascending difficulty to a Grade R class to accommodate and
encourage all children and to allow those with a higher mental ability to develop further. (See case
study 2 for types of questions.)
Activity 3.2
CASE STUDY 2: THE PICTURE OF A CAT

[Teacher asks questions to three five-year-old children seated at their table.]
Teacher: What colour is this cat?
Mary: It is brown.
Peter: It has black stripes.
Mosa: It is brown with black stripes.
Teacher: What do you think it is doing?
Mary: It is standing.
Peter: It is sitting.
Mosa: It is looking at something.
Teacher: What could it be Mosa?
Mosa: Something it could catch and eat maybe. Cats eat mice and insects.
Teacher: Peter and Mary what else can you add?
Both: Nothing.
Teacher: I see the cat has only two legs.
Mosa: No, the other two are at the back.
Mary and Peter: Where?
Teacher: Which other animal has stripes like this cat?
Mary and Peter: I don't know.
Mosa: A tiger.
Teacher: Mosa, that is very good. Look for pictures of other animals. Peter and Mary here are
more pictures of cats for you.
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1) Who of the three children shows more mental abilities?
2) Explain your answer to question 1.
3) Mosa explained that the cat had four legs. Which process in cognitive development did
Mosa master?
4) How did the teacher stimulate Mosa's cognitive ability further?
5) How did the teacher accommodate the thinking levels of the other two children?
(1) Look at the nature of the children's responses. Mosa shows more mental abilities.
(2) He explained more than what was on the picture. Compare it with the mental processes
in cognitive development.
(3) Read the cognitive processes (section 3.3.2) again and establish what it means for
children to realise that something exists even if it is not visible in the picture.
(4) Asking him more prompting questions. Check the nature of the teacher's interactions
with Mosa.
(5) Check the nature of questions that the teacher asked first.
3.8 CONCLUSION
Learning unit 3 discussed cognitive development in the Grade R years. The discussion focussed
the Grade R child who is in the preoperational stage of cognitive development. In some instances,
a brief reference was made to the preschooler to show continuity in cognitive development. The
unit defined cognition and explained the processes and concepts associated with it. The
characteristics of children in this stage and their cognitive milestones were listed. The closing
discussion highlighted the implication of Piaget's cognitive theory of teaching in the form of
teachers' roles.
Learning unit 4 will discuss the Grade R child's language development.
❖ Describe the cognitive development in the Grade R years.

❖ Explain Piaget's cognitive processes.
❖ Name the cognitive stages of development according to Piaget's theory.
❖ Describe the cognitive characteristics of the Grade R child.
❖ List the cognitive milestones of the Grade R child.
❖ Discuss the role of the teacher in the Grade R child's cognitive development.
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To summarise what you have learned about the cognitive development of the Grade R child, take
a few minutes and watch the following videos.
• https://childmind.org/guide/developmental-milestones (Child development milestones)

• https://study.com/academy/lesson/piagets-theory-of-cognitive-development.html
(Piaget's theory)
• https://study.com/academy/lesson/jean-piagets-stages-of-cognitive-development.html
(Piaget theory)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3-A9SgbAK5I (Illustrations on schema,
accommodation and equilibrium)
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LEARNING UNIT 4: LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT OF THE GRADE R CHILD
Learning unit 4 aims to help you to understand the language level of Grade R children and to
provide you with the skills to develop their language further.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Define language as a concept.

• Discuss the Grade R child's stage of language development.
• Discuss theories of language development.
• Explain how the family and cultural environment can influence language development.
• Illustrate how play can promote the development of language.
• Outline the language milestones in Grade R.
➢ Language: A skill that is basic to all human development, including the ability to read
and write.
➢ Language development: Higher-level cognitive skill involving audition and oral abilities
in humans to verbally communicate individuals' wants and needs.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Language and cognitive development, which was discussed in learning unit 3, are two sides of
the same coin. It is not easy to separate the two from each other because the development of
one affects the other. This learning unit explained the development of the two separately to make
it easier for you to understand each domain. In the discussion about the development of language
in the Grade R years, we start by defining language as a concept for you to understand what the
unit is all about. This will be followed by stages and theories of language development that explain
how the process unfolds. The discussion of the family culture and the role of play show how
language can be developed or inhibited. Finally, developmental milestones will be discussed for
you as a teacher to know what is expected of the children regarding their language development.
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4.2 DEFINITIONS OF LANGUAGE
Explanations about language vary from author to author partly because language is studied from
different angles. For instance, a study on the development of cognition will explain language
differently from the study on emergent literacy.
❖ Language development is a higher-level cognitive skill involving audition and oral

abilities in humans to communicate individuals' wants and needs verbally (Rudd & Kelley
2011).
❖ According to Gordon and Browne (2017), language is an inborn characteristic of

humankind. In other words, it is acquired naturally and is not taught. It comprises sounds
in a meaningful way or pattern. It can be receptive, that is, listened to and understood
or it can be expressive, meaning that one can express oneself by using words or
vocabulary. The next definition is closely related to this one.
❖ Language is a form of communication, whether spoken, written or signed, that is based

on a system of symbols. It consists of words used by a community and the rules for
varying and combining them (Santrock 2004).
❖ Language is a process by which humans can produce and understand words and
sentences and to combine them to communicate.
In addition to these definitions, language is explained in terms of its development, as in the

following definitions:
❖ Language development entails the growth of the ability to use language to make sense,
understand and communicate in their word (Weinstein, Rosen, Swowman, McCown,
Maphalala & Tabane 2016).
❖ Language development is the process by which infants acquire the ability to learn and
to understand how to communicate with other people, usually parents and siblings, in
their environment.
❖ Language development is a progressing system by which children learn how to make

meaning of what they hear, that is, speech perception and later learn how to respond,
that is speech production.
It can be said that language is a skill that is basic to all human development including the ability
to read and write or that is referred to as literacy. While there is agreement that there are different
stages of acquisition, it cannot be said with certainty that there is agreement about how the
process unfolds.
Language development is usually associated with infants' acquisition of their home language. It
consists of different parts whose functions are controlled by specific rules. These parts form a
system with rules that make communication possible.
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4.3 THE LANGUAGE RULE SYSTEM
Language is made up of several parts that give meaning in a sentence, including:
❖ Phonemes – speech sounds that distinguish one word from another; for example, the
sounds "d" and "t" in the words "bid" and "bit" or "mat" and "fat" ("m" and "f"). A
phoneme is the smallest phonetic unit that can help to bring about meaning. It can be
said that phonemes represent letters of the alphabet.
❖ Phonology – is a system of sound or a pattern that determines how phonemes are

arranged in a word: "mat"; "fat" "cut", "cup". These words sound differently because
of how the phonemes are arranged. Children learn to recognise rhyming words (sounds)
and syllables in children's books. In the Grade R class, teachers use phonology to help
them identify the different alphabets. You could think of the word "phone" to remember
the meaning of phonology.
❖ Morpheme – the unit of language that has meaning standing on its own; for example,
"sit" as against "big" or "come" as against "far". The first words, "sit" and "come"
have their own meanings while the latter ("big" and "far") depend on a full sentence to
make meaning. Would you agree that morphemes are verbs?
❖ Morphology – also referred to as form, directs the sequencing of morphemes.

Morphology is associated with the way a word is formed. The word "sit", for instance,
cannot be changed to "tis" and still have the same meaning.
❖ Syntax – ways that words are combined to form meaningful sentences or the
grammar of a sentence. For example, in the sentence "Thabo kicks a ball", it would not
be meaningful to write "Ball a kicks Thabo". The grammar would be wrong. Would you
agree that the mistake is with the word order?
❖ Semantics – vocabulary, meanings of words and sentences. Semantics refers to

one's understanding of the vocabulary used in a sentence in specific ways. For
example, "I open the door for Saartjie" as against "I am not open to any suggestions".
The same word "open" carries different meanings in the two sentences. The key to
understanding semantics is to have a good vocabulary and to understand verbal
expressions.
❖ Pragmatics – provides context in the understanding of language. For example,

"Thabo went to school even though he was sick"; or "Two-year-old Sooraya cannot
pick up her baby sister". The meaning of the sentence becomes clearer when the
context is understood. Language becomes meaningful when you understand the
context in which something is said or written.
(Beaty & Pratt 2007; Christie, Enz, Vukelich & Roskos 2014; DBE 2011).
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4.4 STAGES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
Language development is not something that can be mastered all at once. It takes time to develop
and occurs in regular order from birth up to the age where children can speak in an adult and
understandable manner. The module Emergent Literacy discussed the stages in detail and will
only be referred to briefly in this module. Acquisition in the Grade R years will be explained in
more detailed.
The two major staged are the pre-linguistic and the adult-like language stages.
4.4.1 The pre-linguistic stage
The sounds that infants make, including crying, is seen as the beginning of language. Crying,
gurgling and cooing are important first steps in the language-learning process followed by
babbling, which occurs around six months.
The next stage is the holophrases, also referred to as the one-word stage, happens around six to
10 months. During this stage, children understand what is said to them to a great extent, but they
cannot respond verbally.
The two-word sentence follows next, usually consisting of a noun and a verb. This stage usually
occurs at 18 months. Children try to make their needs known in two words. For example, "Me
water".
The multiple-word sentence stage is reached between the ages of two and two and a half years.
It starts with telegraphic sentences, then joined sentences and finally overgeneralisations.
Grammatical structures begin to emerge, and the use of tenses comes into being. More complex
grammatical structures come about by the age of two and a half to three years. Children can
produce more complex grammatical sentences joined by a conjunction and prepositions.
4.4.2 Adult-like language
The adult-like language structure stage of language development is normally reached by children
in the preschool years between the ages of five and six years. Their language is characterised by
more complex sentences that resemble that of adults. They can use adjectives such as "fast", ("I
can run fast") or "red" (My dress is red").
All typical children, irrespective of where they live, pass through this stage before learning to read
and write conventionally, especially when they are in the presence of adults who read to them
and write in their presence. It does not matter if the child is in a rural or urban area, learning will
take place as long as there are adults and older siblings who engage in literacy activities.
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Activity 4.1
Please read the following two case studies and answer the questions.
CASE STUDY 1: LANGUAGE TEACHING
In a Grade 1 class in a township school, Mrs Modise is sounding out words for children to write
down in the following way:
Mrs Modise: Children, write the word "man". Listen to how I say it and please write it correctly.
"M-A-N man."
Mrs Smith is a Grade R teacher in the same school. Her planned language activity for the
week is to teach the letter "e". When you enter her class, there is the colourful letter "e"
hanging on a string across the classroom and the letter "e" is written on the floor from the door
up to the opposite wall of the classroom.
Mrs Smith (holding up a card with the letter "e"): Class, what is this letter?
Class in unison: "E"
Mrs Smith: What does "e" stand for?
Class in unison: It stands for elephant.
Mrs Smith: (Gives each child the picture of an elephant, with "e is for elephant" written on
it.) Here, please colour the elephant and colour the letter "e" in a different colour.
CASE STUDY 2: STAGES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
In a remote rural village, a mother is working in the field with her baby on her back. The baby
produces the sound "da, da, da" and the mother continuously repeats the same baby sounds
for the baby to hear.
Mrs Zondo, in the same village, is sweeping her foyer and hears her five-year-old son, Vusi
playing a language game with his age mates under a tree.
Vusi: I spot with my own little eyes… It is brown and white, it runs on four legs, it screams at
night and when it sees a stranger coming to our door. It is nice.
Friends: It is your dog, Spotty.
Vusi: Correct. It is your turn Mandla.
Vusi's mother (who was listening to the boys): Spotty does not scream Vusi, it barks. It is a
friendly dog, not nice like food.
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QUESTIONS
(1) In case study 1, which language system is Mrs Modise teaching? Explain your answer.
(2) In case study 1, Mrs Smith has displayed the letter "e" in her classroom. Which system
of language is she teaching?
(3) In case study 2, the working mother is encouraging her baby to produce certain
sounds. Which stage of language development is the baby at?
(4) Why is she repeating the baby's sounds?
(5) In which stage of language development could Vusi be?
When you respond to this activity, you will take note that all the questions are based on the notes
on parts of language and on stages of language development that have been discussed. Read
sections 4.3 and 4.4 for information to answer these questions.
From the discussion on language systems and the stages that children go through when acquiring
language, there is general agreement about these two aspects. Language is explained differently
according to the different theories that explain how it is acquired. However, there are different
perspectives on how it emerges. A brief discussion of language theories may shed more light on
the concept. Four schools of thought have dominated this argument: The behaviourists, the
nativist, and the cognitive and the social theories.
4.5 THEORIES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
Theories of language development were discussed in learning unit 1 of the Emergent Literacy
module – please refer to it for more detail. Piaget's theory has been discussed in learning unit 3
of this study guide but will now be approached from the Grade R child's perspective. Vygotsky's
social theory of language development will also be discussed. Four approaches explaining child
development and in particular language development include the behaviourist, the nativist, the
cognitivist and the social action approaches.
4.5.1 The behaviourist approach in the Grade R class
The behaviourist theory says that language is inborn or natural and that it emerges naturally
because we are human. It is a theory that explains that all human behaviour is learnt to fit in with
external conditions. However, it is influenced by the environment, especially the adults with whom
children interact. Skinner is an authority commonly associated with this approach and his theory
is known as 'operant conditioning'. Skinner maintained that language is a thought process that
happens between an infant and an adult, usually the mother. When children learn to speak, their
correct attempts are rewarded by adults and referred to as positive reinforcement. The infants
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respond by producing more utterings. This is how children's language develops. Children's
attempts at speaking are encouraged by positive reinforcement.
In the case of this module, Grade R children represent the infants and the Grade R teacher
represents the mother. Skinner's statement that all human behaviour is learnt to fit in with external
conditions, is seen from how Grade R classroom interactions influence the extent to which Grade
R children's language development is reinforced.
Children's language will develop according to the extent to which they are encouraged to speak.
When teachers engage in language activities with children and praise them for their correct
responses, the children get encouraged to interact more to learn more language. The teachers'
praises represent the 'positive reinforcement' that urge the children to produce more language.
The positive reinforcement can be in different forms – a star on a child's forehead, a clapping of
hands, or something positive along the same lines.
Not all theorists agree with this explanation about language development. The nativists hold a
different view.
4.5.2 Nativist approach in the Grade R class
The nativist thought maintains that language is a product of nature; in other words, it is innate or
inborn and is not nurtured or taught. Chomsky is associated with this viewpoint and maintains that
language is learned naturally because it is a human trait. Children do not require reinforcements
or practice. They do not even need the influence of an adult because language acquisition is a
natural phenomenon. Therefore, children learn the grammar of their home languages by trial and
error. They listen to the language and figure out its rules and systems. Is this theory applicable in
the Grade R class?
Children in the Grade R classroom have already learned a great amount of language from their
homes simply because their language is inborn. Their language is part of their heredity as
humans. When they enter the Grade R class, they continue to learn new language structures from
the teacher just from listening to the lessons. In such classrooms, positive reinforcement is neither
used nor are children consciously encouraged to engage in verbal activities. This approach
implies that those children with poor genetic language makeup will be subjected to failure since
they will not be reinforced to improve their language output. Education departments generally and
in South Africa do not support this approach. Research has indicated that a lack of teacher
support is counterproductive to language development.
4.5.3 Social interaction approach in the Grade R class
The social interaction approach to language development questions whether the issue of
language development is truly a matter of nature versus nurture or whether it is nature and nurture
combined. In other words, this approach is not in favour of adopting a one-view approach to
language development. The theory explains that while some aspects of human behaviour can be
explained in terms of genetic makeup or nurture, some other aspects can be the result of
environmental influences.
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The environment is seen as a great determinant of language development and the language in
that environment exists for communication. It can only be learned in the context of interaction with
adults and older children. In a broader sense, context, or social context, may refer to any aspects
of a situation in which speech takes place. Important elements in the environment are the parents,
especially the mother, the family and the nature of the environment. A mother who talks frequently
to her child, the warm family that promotes interaction among its members, and a language-rich
environment are key elements in language development.
Vygotsky's theory has received wide acceptance in education circles. It is particularly well
embraced in early learning of which the Grade R class is part. Language teaching in the Grade R
class recognises the fact that some children have good language skills while others are poor
linguistically and need to be supported to improve their language levels.
The mother's role is performed by the classroom teacher. She or he can identify children with
good or poor language through regular interaction with them. Her interaction and positive
reinforcement are targeted at specific shortcomings in children's language. For those with good
language, positive interaction propels them further. In the Grade R class, this can be likened to
scaffolding, which refers to a support system that is provided by teachers to enable them to
reach higher levels of knowledge. It facilitates the learning of higher knowledge. For the
scaffolding to be effective, it must match the child's developmental level, so the child is
comfortable enough to use the guidance. To the child, the guidance or the coercion to reach
higher learning levels may present a lot of challenges but is necessary for the child's development.
The home environment is represented by that of the classroom environment. Good teachers
arrange their classrooms in such a way that the classrooms appeal to children's language
interests. The resources on the walls, the items on the tables and floors, the reading corner and
the teachers' language activities are intended to promote language development. To some extent,
this theoretical approach proved to be acceptable to other theorists, though with some
modifications.
When teachers speak to children, they use accessible language with repetition, simple syntax
and concrete vocabulary slowly. This manner of speaking to children increases the phonemic
(sound) contrasts and pronunciation of correct forms of words. In the earlier years, this is known
as child-directed speech (CDS). According to researchers, children eventually learn to use what
they have acquired linguistically in the same way that parents and teachers do. Vygotsky
developed the concepts of private speech, which is when children speak to themselves in a self-
guiding and directing way. In the beginning, private speech may be out loud and later internally.
Read case study 4 for more clarity.
In the early stages of a child's life, this is usually done through 'motherese' or 'baby talk'. In this
way, the mother or a more experienced person can provide the child with scaffolding to increase
the child's developing and changing mind structures. Another aspect of Vygotsky's theory is the
thought that children's potential for language development is influenced by the zone of proximal
development (ZPD). The zone of proximal development can be explained as the level of activities
that a child cannot complete alone but can complete with the assistance of an adult or a teacher.
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In the classroom situation, the adult role is played by teachers who teach new language content
to children and stop to assess how much was learned. Next, teachers introduce language
activities of a higher order (ZPD) to promote further language development for children's language
development. In all instances, the influence of the environment is highlighted especially the culture
of the home.
4.5.4 The cognitivist theory in the Grade R class
The cognitive theory opposes the theories of Skinner and Chomsky, but it builds on Vygotsky's
social interaction theory. Piaget is associated with this theoretical perspective that explains
cognitive processes from infancy through adulthood. His cognitive theory states that children's
language development is a product of their thinking and reasoning. He explained that the mind
has a section where thought processes take place and that there is another section of the mind
that is used at certain times for other specific functions such as supporting language development.
He maintained that cognitive development and language development are closely related and
interwoven and one influences the other. While he agreed with Vygotsky's view of language
development, he added that natural language development occurred in stages and it is the
activities during these stages that are responsible for language development.
Learning unit 3 introduced you to Piaget's theory of cognitive development and you learned about
the concepts he used to explain cognitive development. Those concepts are used again here to
explain his theory on language development. The concepts include schema, adaptation,
assimilation and accommodation.
According to Piaget, all children possess schemas basic to language development. A schema
could be a sound that a child knows from infancy that would later be associated with a word. By
the time they reach Grade R, they have acquired more schemas that helped them to learn more
new words through a process that he named adaptation. When children hear a new sound or
new word in Grade R, they add it to their existing knowledge through adaptation. Piaget maintains
that learning starts with adaptation. One can achieve that adaptation through assimilation.
Assimilation is the way that a child takes in information and makes sense of it. A child listens to
adults talking and learns a few words. The new words are accommodated into children's repertoire
through accommodation. Look at the example in case study 3.
CASE STUDY 3: TEACHER TALKING TO TAKALANI DURING AN ACTIVITY
Mrs Mulambo, the Grade R teacher, has given children the task to colour a picture and is not
happy with Takalani's sloppy colouring.
Mrs Mulambo: Takalani you don't show effort when you colour your pictures. Your colouring
is always untidy and is not within the lines of the picture.
Takalani: I did not see effort on the picture, there is only the cat under a tree in this picture!
Mrs Mulambo: I mean you don't try hard enough to colour correctly. I don't see hard work in
the way you colour. You don't show any effort.
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Takalani: I am sorry, teacher; I am going to do better next time. I'll try harder and not colour
outside the lines of the picture.
It is evident that Takalani did not understand the meaning of 'effort'. After the teacher explained
to him what she meant, Takalani made sense of the word 'effort'. He said he will 'try harder and
not colour outside the lines of the picture', meaning that he associated the word 'effort' with 'trying
hard'. This is an example that shows the process of accommodation.
Accommodation is a process of adapting information and explain it in a new verbal expression

in the case of language. The child may exchange using try hard and use show effort in his
conversation with other age mates. Accommodation and assimilation go hand in hand. When a
child accommodates, he or she is using assimilation to change his or her thought patterns.
Assimilation occurs when a child comes across new situations or language expressions and
builds it into what he or she already knows. For example, in the case study, a situation may arise
where Takalani may wish to help a classmate to avoid the mistake he made when colouring a
picture. He may coin a new word like effortless to discourage his classmate to produce sloppy
work. He may also praise other friends in the class by saying Good effort, well done. In the process
of learning the new word, Takalani learned that work with no effort is untidy or sloppy.
Piaget further says that in language learning, it is necessary to apply a classification system to
improve understanding. Certain words and sounds need to be grouped to make meaning and to
better understand and use them in speech. In the Grade R class, for instance, it will be meaningful
to classify the word 'beautiful' with words such as flower, garden or dress; for example, this is a
beautiful red flower.
Remember that according to Piaget, children also learn language through their senses. As a
teacher, you could classify words according to children's senses to teach new vocabulary. You
can use the sense of touch (a rough stone); the sense of sight (a bright light); the sense of smell
(a rotten egg smells bad); the sense of taste (Jelly is delicious); the sense of hearing (the church
bell rings loudly).
According to Piaget, children's language develops in stages and they use senses like that of sight,
touching, tasting, hearing and smelling in their environment, which encourages them to speak
about the events. They learn by trying out things and then talk about their trials to their friends. In
the Grade R class, this is how children learn to use language. Their language development is at
the second stage of development named the preoperational stage.
4.5.4.1 The Preoperational stage in language development (two to seven years)

We emphasise this stage because this learning unit focussed on the Grade R child who is
between the ages of four and six years old.
Children in the Grade R years have mastered most of the language rules discussed in section
4.2.1. They may still make some mistakes and create own words from existing ones. For example,
three-year-old Tumelo was making a "zzzzz" sound after coming out of the water of a warm
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swimming pool. The mother asked Lesego, his six-year-old brother if Tumelo was crying and
Lesego replied: "No mummy, he is just shiverating!" (shivering).
Children in this age group become more aware of the sounds of the spoken words. They enjoy
nursery rhymes, especially those with silly sounds such as:
The cow went moo, moo, moo,

And the angry old man went boo, boo, boo,
Oh choo, choo, choo, said his wife
Grade R children have built a large vocabulary and have a good understanding of morphology
and syntax. They know how to use plurals, continuous tenses and past tenses. They have
mastered the use of prepositions in different sentences such as in: "Thabo was sitting on the
chair" and "My ball rolled under the table". However, they may form overgeneralisations about
certain language rules; for instance, it is common for them to say: "My mother buyed me new
shoes" or "Tim's foots are too big for those shoes". They are known to ask many questions and
usually do so correctly but may struggle to phrase some of the questions correctly; for example,
"What that thing is for?" (Krantz 2010, Donald, Lazarus and Moolla 2014).
According to Piaget, children in this stage are egocentric. Their language is considered egocentric
because they see things purely from their own perspective. However, language makes rapid
progress and their development of their "mental schema" let them quickly "accommodate" new
words and situations. The child seems to talk constantly, but much of what he says does not need
to be said out loud. For instance, the child might describe what he is doing even though others
can easily see what he is doing. Read case study 4.
Activity 4.2
CASE STUDY 4: TWO FIVE-YEAR-OLD BOYS PLAYING TOGETHER
Vally and Dakar are playing together with toy cars.
Vally: I'm playing with this green car. Where the nearest filling station is? My car will stop now,
my petrol is getting finished.
Dakar: (talking on his cellphone) My Coca-Cola truck is going to reach your shop soon Mr
Zondi. Get the money ready.
Vally: Last time I passed four traffic lights before I 'comed' to the nearest filling station.
Dakar: Mr Zondi, can you hear me?
Vally: My friend, do you have an empty bucket that I can use to buy petrol? Oh! Now I
remember there is an empty big bucket in the boot of my car. I'll use it.
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Dakar: At last Mr Zondi, you answer my call. I'm glad you will take many of the Coca-Cola
bottles. The load of the truck will be not heavy and I will drive faster.
QUESTIONS
(1) Describe the nature of the conversation between the two boys.
(2) Explain which language rules each boy has mastered and which rules are still
challenging. Refer to examples from the case study.
(3) Discuss two characteristics of language at this developmental stage.
(1) Read how Piaget explains language development at this stage and take note of the
boys' age.
(2) Read the language rule system in section 4.3 and take note of the vocabulary, the
meaning of words and sentences.
(3) Read section 4.5.4.1 on the preoperational stage of language development (two to
seven years). According to Piaget, five-year-old children are set to be at the
preoperational stage where these children begin to engage in symbolic play. Identify
two characteristics that support the statement by using excerpts from the case study.
In summary, Piaget believed that as children grow, they actively build a language system, which
helps them to understand the world. The level of their language is determined by the
developmental stage they are at. To him, language is part of cognition and the two are influenced
by environmental factors of which the home culture is key.
4.6 FAMILY AND CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
Learning unit 1 discussed the influence of the environment on child development at length. This
learning unit focusses on the influence of the home and its culture on child development. Read
this section in learning unit 1 again to refresh your memory about the influence of the environment.
The influence of the home environment is particularly strong in shaping children's language
development. Research on the preschooler's home environment and delayed language
acquisition (Lenyai 1992) conducted in the now Limpopo Province, established that cultural
practices in the homes of the research subjects contributed significantly to their delayed language
acquisition. Children in these rural families were mostly in the company of other siblings and in
most instances in a different hut from that of adults, as it was the practice in those villages. Their
verbal expressions remained low because they missed out on parents' rich language.
Research has proven that there is a close relationship between language and maternal sensitivity
and warmth in the language acquisition of young children. When they have more rewarding
literacy interactions with mothers and receive more sensitive instruction and feedback from them,
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they grow linguistically. This explains why some children's expressive language is good (Pianta
2006; Justice, Cottone, Mashburn & Rimm-Kaufman 2008).
Vygotsky's social-interactionist theory that we discussed before, highlights the importance of

warm and affectionate relationships with parents, especially the mother (Hoff 2006). The use of
language, especially in the context of achieving a goal, is encouraged by warm approval of adults
in that environment. The affective dimensions of the mother-child relationship thus clearly seem
to affect the quality of children's language experiences. Children who are secure in their homes,
especially with their mothers, have higher language growth. In contrast, insecurely attached
children show less interest in reading, appear more occupied by feelings of anxiety, and were
more distracted during literacy interactions.
Likewise, in the classroom situation, the affective and supportive behaviour of the teacher is
regarded as a positive stimulus to language development (Pianta & Stuhlman 2004). Refer back
to learning unit 1 about the role of the teacher in child development.
According to Nsamenang (2011), language development is strongly dependent on the

opportunities that adults provide to children. Cultures differ in this respect. In western cultures,
children's language development is judged by their ability to read. Children who read learn new
words and in that build on their vocabulary. In such cultures, children's language abilities are
measured by the length of their sentences. This is not necessarily the case in other cultures.
Children's language in some traditional cultures is enhanced through storytelling and traditional
songs. In African cultures, children are praised for applying the correct cultural language register
when speaking to adults. For instance, in some ethnic groups in South Africa, children who use
the plural when addressing one adult are praised for having mastered respect in language. Body
language and certain gestures are regarded as part of the language in traditional African cultures.
However, play is regarded as a good means of promoting language development in any culture.
Children from all cultures are naturally attracted to play activities. Although play was discussed in
detail in learning unit 2, we focus here on play specific to language development.
4.7 PLAY IN LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
Children's development, be it cognitive, physical, social or linguistic, is enhanced by play

activities. Play comes naturally and children enjoy and thrive on it. Playtime at preschools and
school-based Grade R classes teaches preschoolers how to interact with playmates, learn new
words, solve problems, and control their actions to be successful while playing within the rules of
a game. Preschool is a time of rapid growth where playtime is much more than play – it is essential
for growth.
Preschoolers can comfortably communicate with their friends and close family members without
using many words. In play activities, however, children must have the ability to speak clearly. The
best playtime activities for language development are make-believe games based on everyday
activities or situations and daily tasks. Children might set up an imaginary shop and use language
learned while shopping with their parents to purchase pretend items. Preschoolers may need to
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explain the point or rules of their game to bring other kids in on the fun. Of course, preschoolers
have to use their language skills to handle disputes with other kids and build strong friendships.
Here are a few examples where play is used to create a positive, impactful environment where
preschoolers can learn, discover and explore.
4.7.1 Common language games
The "I spot with my own little eyes…" game (see case study 2) was used to show examples of
stages of language development. The game played by Vusi is a language game as it develops
children's ability to describe objects and to name them.
Children might set up an imaginary shop and use language learned while shopping with their
parents to purchase pretend items. Preschoolers may need to explain the point or rules of their
game to bring other kids in on the fun.
The "Simple Simon says…" language game sharpens children's skills to listen, understand and
do what is required by the lead speaker. Children are required to respond to a directive only if the
lead speaker starts the sentence with "Simple Simon says…" but not to move or respond when
the lead speaker starts the sentence without referring to the phrase "Simple Simon says".
Riddles are also a form of language games. For example, a lead speaker can ask: "What follows
you outside on a sunny day and you cannot stop it or run away from it?" The listeners must figure
it out and answer. In this example, the answer could be "your shadow".
4.7.2 Cultural language games
A few African games can be used to increase children's vocabulary and verbal expressions. The
following are examples.
The "Masekitlane" stone game: This game is played as an individual game. The player creates a
scenario where verbal interaction takes plays and uses the small stones as the speakers in the
game. The scenario could be a classroom with one bigger stone representing the teacher and
several small stones representing children in the class. The player would put the 'teacher' in front
of the 'class' and ask Mapula a question.
Teacher: Good morning Mapula. Did you remember to bring something for our table today?
Mapula: (the player would touch another stone) Yes teacher. I brought a piece of cloth and one
button that remained after my mother made a dress for me. The conversation would go on and
on as long as the speaker gets new ideas on what to communicate.
The "choo-choo" game: In this traditional game several children hold one hand of one another to
form a 'train' led by one child as the 'head'. Two other children hold both their arms high to form
a 'bridge' under which the train must pass. The two may choose anything to ask 'passengers' on
the train. The child at the tale of the train is stopped at the bridge. If for instance, they chose to
talk about fruit, the one who described the nicest fruit wins the passenger to her/his side. When
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all the children have been stopped under the bridge and have indicated their choice of fruit,
those that are in the majority win the game.
Riddles (dilotho in Sesotho; dithai in Setswana; dithai in Sepedi): Cultural riddles are fascinating
because they are introduced by unique phrases or songs. A Sepedi example: Thaiii…Ka segata
sa nkgata means meets (water).
4.8 LANGUAGE MILESTONES IN GRADE R
In Grade R, most children understand and can use thousands of words strung in a sentence and
correctly pronounce them (Dickinson & Porche 2011).
Listening skills Speaking skills

▪ Understand a lot of what is said and follow ▪ Speak in complete sentences of four or
instructions with relative ease. more words.
▪ Understand direction words like "big," "small" ▪ Talk easily without stuttering or repeating
"top," "bottom". words or syllables.
▪ Recognise when words rhyme. ▪ Say or sing familiar songs or nursery
▪ Hear and respond to the voices of different rhymes.
family members. ▪ Correctly name colours, people, objects
▪ Hear the television or radio at normal and categories of objects.
volumes. ▪ Speak clearly enough that strangers can
▪ Notice and analyse sounds in the understand.
environment, such as a car horn, a drum, or ▪ Use the pronouns "I," "you," and "me"
boiling kettle. correctly.
Source: Dickinson and Porche (2011)
4.9 CONCLUSION
The discussion on language development was introduced by linking it with cognitive development,
which was discussed in learning unit 3. After defining language as a concept, the preoperational
stage of language that occurs between the ages of two and seven was discussed since it is the
stage at which Grade R children are at. Theories of language development highlighted the
differences that exist about the process of language development and this was followed by factors
that influence its development. Although play was discussed in general in learning unit 2 of this
module, it was discussed in this learning unit with a focus on language development. The
discussion of language milestones concluded this learning unit.
❖ Define language as a concept.
❖ Discuss the Grade R child's stage of language development.
❖ Discuss theories of language development.
❖ Explain how the family and cultural environment can influence language development.
❖ Explain how play can enhance language development.
❖ Outline the milestones related to language development.
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To summarise what you have learned about the language development of the Grade R child, take
a few minutes to watch the following videos.
• https://study.com/academy/lesson/phonology-definition-rules-examples.html (Definition
of the concept phonology)
• https://study.com/academy/lesson/phoneme-definition-segmentation-examples.html
(Definition of the concept phoneme)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C7uLApXDRdM (Behaviourism: A theory of
Language Development)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zAcNO14HnEE (Vygotsky's Social Interaction)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XYr3YDW5N7k (Link theory: Preoperational
Stage Language Development)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tFVR8gbdqJ8 (Piaget's Preoperational Stage
Terminology)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TKbz9WutGAY (Learning through Play: "Anji
Play")
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6rp87dJKk2s (Very creative kids in Africa!
Gaming outside the West)
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LEARNING UNIT 5: PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
Learning unit 5 aims to explain physical development of young children and how it occurs in the
Grade R ages (four to six years) and to provide you with the skills to support this age group's
physical abilities for learning in the formal class.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Define the meaning of physical and motor development.

• Describe the development of the Grade R child's motor skills/development.
• Explain the importance of physical development in child development.
• Explain how teachers and parents can promote the Grade R's physical development.
• Discuss factors that influence the physical development of Grade R children.
➢ Physical development: Physical changes in the body that involves changes in bone
thickness, size, weight, gross motor, fine motor, vision, hearing and perceptual
development.
➢ Gross motor development: The ability to engage the large muscles of the body in a
coordinated and controlled way.
➢ Fine motor development: The ability to coordinate the smaller muscles in the arms,
hands and fingers that are necessary for drawing, writing, cutting with scissors, and so
forth.
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Learning unit 5 focuses on the physical development of children between the ages of four and six
years, which is the Grade R period. It explains the physical nature of this group of children and
describes how they acquire gross and fine motor skills. An explanation of how important physical
development is for the other developmental areas is given, followed by how teachers and parents
can facilitate the child's growth. The previous learning units looked at factors that could potentially
influence the specific developmental and holistic domains of the child. The same will be done in
this learning unit. The description of physical development milestones towards the end of this
learning unit will enable you to determine the physical abilities of individual children in your class
and those who may lag behind. The case studies and questions set on the content of this learning
unit intend to contextualise physical development in the Grade R class and to clarify the concept
of physical development.
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5.2 THE NATURE OF PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE GRADE R YEARS
Read the following definitions of physical development to have a clearer understanding about the
concept.
❖ Physical development refers to physical changes in the body and involves changes in
bone thickness, size, weight, gross motor, fine motor, vision, hearing and perceptual
development (Excell & Linington 2015).
❖ Physical development is about developing control over the body, particularly muscles
and physical coordination. It is the process that focuses on gross and fine motor skills
that start from infancy and continue up to late adolescence or 20 years
(https://www.livestrong.com/article/96678/August2018).
❖ Physical development includes the size of the body and organs as well as the changes
in the internal structure and functioning of the body (Pepler 2015).
❖ Physical development entails the body's physiological process of growing and

maturation (Weinstein, Rosen, Swowman, McCown, Maphalala & Tabane 2016).
❖ Physical development in children refers to the development of children's gross motor

and fine motor skills, which is evident when they use their bodies
(http://www.understood.org/en/image-viewer/media).
❖ Gross motor development refers to the development of and increased control over the
large muscles in the body such as legs, back and shoulder (Excell & Linington 2015).
❖ Fine motor development refers to the development of the small muscles of the fingers,
hands, toes and eyes (Excell & Linington 2015).
Physical development is defined by a child's gross motor, fine motor and balance or coordination
skills. It is a process that starts early in life as can be seen from the foregoing definitions and
continues up to late adolescence. By the time children reach the preschool or the toddler years,
remarkable growth has taken place. The process begins to slow down in the ages of four to six
years, that is, the Grade R years. It would, therefore, be useful to refer briefly to physical
development at a stage before the Grade R years so you can have a broader picture of this
physical domain and you can see continuity in its development.
5.3 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT BETWEEN ONE AND THREE YEARS
Physical growth in the period between one and three years happens at a tremendous speed
and is characterised by both physical and neurological changes. Toddlers' physical development
includes the physical and motor skills that emerge during the first three years of life. The growth
assumes a specific pattern starting at the head and going down to the feet (cephalocaudal).
Immediately after birth, children's heads are big and growth tapers towards the legs and feet.
Children lose their baby fat. They develop visually and auditory before they can learn to sit and
to walk (Patterson 2008). Physical development at this stage follows a sideways pattern; that is,
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growth starts from the centre of the body outward towards the extremes (proximodistal). They
develop in the chest area first and later their arms, hands and finally their fingers (Santrock 2004).
Children's height and weight grows rapidly in this early period. According to Santrock (2004),
they lose their body weight slightly after birth while they adjust to feeding from the bottle or through
the use of a spoon, but they put the weight on again after the adjustment. They continue to grow
in height with speed at the age of two years when growth slows down again. At this age, they are
approximately one-fifth of their adult weight and half the height.
Brain development is dramatic in the first three years or the toddler years. All the facets of the
brain and the brain connections that need to develop, do so at tremendous speed during the
preschool years. The part of the brain that is responsible for various functions, that is, cognitive
activities and language, hearing and sight, for instance, grows remarkably during this period.
According to research (Gordon & Browne 2014; Zeanah 2000), at birth, the newborn's brain is
25% of its adult weight and by the age of two years, it is 75% of its adult weight.
Gross motor skills refer to engaging the large muscles of the body in a coordinated and
controlled way (Du Toit & Pienaar 2002;). Examples of such skills for toddlers involves climbing
and running. It also includes children's ability to hold a cup of water, scribble with crayon on paper
and copy a circle.
Children of this age enjoy riding a tricycle and building a tower of bricks. These skills and abilities
affect connections with other people, objects and the environment. The first person the child
comes into contact with is the mother, who urges the child to exert him- or herself more. Children
often use objects like chairs or a small table to hoist themselves up in instances where they cannot
reach an object. At the same time, children rely on their vision to determine where to walk and
what to cling onto.
Figure 5.4 (Source: Shutterstock.com)
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Fine-motor skills involve smaller, more precise movements, particularly movements of the
hands and fingers, such as picking up small objects with fingers, scooping sand and pouring it
into a bucket. This is typical of toddlers who have matured from infancy. As their bodies grow,
toddlers progressively strengthen their small muscles and learn to better control their bodies.
Their fine motor skills are an improvement from infancy and the mastery of new activities. As
toddlers grow, their bodies and minds become capable of simple and mildly complex movement
and experiences. Skill mastery and development are the results of brain growth and development
(Lefranҫois 2001).
Figure 5.5 (Source: www.shutterstock.com)
The level of skills acquisition in both gross and fine motor muscles during the toddler years will
determine the onset and the rate of development in the next developmental phase, which is the
Grade R years or the period between four and six years.
5.4 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT DURING THE GRADE R YEARS
Physical development in the Grade R years or the ages of four to six years is also studied in terms
of their growth in stature (height and weight) and change in motor abilities (gross and fine
muscles). We noted that the toddler's rate of growth is not uniform and does not occur all at once.
This is also true about the Grade R child.
5.4.1 Growth of the body
The Grade R child's body growth is seen in terms of weight and height. During this period, growth
is not as rapid as it was during the toddler years, although it continues at great speed.
The weight and height of the Grade R child continue to grow, although not at the same rate as
in the toddler years. As the growth rate slows, their muscular and skeletal systems strengthen
and their body proportions change significantly. The process of growth in this period remains
cephalocaudal; meaning that it starts from the top (the head) and progresses to the bottom of the
body (the feet). Growth is also proximodistal, meaning that it starts in the centre (the trunk) and
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goes outward (the arms, hands and fingers). The rate and timing across all body parts remain
disproportionate (Kail 2002; Krantz 2010).
In the course of development, the Grade R child's body shape changes. The protruding stomachs
typical of the toddler years flatten and their shape change to resemble that of adults. The curved
legs straighten and the disproportionately large head becomes relatively smaller. The torso (upper
body) and limbs (arms and legs) grow and transform the Grade R child's body into a taller, thinner
and more adult-like physique. The size of the head reduces, which allows for more body control
and differentiation of the functions of the brain. The child's baby fat began shedding during the
toddler years and reduces even further because of the running, climbing and other physical
exercises the children get involved in. Physical movements and exercise strengthen the body
internally through the process of ossification (the process by which the skeletal system converts
cartilage to bone).
While the toddler's height is said to be one half of an adult's height, by age six children are two-
thirds of the adult height (Kail 202; Krantz 2010) because the growth is not as enormous as during
the toddler years. Since the Grade R child's weight and height are stabilised to some extent,
Krantz (2010) says it is possible to predict the children's weight and height at adulthood.
The head represents 50% of the body length at two months after conception but only 12% to 13%
of adult stature. In contrast, the legs constitute about 12% to 13% of the total length of a two-
month-old foetus, but 50% of the height of a 25-year-old adult (Source: Shaffer & Kipp 2010).
Brain development occurs at a different speed than the physique. The brain size grows
approximately from 75% during the toddler stage to 90% of its mature adult weight at age five.
However, from the age of two to six years, the size of the head changes from approximately one-
fifth to one-eighth of the total body size of an adult (Lefranҫois 2001). The enormous brain growth
means that the two lobes of the brain develop and enable the child to control his or her body more
efficiently. Each of the lobes or hemispheres of the brain serves a different function (lateralisation),
including the tendency to use the left or right hand, a physical phenomenon called handedness
(Patterson 2008).
Handedness is a phenomenon that has been misunderstood in educational circles for a long
time. In the past, teachers forced left-handed pupils to use their right hand when writing. The
belief that left-handedness could be corrected not only failed, but it also frustrated children and
led to failure. Left-handedness is genetic and cannot be changed. Right-handedness is common
in all nationalities and is present before cultural influences. It is prevalent in 90% of people while
left-handers make up only 10% of the population. Handedness is associated with brain activities.
The brain is made up of two lobes referred to as the left and the right hemispheres.
According to researchers such as Lefranҫois (2001) and Patterson (2008), in most people, the
left hemisphere is responsible for verbal, language processing and positive emotions, while the
right hemisphere is responsible for spatial and reasoning functions including negative emotions.
However, left-handed individuals do not comply with this in general, they show more variation.
Some of them process speech in both the hemispheres. According to Santrock (2004), this
explains why left-handers experience reading problems.
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Although reading is said to be a challenge among left-handers, they display superiority in

mathematics, music, the arts and architecture. Left-handed individuals have good visual-spatial
skills and can figure out spatial layouts easily.
Regarding physical functions, each side of the body is controlled by the opposite side of the
hemispheres. This means that the right hemisphere controls the left side of the body and the left
hemisphere controls the right side of the body. The strengthening of the skeletal system referred
to earlier, prepares the body for the development of motor skills during the Grade R years.
5.4.2 The development of the Grade R child's motor skills
Children's activities of walking, running, jumping or climbing are called motor activities. Scribbling,
colouring, cutting with scissors or fastening buttons are motor activities. The first group of activities
shows the development of gross motor skills and the second group is evidence of fine motor skill.
The teacher should be informed of the phases of motor development from birth to adulthood when
planning activities for the children. Gallahue andOzmun (2006) classify motor development in
different stages and phases as the reflective movement phase, rudimentary movement phase,
and the fundamental movement phase.
❖ The reflective movement phase
This is the prenatal phase and continues after birth. The baby is born with a natural drive to move
and the natural movements are referred to as reflexes. A baby's early development is orderly and
structured, and driven by a set of primitive reflexes that form the foundation of later learning. This
phase develops simultaneously with the first movement phase. During this phase, the baby
develops neck, head and trunk control that enables them to roll over, sit, crawl and stand up.
Each milestone is reached in sequence within a timeframe.
❖ The rudimentary movement phase
This phase lasts from birth to two years. Locomotor skills like crawling, walking and manipulation
– including reaching and grasping and stability skills, which include control over the neck, head,
and trunk during sitting and standing – develop during this phase. At this stage, the baby has
hardly any control over fine motor skills.
❖ The fundamental movement phase
The time between two and seven years is important for motor skills development. During this
phase, the basic posture, locomotor and manipulation skills that developed during the first two
years are being refined and further development happens. The fundamental movement phase
consists of three stages as depicted in table 5.1.
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Table 5.1 Fundamental movement phases and stages
Phase Name Characteristics Age

One Initial stage Characterised by relatively crude, 2-3 years
uncoordinated movements.
Two Elementary stage Coordination and rhythmical performance 4-5 years
increase with greater control, but the
fluidity of movement is still lacking.
Three Mature stage Skill is characterised as a well- 6-7 years
coordinated, mechanically correct and
efficient act.
Source: Pienaar (2018)
Maturation plays an important role in both the rudiment and fundamental movement phases to
refine the movements. As soon as the fundamental skill possesses all the characteristics of a
mature skill, it develops into a sport-specific skill. If the development does not happen, it will
hamper the development of the specialised skills later in the child's life. Pienaar (2017) points out
that the fundamental skills of many children in South Africa do not develop to the level of
specialised skills due to physical education that is often neglected in schools, safety, stranger
danger, and the technological nature of modern societies.
Table 5.1 further classifies the fundamental skills.
Table 5.1 Fundamental skills
Stability skills Bending, stretching, turning, swinging, rolling,

Emphasise balancing (body control) maintaining a position (like standing on the toes),
starting, stopping, avoiding and balancing
Locomotor skills Walking, running, jumping, hopping (basic)
Continuing in an upward or forward direction galloping, skipping, sliding, climbing (combinations)
Manipulation skills Throwing, kicking, hitting, bouncing, dribble (initiate),
catching, preventing/ stopping (absorb)
Source: Pienaar (2018)
With these phases and skills in mind, we can agree a Grade R teacher must plan activities around
the fundamental movement phase.
Activity 5.1
Read the case study and complete the activity.

In the school where you are teaching, the Grade R teachers are complaining about children
struggling to focus and concentrate in the classroom. You decide to compile an A4/A5
chart for each teacher with stability activities that can be done in the classroom between
different learning activities to enhance focus and concentration during classroom activities.
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❖ Use table 5.1 as a guide and develop short and quick stability activities – not more than
five – for inside the classroom between learning activities.
❖ Take some pictures of a child or a group (remember no faces) as they demonstrate the
different activities that can serve as demonstrations for the teacher and children.
Feedback to activity 5.1.
When working on this activity, you will find it useful to identify the characteristics of the
fundamental motor phase and the fundamental skills. Read section 5.4.2 again.
The following section will focus on gross and fine motor skills of the Grade R child.
5.4.2.1 Gross motor skills

The development of gross motor skills begins at infancy when children learn how to roll on the
bed or floor and continues during the Grade R years (four to six years). The development entails
control of large muscle movements as well as building strength in muscle groups like the arms
and legs. In paragraph 5.4.1, where weight and height were discussed, we indicated that growth
happens from top to bottom, that is, from head to legs and feet. We also noted that growth
happens from the trunk outward, that is, from chest to the arms and fingers.
Like body growth, typical motor skill development follows a predictable sequence. It starts from
the inner body, including the head, neck, arms and legs, and then moves to the outer body such
as hands, feet, fingers and toes. Figure 5.10 illustrates how children's gross motor skill can
develop (Kail 2002; Krantz 2010).
Figure 5.10: Children throwing a ball (Source: https://www.shutterstock.com)
As illustrated in figure 5.10, in the beginning, their bodies are stiff when they throw a ball, only
their arms move. With time they develop physically and learn how to bend forward, propel their
bodies forward and move their feet simultaneously to throw the ball over a long distance. In the
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beginning, the preschooler opens his or her arms to catch a ball and will only catch it if it is thrown
to the chest. With time, they develop to stretch their arms high with open hands to catch the ball.
By the time children reach the age of six years, they can hop a long distance on one foot or
alternate hopping first on one foot a few times and then on the other. In addition, children at Grade
R level master the control of their bodies and display proficiency at coordinating the movements
of their arms and legs.
A Grade R child with well-developed gross motor skills can do the following:
❖ Balance on a beam for some time
❖ Climb over a jungle gym or stairs with ease
❖ Throw and catch a ball using the correct body movements
❖ Hop on one leg for a long distance
❖ Ride a tricycle or bicycle with support wheels
❖ Run fast in a game with peers
❖ Participate in sports that demand age-appropriate skills
This list can include other similar activities. Can you think of more examples?
5.4.2.2 Fine motor skills
Children's ability to perform more refined and precise activities signals the growth of their fine
motor skills. Fine motor skills involve smaller, more precise movements, particularly movements
of the hands and fingers, such as clutching, twisting and pinching. By the time children reach
Grade R, their fine motor coordination has improved to a great extent and is more precise.
As children's bodies grow, their muscles are progressively strengthened, and they can control
their bodies. However, they must have acquired strength in the large muscles and a certain level
of control over body movement before they achieve the coordination of their fine motor activities.
Each new motor skill that develops results from an earlier skill and contributes to new skills. The
mastery of fine motor activities is also the result of brain growth and development.
At four years old, some children still experience difficulty with building blocks because the
movement of their hands and fingers is not well coordinated. The hand tips off the block when the
child is using fingers to put one block on top of the other. By age five, the Grade R child's motor
coordination has improved significantly. The body movement, the arm, the hand and fingers all
move in unison. The child's eye-hand coordination has also improved. In the block area of the
Grade R class, the interest of many has shifted from stacking one block on top of the other to
building a tower, a house and vehicle garage. Of course, the child must tell the teacher what he
has built.
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Figure 5.11: A picture of a child writing (source: https://www.shutterstock.com)
The Grade R's developed fine motor skills are seen in the ability to do the following:
❖ Hold the pencil correctly, as in figure 5.11

❖ Colour within the lines of a picture
❖ Cut pictures out of a book with scissors
❖ Fold a paper into a half and quarter
❖ Trace around the hand
❖ Copy letters
❖ Create something with clay
The list can include other activities. Can you think of more examples?
The development of the physical domain is important for Grade R children to function correctly
and efficiently in their learning. It is therefore important to ensure that children reach their optimal
development to learn successfully in the formal school.
Activity 5.2
CASE STUDY 1
Mrs Mabena's Grade R class in Rosebank, Johannesburg, boasts several trophies

won in athletics and soccer matches. She has little girls who are very good at hopping
and jumping games and they win athletic races. Mary is particularly agile and jumps
and hops with ease and enjoyment. The little boys in her class excel in soccer and
promise to be the stars of tomorrow. Their good performance could be attributed to
their Grade R programme, which includes good indoor and sports facilities, good
teachers who train them, and the fact that the children are from good homes in the
suburb.
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CASE STUDY 2
In a low socioeconomic settlement outside the small town of Nylstroom, the school-
based Grade R class follows the same timetable as the Grades 1 to 3 since the class
is between the other classes. All activities in this Grade R class are indoors and
emphasise preliteracy skills to give children a good start in Grade 1. Children are not
allowed to loiter outside to avoid causing disturbances. However, during playtime
children run around and boys enjoy kicking a soccer ball over make-shift goal posts.
Girls play skipping with a rope, which one of them brought from home. At the end of
each year, parents are invited by the Grade R teacher, Mrs Madiba to listen to their
children reciting nursery rhymes and singing in concert form.
Questions
(1) Which aspect of physical development is discussed in case study1?

(2) Identify activities that support your answer in question 1.
(3) Explain to what extent the Grade R programme in case study 2 supports physical
development.
(4) Which aspect of physical development is emphasised in case study 2?
(5) Motivate your answer in question 4.
Reread section 5.2.4 to answer this activity. Take into account the types of activities involved and
identify the nature of physical development. The following key themes should have been
incorporated:
(1) Nature of activities: athletics and soccer matches – gross motor development
(2) Types of activities: hopping and jumping games
(3) The programme makes provision for children to play.
(4) Gross motor development
(5) Boys: run around, kicking a soccer ball over make-shift goal posts. Girls: skipping with
a rope
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5.5 THE IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
Physical development (physique and weight) is a key area in child development. Together,
cognitive and language development is crucial in children's future growth and learning. The peak
of physical development happens in early childhood, which is crucial for neurological brain
development and body coordination. As children learn what their bodies can do, they gain self-
confidence, which makes them want to engage in more physical activities. Physical development
is important because motor development (gross and fine muscles) is basic in the development of
other domains such as cognitive, language social and emotional development (Hauf &
Aschersleben 2008; Gordon & Browne 2014; Patterson 2008).
Children's cognitive development (thinking skills) improves as they play with toys such as
battery-operated cars or talking dolls because they try to understand what causes the movement
or how the doll cries when it is wound. Limited motor development can result in limited exploration
of objects or the environment and could therefore limit cognitive development.
Grade R children often discuss their drawings or listen to one another when they explain how
something functions. Such interactions improve their language abilities. If children's motor ability
does not allow them to draw or to engage in some activity, they may not have the opportunity to
participate verbally with other children.
Play during the Grade R years is a social activity that brings them into contact with other children
in their socialisation. Soccer, playing house and running competitions are all social and
traditional games that they enjoy. A child who is always last in running competitions may finally
shy away from running with friends and miss out on the opportunity to socialise.
Children in a Grade R class are praised for their achievements, which brings about emotional
development. Emotional satisfaction does not only come from the teacher's and peer's praises
but also results from the child's satisfaction after achieving a set goal. In the block area of the
class, the success of building a 'house' is gratifying to the child and brings about emotional
satisfaction (Louw & Louw 2014; Lefranҫois 2001).
Since physical development is linked to the development of other domains, children must acquire
skills in this regard to support the development of the other mentioned domains. The following
physical milestones are a guideline of what is optimal development physically.
5.6 PHYSICAL MILESTONES IN GRADE R
Physical milestones indicate the physical movements or activities that children have mastered at
a certain age. However, it is important to note that there will be considerable variation in the
achievement of milestones at Grade R level because of individual differences. Some children
achieve milestones ahead of others and continue to lead in their development.
Grade R children grow in weight and height during this period. Physical movements and eye-hand
coordination continue to improve. By the end of this period, most children can perform the following:
Gross motor skills
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▪ Control movement easily; start, stop, turn and go around obstacles while running
▪ Roll, do somersaults, skip and trot
▪ Get dressed with minimal help (zippers, snaps and buttons may still be a little hard)
▪ Throw and bounce a ball
▪ Jump over objects and climb playground ladders
▪ Pedal and steer a tricycle or bike
Fine motor skills

▪ Draw or copy basic shapes and crosses (this is a milestone known as midline crossing)
▪ Write or copy some letters or numbers
▪ Begin to use scissors purposefully
▪ Stack a tower at least 10 blocks high
▪ String beads or rings to make necklaces
▪ Pinch and shape clay or playdough into recognisable objects
5.7 ACTIVITIES THAT ENHANCE THE PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE GRADE R

CHILD
Teachers and parents carry out all the activities that make physical development an important
ingredient in the development of children's domains. Section 2.6 in learning unit 2 discusses the
role of the Grade R teacher in general. The discussion includes desirable teacher qualities to
promote child development. In this section we focus only on activities that can promote physical
development, that is, gross and fine motor activities.
5.7.1 Teacher preparation for promoting gross motor development
It is typical for children, including Grade R children, to develop their gross motor skills first. The
development could result from running around, climbing and playing exhaustively in the school
playground. Play activities teach children to control their bodies and movements in a fun way.
While organised activities may be beneficial to children, their benefit can be short-lived because
children have a short attention span. Children can develop better if teachers keep activities
informal. Teachers should do the following:
❖ Determine which developmental milestones you would like to address and expose
children to the opportunity.
❖ Make time in the daily programme for children's physical activities.
❖ Choose activities that will develop more than one skill, such as catching a ball. Both
their gross motor muscles and their eye-hand coordination will develop.
❖ Provide equipment such as balls, swings and jungle gyms that will encourage gross
motor development.
❖ Monitor children in outside activities but avoid dictating to Grade R children how to use
some equipment. You should allow them to explore.
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5.7.2 Teacher preparation for promoting fine motor development
Grade R teachers know that children find it difficult to perform activities that demand fine motor
skills such as writing, tying shoelaces or manipulating small objects. Fine motor skills develop at
a later stage than gross motor skills and therefore need to be encouraged. Contrary to gross
motor skills, the development of some fine motor skills needs teacher instruction and guidance.
Children need to be guided, for instance how to write. Teachers can do the following:
❖ Plan for fine motor activities that will first interest children and encourage them to keep
on trying, such as colouring, art and cutting with scissors.
❖ Help them to copy shapes, letters and numbers to develop their eye-hand
coordination. Tracing pictures is also valuable.
❖ Adopt an informal approach such as making children compete who will finish first to
thread beads in a string or complete a puzzle.
❖ Take children outdoors to identify objects that relate to the topic or theme under
discussion; for instance, gathering leaves (theme: seasons) and guide the children to
paste the leaves with glue on a clean sheet of paper and draw a tree.
The success and the extent of achieving some of the said activities depend on several factors as
can be seen in activity 5.3.
Activity 5.3
CASE STUDY 3
Masemola Primary School is situated in a remote impoverished village in Limpopo. There

are no facilities in the Grade R class, except for benches made by the local carpenter. The
village is situated in a rich climatic region. The local female population is very traditional and
makes a living by weaving traditional mats and beads and making pottery. The male folk
focus on farming with traditional farming implements and methods and they hunt game. They
are responsible for building traditional houses by using locally available materials.
Questions
(1) As a Grade R teacher, how would you plan and create an indoor play area to promote
the development of gross and fine motor development by using what is available locally?
(2) How would you plan the outdoor play area by using local materials?
(3) Why is the development of children's physical skills important for the development of
their other developmental domains? Please elaborate.
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When answering this activity you will find it useful to look at the following:
(1) Read the case study again and see what can be used from the described village
environment to carry out the teacher activities suggested in section 5.7.1. Use your
own environment as a case study.
(2) What can be used from the described village environment to carry out the teacher
activities suggested in section 5.7.1? Use your own environment as a case study.
(3) Read section 5.5 on the importance of physical development. You should have
incorporated the following key themes: improve their language abilities and thinking
skills, socialisation, emotional – praise and self-satisfactory.
5.7.3 Parent involvement in the promotion of physical development
Parents must develop their children's physical independence, starting from washing themselves,
grooming and tying their shoelaces. They must enrol their children in music and movement
projects. Parental involvement is seen mostly in play activities with their children. The importance
and role of play in child development were discussed in detail in section 2.7 in learning unit 2.
This section focuses on the nature of the games that parents can play with children to develop
them physically. The chosen games must target both gross and fine motor development, including
eye-hand coordination.
Kick the ball
Figure 5.12: Kick the ball (Source: https://www.shutterstock.com)
Kick the ball is a popular game in South African homes. It can be played by between four and six
children, who stand in a circle and are eliminated by counting until one is left. One child is the
'tale' and remains with a ball placed in the middle of a circle. The tale counts slowly up to 10 with
eyes closed to give the rest a chance to hide. He then opens eyes and searches for them. When
he spots one, he outruns him quickly to touch the ball with his foot and that child is put in a 'cage'.
If the spotted child reaches the ball before the tale, he kicks the ball and screams: "Kick the ball"
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then hides again. If the tale finds all the hiding children before they can kick the ball and locks
them in the cage, the game is over.
Hopscotch
Figure 5.13: Hopscotch (Source: https://www.shutterstock.com)
Hopscotch is another popular game that can be played by three children or more, but one at a
time. A grid with blocks like the ones in the picture is drawn on the pavement or a paved area.
Children go in turns one at a time to throw a flat stone into the starting block, hop on one leg over
the circle all the way out, following the hopscotch pattern, hops back and in circle 2 bends over
to pick the stone in circle 1, still on one leg and go out. The child then throws the flat stone into
the second circle and repeats the whole process until the hopscotch pattern is completed. If the
child falls or fails to throw the stone into the correct circle or square, he or she goes out and it
becomes the next child's turn. When the first child resumes play, the stone is thrown into the place
where the child last failed and continues to follow the pattern until the stone is picked up at the
last circle.
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Diketo
Figure 5.14: Diketo (Source: https://www.shutterstock.com)
Diketo is a traditional African game that is played by one to four children individually. A shallow
hole is dug in the ground and 12 small stones are put in. The player tosses a bigger stone high
enough to allow her to pull out all the stones from the hole. The bigger stone is tossed up again
and all the stones are pushed back into the hole, except one. The small stones are scooped out
the hole and every time they are returned, one stone is left behind until all the stones are out one
by one. Next, the bigger stone is tossed up and two stones are left behind (six times = 12) when
others are pushed back until there are no stones left in the whole. The process is repeated and
the stones are kept back in threes (four times = 12), fours (thrice = 12), fives (two 5s and 2 = 12),
sixes (twice = 12), seven (plus 5 = 12), eight (plus 4 = 12), nine (and 3 = 12), 10 (and 2 = 12), 11
(and 1 = 12) . Finally, all the stones are scooped out and nothing is returned into the hole. The
player wins the game when the whole process is completed.
Card game
Figure 5.15: Card game (Source: https://www.shutterstock.com)
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There is a wide variety of card games, but it is important to choose an ag- appropriate one for
Grade R children. In the illustrated game, cards are shuffled and arranged randomly face-up on
the table. Three children or more can play in turns. The player picks up 10 cards and tries to
match five of them in sequential, pattern or numeric ways. It could be as illustrated in the picture,
or it could be same numbers in a Spade, a Diamond or a Heart, or it could be an arrangement of
10, Jack Queen, King and Ace. The player who finishes first is the winner.
Play remains the best mode of promoting physical development and other developmental
domains. The four games illustrated here support gross and fine motor development including
eye-hand coordination as recommended in the introduction of this section. Kick the ball and
hopscotch promote gross motor development. Running and kicking in kick the ball and hopping
in hopscotch strengthen large muscles. In hopscotch, when children throw the flat stone in the
required circle or square, the child's eye-hand coordination improves. Diketo and card games
develop fine motor muscles. Scooping out small stones from the shallow hole in the ground,
shuffling cards and picking up from the table to sort them develops the small muscles of the hands
and fingers.
Physical development is a domain where development is observable because it happens

externally. In instances where a child's development deviates from the norm, it is important to
understand factors that might be influencing the development.
5.8 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE GRADE R

CHILDREN
In the Grade R years, the ages between four and six years, children make the transition from
helplessness and dependence to mastery and independence. The remarkable thing about this
change is children's increased ability to function in their physical environment. Their ability is
enhanced by their natural tendency to play but can be limited by factors such as nutrition, heredity
and environment, cultural practices, gender differences, illness and accidental injuries (Krantz
2010; Louw & Louw 2014).
5.8.1 The effects of nutrition and obesity on physical development
Poor nutrition can result in physical impairment, which ultimately slows development. Adequate
nutrition is important not only for physical development but also for those domains that are
influenced by physical development. Malnourishment can result in stunted growth and poor
skeletal formations that limit children's physical movements (Louw & Louw 2014).
Although in recent years, parents are conscious of healthy eating and are aware of the importance
of nutrition in their lives, many still eat junk food (such fried fast food, sweets and chips) and lead
passive lifestyles such as sitting and watching television the whole day. Such behaviour is passed
over to their children and may result in obesity. At the same time, it is important to recognise that
obesity tends to run in families and both genetic, psychological disorders, parenting styles and
environmental factors seem to be involved. When children's weight exceeds 120% of the ideal
weight-for-height ratio, they are diagnosed as obese (https://www.livestrong.com/article/9667;
Krantz 2010).
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5.8.2 The effects of heredity and environment on physical development
Throughout early childhood, the influence of heredity on physical growth is evident. Parents'
physic and weight are reflected in their children's physical development. The genetic makeup of
children is inherited from their parents and that shapes them physically. According to Louw and
Louw (2014), the body's physical growth is controlled by the pituitary gland located at the base of
the brain which releases the growth hormone (GH) that controls children's height; and the thyroid-
stimulating hormone (TSH) that is responsible for the normal development of the nerve cells.
Children who lack the GH become do not grow very tall and those who lack the TSH grow at a
below-average rate and can be mentally disabled. In addition, it is important to note that disease
or disabilities can also affect children's physical appearance.
5.8.3 The effects of cultural practices on physical development
Cultural practices are made up of values, ideals and assumptions about life that guides people's
behaviour. It also consists of those aspects of the environment that people make (Santrock 2004).
All people believe that what happens in their culture is natural and correct. Children's cultural
contexts are an important determinant of their development. Parents and caregivers play a major
role in their development because they dictate child-rearing methods; who interacts with the
children at different ages; how they teach them; what they teach them; and how children must
learn.
African mothers speed up their babies' ability to stand by themselves by standing them up in a
90-degree corner between two walls, so they gain the confidence to stand alone. African children
learn valuable physical skills as early as the toddler period as part of their domestic chores. Girls
learn how to tidy their personal space while boys learn how to help with outside activities such as
herding goats. In both instances, children's gross and fine motor skills are developed (Nsamenang
2011).
The Zinacanteco people of Mexico discourage infants from moving about to protect them from
danger. Consequently, their children start walking much later than children from western cultures
(Patterson 2008). On the contrary, Kenyan mothers encourage their babies to sit up straight early
by putting them into a supportive hole dug in the ground. As a result, their physical development
is speeded up (Nsamenang 2011).
Research on Chinese mothers (Kail 2012) reported that the mothers attributed children's inability
to perform physical activities to lack of effort. Confirmation about this culture is seen in China's
strong focus on sports. They believe that winning the Olympics is a sign of superiority, and
children are trained in sports, especially gymnastics, as early as four years old. Their physical
prowess derives from cultural beliefs and national competitiveness.
5.8.4 The effects of gender differences on physical development
Girls and boys learn about gender as early as the preschool years when they develop new
abilities. Similarly, parents start thinking about gender issues involving their child in the early
childhood years. A parent can buy a skipping rope for a girl and a soccer ball for a boy. Fathers
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and peers usually want boys to behave independently and to engage in rough and tumble play.
Boys' strength and gross muscles develop in this way.
On the contrary, girls are expected to be gentle and to engage in 'soft' games. Their physical
strength and gross motor skills do not match that of boys. When activities require a coordinated
movement of the limbs, such as in hopping around or skipping, or balancing on one foot, girls
outshine boys. Girls are similarly better than boys in fine motor activities such as fastening
shoelaces and buttons, stringing beads and threading a needle.
Some factors, like the fact that boys tend to have larger and longer arms, are biological constraints
that we cannot control, yet they influence, for example, children's reach and hand movements.
5.8.5 The effects of illness and accidental injuries on physical development
Young children are prone to common illnesses, which are easily cured by paediatricians or
through immunisations. However, in developing countries, immunisation facilities are not
available, and children are crippled by diseases such as polio. Organisations such as the World
Health Organisation (WHO) and UNICEF have laid international standards to protect children
from such physical diseases.
Another limitation to physical growth comes from falls from high places or bicycles, poisoning,
injuries and vehicle crashes. Toddlers and preschoolers enjoy climbing and can fall and sustain
injuries that can eventually affect their physical development negatively. This is also true about
vehicle crashes that can leave children permanently disabled. Food poisoning may affect the
nervous system, ultimately resulting in paralysis or mental disability that will affect physical
growth. It is important for parents and caregivers not to allow children out of their sight at any
moment while they are playing.
5.8.6 The result of individual differences
Some differences in physical appearance can be associated with specific ethnic groups. For
instance, the Masai of Kenya are known for their tallness, most Chinese and people from the
eastern countries are usually short in stature, and some Africans north of the Equator are built
big. These are traits that cannot be altered and that may also influence individual physical abilities
(Louw & Louw 2014; Nsamenang 2012).
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Activity 5.4
Read the following case study and answer the questions that follow.
CASE STUDY 4
In a former Model C Grade R class in Sunnyside, Pretoria, Jiambo is the tallest five-year-old
boy in the class, just like his Nigerian father. His robust physic and strength make him the best
in the field when they play a rough sport. Interestingly, he is close friends with four-year-old
Kinpo, whose parents own shops in the China Mall down the street. Although short and tiny in
physique, his friends rely on him when it comes to activities that require agility. He can
somersault and twist in the air with ease. He is the opposite of Mosimanegape, who is six years
old and whose parents are from Kgalagadi in the Northern Cape. He is much shorter and
overweight. His peers jeer him for his failure in the running race because he is always last.
However, Mosimanegape is skilled in tying knots and helps in tying his peers' shoelaces, a skill
he learned from the age of three. The boys avoid competing with girls at the jungle gym,
skipping, at the swing and games such as the hopscotch. Sartjie is always first at finishing the
threading exercise and this young left-hander is excellent at drawing at the easel. Mrs
Grootboom, the Grade R teacher, is not overwhelmed by the diversity in her class and
understands exactly why each child is different physically. She promotes the physical ability of
each child differently because she understands them.
(1) Briefly identify the factors that influence the physical behaviour and ability of each child
in the case study.
(2) Write a paragraph on each child about the influence of these factors.
When answering this activity, you will find it useful to read section 5.8 again.
(1) You should have incorporated the following to your answer: Jiambo - Nigerian father,
Kinpo - Chinese, Mosimanegape - shorter and overweight
(2) Jiambo and Kinpo – explain how cultural practices affect children's physical
development. Mosimanegape (shorter and overweight) effects of nutrition.
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5.9 CONCLUSION
In this learning unit, physical development was discussed from different perspectives all aimed at
providing you with knowledge about the developmental domain and skilling you to promote the
domain. Physical development was defined and its components and importance explained. It
advised how teachers and parents can facilitate the development of both gross and fine motor
muscles. It was important to highlight factors that could influence children's abilities to assist you
in your role as Grade R teacher.
❖ Define the meaning of physical development in the Grade R years.

❖ Explain the importance of physical development in children.
❖ Discuss three factors that influence the physical development of Grade R children in
detail.
❖ Explain your role as a teacher in promoting the Grade R child's physical development.
To summarise what you have learned about the physical development of the Grade R child, take
• https://study.com/academy/lesson/factors-influencing-motor-development.html
(Factors influencing gross and fine motor skills)
• https://study.com/academy/lesson/factors-influencing-growth-development.html
(Factors influencing growth and development)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v0d5WQH8guQ (Motor skill development of
children from one to six years)
• https://study.com/academy/lesson/factors-influencing-growth-development.html
(Factors influencing growth and development)
• https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-physical-development-definition-and-
examples.html ( What is Physical development?- Definition and examples)
• https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-are-gross-motor-skills-in-children-
development-definition-examples.html (Gross motor skills)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j23LG9NMiGw (Gross motor skills)
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LEARNING UNIT 6: THE SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF
YOUNG CHILDREN
Learning unit 6 aims to explain how social and emotional development occurs in young children
and in the Grade R years and to provide you with the skills to create an environment that will
promote children's social and emotional wellbeing.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Explain what you understand about social and emotional development.

• Explain why social and emotional skills are important in the development of the child.
• Discuss Erik Erikson's theory of social and emotional development.
• List the milestones that must be reached in the development of social and emotional
skills for the Grade R child.
• Outline the role of teachers and parents in promoting children's social and emotional
skills.
➢ Social development: The behaviour of the child that is influenced by other children or
adults.
➢ Emotional development: The ability to express, manage and identify positive or
negative affections for the self and others.
6.1 INTRODUCTION
In the learning units that you have read in this study guide, you should have realised that there
are different developmental domains related to the Grade R child. Learning unit 6 is about social
and moral development. It adds to the previously mentioned domains of cognitive, language and
physical development. The learning unit begins by defining the concept of social and emotional
development and explains the different components that are part of it. Erickson's theory is
discussed to provide a broader understanding of the domain and to account for some of the
behaviour associated with it. It is important to look at those factors that can influence the
development of this domain, at the milestones that are reached in the preschool years, and at the
role that parents and teachers can play in promoting its development.
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6.2 DEFINITIONS OF SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Social and emotional development is defined as the following:
❖ A child's ability to understand the feelings of others, control their feelings and
behaviours, and get along with peers (Excell & Linington 2015).
❖ A child's ability to understand the feelings of others, control his or her feelings and
behaviour, get along with other children, and build relationships with adults (Cohen
2005).
❖ A child's experience, expression and management of emotions and the ability to
establish positive and rewarding relationships with others
(https://dmh.mo.gov/healthykids/parents/socialandemotionaldevelopment).
❖ The change over time in children's ability to react to and interact with their social
environment (https://earlychildhoodconnections.com/index).
❖ A child's capacity for self-confidence, trust and empathy. It includes the child's ability to
use appropriate language as a means of expression in social situations
(https://www.onlymyhealth.com/social-emotiona/development).
❖ Social development refers to the behaviour of the young child who is influenced by the
presence of others, his or her interaction and relationships with others (Pepler 2015).
❖ Emotional development entails the attainment of emotional capabilities, an increased
understanding of emotions, and the causes and consequence of emotions, as well as
the emerging ability to reflect on and describe emotions (Excell & Linington 2015).
From the stated definitions, the common thread that runs through is the child's ability to recognises
and regulate his or her feelings and the understanding that other people's feelings must be
respected too. The basis of all social and emotional behaviour lies in the child's self-control,
empathy for others and the ability to maintain relationships. It is therefore important for you as a
Grade R teacher to note how the children may behave socially and emotionally in everyday
classroom interactions with their peers because that outlines the importance of this
developmental domain.
6.3 THE IMPORTANCE OF SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Children's social and emotional development is just as important as the development of their
language, their intellect and their physical structure and movement. Children's social and
emotional skills are important throughout life as it determines their well-being, how they interact
with peers and others at school, in the home, especially with adults, and in the community.
Socio-emotional development during the preschool and Grade R years is extremely important, as
children should be emotionally mature to cope with academic expectancies. It has been linked to
healthy intellectual growth and is thought to be a foundation for future school achievement. Grade
R children learn to express their feelings and learn to talk about the feelings of others. This is
because social and emotional development involves more than just expressing one's feelings and
emotions. It includes learning to take turns, becoming independent, following routines, interacting
more with peers, controlling emotions, engaging in meaningful relationships with others, and
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developing a positive self-image (Woolfolk 2014). When not well developed, poor social and
emotional skills can lead to disruptive classroom behaviour. However, if properly developed, it
can continue to aid small children in finding their way in life and making positive decisions.
Research studies (Berk 2013) have found that children who are socially and emotionally adjusted
seemed to be extremely stable across childhood and adolescence. An important fact is that social
and emotional development forms part of school readiness. In the foundation phase curriculum
of the Department of Basic Education (DBE) in South Africa, the development of social and
emotional skills is included as part of the subject of Life Skills (DBE 2012).
In the home, parents must know that children are not born with socio-emotional skills. It is their
responsibility as parents and caregivers to teach and foster these abilities. Children who have
been given specific training in socio-emotional skills learn how to solve their problems
independently, to see other perspectives, to negotiate, and to make compromises. They learn to
develop a sense of who they are. They discover their strengths, their weaknesses and what drives
them. It is this characteristic that enables them to communicate without fear of being ridiculed and
to establish quality relationships with others (Early Childhood Bulletin Summer 2009). More
importantly, socially and emotionally well-grounded children resolve conflicts, gain confidence
and reach goals. Building a strong socio-emotional foundation at home will help the child to thrive
and obtain happiness in life.
According to Broderick & Blewitt (2015) children will be better equipped to handle stress and
persevere through difficult times in their lives as an adult. Broderick & Blewitt (2015) sums up all
the importance of the social and emotional development domains through their identification of
five social and emotional skill areas. Broderick & Blewitt’s (2015) five social and emotional skill
areas are as follows:
• Self-management: managing emotions and behaviours to achieve one’s goals

• Self-awareness: recognising one’s emotions and values as well as one’s strengths and
limitations
• Responsible decision-making: making ethical, constructive choices about personal and
social behaviour
• Relationship skills: forming positive relationships, working in teams, dealing effectively
with conflict
• Social awareness: showing understanding and empathy for others
These five social and emotional skill areas by Broderick & Blewitt (2015) are considered important
for the development of good cognitive development or mental health. For Grade R teachers, the
informal but planned teaching of these skills will provide opportunities for children to practice and
internalise them in the classroom, school and in the wider community.
The school and the home are two significant environmental factors that influence the developing
child in different ways: linguistically, cognitively, physically as was seen in the learning units we
already discussed. The social and emotional development domain is influenced in the same way.
The other important factors include the child's genetics and parents. Together, they form the
foundations of social and emotional development.
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In learning unit 2 (section 2.3), we said preschool children, in particular five-year-olds, are
fascinated by how things in their environment work and the "how" and "why" of things. They are
interested in what people around them do and enjoy imitating or copying other's behaviours and
mannerisms. In other words, they are influenced by the environment in which they live. [Read this
section in learning unit 2 again.] During fantasy or free play, they may take on the roles of being
mothers and fathers, business owners, or teachers as illustrated in the two case studies.
However, there are some children, who seem uninterested, isolated, and who struggle to
cooperate with others (Louw & Louw 2014).
Read the following two case studies before we elaborate on the foundations or factors that
influence social and emotional development.
Activity 6.1
CASE STUDY 1: IN THE FREE-PLAY AREA
Four-year-old Gert has just been allowed to play with other children in his Grade R class after
he was removed for spitefully tearing Janie's painting apart. He heads straight to the free-play
area of the class where three five-year-olds, Bennie, Fannie and Mark are playing "shop
owners". Bennie "owns" the "Spar shop", Fannie the "Fruit and Veg" outlet and Mark is a "father"
who is buying food for his "family". Bennie is kneeling next to a structure of blocks with the letter
'S' (for Spar) put on the top block and Fannie's block structure has an 'F' (for Fruit) on top.
Mark to Bennie: Sir, this "Spar" is very poor; I cannot find what I need. Look (pointing to an
imaginary trolley), my trolley is still empty. Oh my goodness!
Bennie (looking at Gert who has just joined them): Mr Stein you are late with deliveries as
always. Look at the queue of people waiting for rice and sugar. This man too (pointing to Mark)
cannot find what he needs. This is a no, no, no!
Gert (with the corners of his mouth turned down): I don't like playing delivery man. I am a good
owner of the "Spar", better than you Bennie.
Mark to Gert: Fine Mr Stein, I want Kentucky Fried Chicken, but your "shop" is not open yet. My
children like your chicken. Please open the shop now.
Gert to all the boys: Look here, I am the "Spar" owner or I am not playing. I'll kick your "shops"
if you say no.
CASE STUDY 2: IN THE OUTDOOR PLAY AREA
Lerato and Tom, both six years old, were taking turns playing with a skipping rope in the outdoor area
of their preschool. Peter, Johnny and Mosa, all four years old, begged to join in the play.
Tom: No, you can't jump like us because you are still little. You will trip and fall and hurt yourselves.
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The three youngest: Oh pleeeease! Let us in!
Lerato: Peter, you know sharing is caring. Let them share in the game; we will make sure they don't get
hurt.
Peter: Fine. Let us keep the rope low and allow them to jump all at the same time. They need to have
fun too.
QUESTIONS
(1) In case study 1, how do you describe Gert's social and emotional development?
(2) Discuss the importance of social and emotional development.
(3) Compare and contrast Lerato and Tom's social and emotional development (case study
2) with that of Gert (case study 1).
The answers to all three questions are contained in the stated definitions and the content of the
case studies. Read about the importance of social and emotional development (in section 6.3).
6.4 COMPONENTS THAT SHAPE SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
According to Kail (2012) and Patterson (2008), social and emotional development is a complex
domain consisting of components such as the environment, genetics, adult relationships, culture
and the child's self-awareness. Genetics comprises different areas or aspects such as
temperament, attachment, emotion regulation and social competence. These aspects are
represented in table 6.1.
Table 6.1: Components that shape social and emotional development
Component Description
1 The environment The environment has been discussed in the preceding subsection and in
learning unit 1 section 1.4 in detail. We referred to the school or preschool
environment and the home environment in that learning unit. Case studies 1
and 2 illustrate how the environment can influence child play and how this can
assist in building social and emotional skills.
2 Genetics Genetics is a biological element that includes different areas or aspects such
as attachment, aggression, temperament, emotion regulation and social
competence.
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Attachment refers to the emotional bond between a child and caregiver. It is

regarded as a biological relationship that develops between a child and a
parent. It is behaviour that starts from infancy and carries on up to adolescence.
Ainsworth, the Canadian psychologists, identified three categories of

attachment namely, secure, avoidance and ambivalent/resistant
attachment. Later on, other researchers identified a fourth category, namely
disorganised attachment.
Secure attachment: It is the attachment that babies form with their mothers,
which becomes a secure base from which they explore their world. When their
mothers leave them or are separated from them, they become distressed, and
when the mothers return, they are happy. Babies' reactions to strangers are
normally positive when the mothers are present because they feel secure.
Avoidant attachment: When babies see their mothers leave, they are not
usually upset but when they come back, babies avoid them. They do not
attempt to explore their environment when they are with their mother.
Ambivalent (or resistant) attachment: Babies become anxious even before

the mother leaves them (they can sense that the mother is about to leave,
hence the anxiety).When the mother comes back, the baby may try to make
contact with the mother but also try to avoid her by crying.
Disorganised attachment: This pattern of attachment reflects the greatest

insecurity and is most likely to occur in infants whose mothers are insensitive,
intrusive or abusive. These infants may specifically greet the mother brightly
when she returns but turn away and tend to show a variety of confusing and
contradictory behaviours. Such infants' behaviours emanate from their sense
of insecurity.
According to Louw and Louw (2014), children who form an attachment with
adults are more likely to survive. They develop trust and interact with other
children very well. They do well in group work and are easy to guide and teach.
In other words, they display social competence by interacting well with others.
Santrock (2004) explains that attachment is important for the child's behaviour
at a later stage when at school. Children who were attached to parents or
caregivers are less frustrated and happier. They are more competent socially
and have better grades in the third grade of their schooling.
Aggression refers to a purposeful effort to inflict pain or injury on another child.

Aggressive children are hostile to others and do not learn easily because they
are resistant. Aggression can be instrumental or hostile. Instrumental
aggression refers to an instance where children fight over object possession
or ownership of space. Hostile aggression refers to struggles between
children for purposes of controlling a situation, usually play. As a preschool
teacher, you will come across children who thrive on aggression and will drain
your energy and exhaust your patience. However, as a teacher, you should
develop ways to support the child.
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Temperament refers to the way a young child acts and responds to different
situations, to caregivers and strangers. It is a child's consistent mood and style
of behaviour under different circumstances. Temperament is associated with
emotion regulation or emotionality and is explained as the child's ability to
control his or her emotions and reactions to the environment. Krantz (2010)
describes it as the strength of the child's emotional response to a situation, the
ease with which that response is triggered, and the ease with which the child
can be returned to a non-emotional state. There are two categories of children
– those whose emotional responses are strong and are easily triggered and
not easily calmed; and those whose responses are subdued, not easy to
arouse, and who are readily calmed. In general, there are three basic emotions
– happiness, fear and anxiety and anger. Children display happiness by
laughing, jumping about with friends and hugging loved ones. Fear and anxiety
in the Grade R years is associated with separation from parents, the dark, bad
people and supernatural things like ghosts and witches.
3 Adult relationships Parents and other adults have a direct and indirect influence on the
development of children's social competence. Social competence is referred to
as the child's ability to get along with other people. Parents indirectly influence
the development of social competence by the quality of attachments they have
with their children. Parenting practices have been shown to predict children's
emotional intelligence and other behaviour patterns. As children develop during
the preschool years, their attachment and relationship to their parents change
partly because their language has developed and they can express their
feelings verbally and partly because they have developed cognitively and can
recognise their love even if they are not close to them physically. This depends
on the parenting style, which was discussed in learning unit 1. Authoritarian
parents, who set strict rules and do not allow for negotiation with children,
could develop aggressive children. Over-permissive parents accommodate
their children's impulses and set no rules and may not be helpful to their
children's social and emotional development. Authoritative parents apply set
rules but allow negotiations with children; this may have a specific influence on
their children. Their expectations of children's behaviour and their
responsiveness to children's needs may influence children's social and
emotional development in a certain way. Neglectful parents are never
involved in their children's needs and wellbeing and may influence their
development negatively (Santrock 2014; Kail 2010; Krantz 2010).
4 Gender roles and The development of the self is first seen with gender identity. Grade R children
the self are developed enough to recognise the difference between girls and boys,
meaning that they have mastered gender identity. However, they are still
learning gender-appropriate behaviour and once their knowledge stabilises,
they achieve gender constancy. As gender identity and constancy improves,
children learn more about the self, they develop self-understanding as in "I
am tall, or I am smart, or my body is awkward". Such self-inspection is called
self-awareness. This happens when a child has done self-introspection and
has come to an understanding about self, based on the influence of the
environment he or she lives in. It is this notion of self that will lead to poor self-
esteem or positive self-esteem, depending on what the child regards as
worthy or unworthy. Children, who learn to accept themselves unconditionally
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even when others look at them disparagingly, show signs of social and
emotional competency. The opposite is true, especially if the child's parents
are not supportive and the child is humiliated in the classroom, at home and in
the community.
5 Social Social competence refers to a person's ability to get along with others and
competence adapt to new situations. Children learn social skills very early in life, which
determines their social competence. The behaviour that babies display when
they interact with their mothers or caregivers is evidence of the beginning of
social competence. For instance, they respond positively to mothers' smiles, to
caregivers' love or siblings' gestures. By the time they reach Grade R, they can
interact more with other children and adults, which helps them to learn
additional social skills.
6 Culture Culture influences how we perceive the world (Kail 2010) and determines how
we react and behave in different situations. However, certain moral issues
are the same across all cultures. For instance, it is wrong to kill, steal or lie in
the eyes of all cultures (Nsamenang 2011). In the regular Grade R classes in
western countries, including South Africa, teaching is according to western
standards that may not be understood by all in the same way. For instance, a
child who regularly asks the teacher questions and explains what he or she
would not like when playing, is understood and accepted. The child's self-
esteem is not disturbed. On the contrary, the same behaviour by children in
some cultures of South Africa and other African countries is frowned upon and
not rewarded. "Good" behaviour means being obedient and doing as told.
Realising that the teacher is not impressed by the latter behaviour, children
from such cultures may be confused and not encouraged to grow socially or
emotionally.
The Grade R teacher must learn about the components of social and emotional development to
know how to shape children's behaviour. How does the environment, culture or genetics, for
instance, influence children's social and emotional development?
6.4.1 The influence of the components on children's social development
Components such as the environment and adult relationships can influence how well children do
at school. They can determine the following:
❖ How well they can interact with teachers and peers.

❖ How confident they feel about their abilities.
❖ How well they can control their behaviour in the classroom.
❖ To what extent they can concentrate in class.
❖ How efficiently they can solve problems.
❖ To what extent they can deal with responsibilities given to them.
❖ To what extent they can accommodate the behaviour of other children in the class.
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6.4.2 The influence of the components on children's emotional development
The various components can influence the development of children's emotions in the same way
it happens with their social development. Children can do the following:
❖ Learn to be aware of own emotions and to learn to control them efficiently.

❖ Learn to understand the emotions of their peers and to empathise with them.
❖ Develop the ability to express their feelings by using appropriate language and doing it
in a culturally acceptable manner.
❖ Learn to empathise and sympathise with peers.
❖ Develop the ability to deal with stressful situations without affecting others around them
negatively.
❖ Ability to accept themselves as they are and to identify their strengths and weaknesses
and accept them.
Read the following two case studies to understand these dynamics better.
Activity 6.2
CASE STUDY 3: SPORTS DAY AT CLAREMONT PRIMARY SCHOOL
The Grade R section of Claremont Primary School in Pretoria is having an athletic competition and
everyone in that section is excited, except for one little boy, Peter, who is unwilling to participate. Mrs
Morris, the Grade R teacher stands on the field of the well-mowed lawn and urges Peter to join in the
race.
Mrs Morris (blows her whistle): T-i-i-i-gers! Get on the field, it is your turn. Come on Peter it is your
team, hurry!
Peter: No ma'am, I am not going to run, I can't.
Mrs Morris: Why not Peter?
Peter: (tears in his eyes) I am too fat and can't run. Everybody is going to laugh at me.
Mrs Morris: They will laugh at you if you don't participate. You are not the only fat boy in Grade R.
Come on!
Eventually, Peter joins in the race but does not put much effort. He finishes last sweating and puffing
and about to cry. Many of the children feel sorry for him when they realise that he is about to cry.
Peter (with a shaky voice and sweat running down his forehead): Oh, oh, oh, why this body! Why do I
have to run! Oh, mercy, mercy, mercy me!
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CASE STUDY 4: TALENT DAY AT KHULEGANI PRIMARY SCHOOL
Khulegani Primary School in rural Kw Zulu-Natal does not have a separate section for Grade R children.
The Grade R class is like the Grade 1 to 3 classes and functions in the same way as they do. It is Talent
Day and both boys and girls are wearing their best traditional clothes with all the accessories, except for
Thando. The function is held under a big tree and the whole school is present. The noise from excitement
is uncontrollable.
Mrs Zondo (the Grade R teacher, in traditional Zulu dress): Clap for the "Mnandi Warriors". That was
good boys, you danced like real warriors! Let's start with girl groups now. "Yellow Birds" please show us
your talent.
[The yellow-dressed group of five Grade R girls ascend the make-shift stage to perform a music piece
and dance to it].
The crowd (shouting and clapping): Yeah! Yeah! We want more! We want more!
Mrs Zondo: Wonderful girls! Next, the "Mean Machine" pleeeease!
[The crowd cheers, whistles and claps but suddenly stops when Thando emerges from the floor. The
fat little girl is wearing gym clothes with a green towel flung over her shoulder. The cheering changes to
jeering. She ascends the stage with confidence nonetheless].
The crowd: Fatty boom, boom! Get off the stage. Down fatty down!
Thando (muttering to herself): I am Thando, I'm like my mother. I'm good and unstoppable.
Mrs Zondo: Quiet, quiet please. Thando, start.
Thando: (she steps on the towel she laid on the floor and bows): Cut! Cut! Cut! Swoosh! Swoosh!
Swoosh!
[With these "awe-inspiring" sounds she cuts the air boldly with her hands and with a swoosh she makes
a double spin in the air and lands on the floor like a cat jumping from a tree].
The crowd: Whow! Thando! Thando! Thando! The "Mean Machine"! Wow!
[The cheering continues uncontrollably for a while].
Mrs Zondo: Wonderful …and the price for the best display of talent goes to …Tha-n-do!
Questions
(1) Describe Peter's social and emotional development (in case study 3).
(2) Which factors could have contributed to his social and emotional development?
(3) Explain Thando's state of emotional development (in case study 4)?
(4) Discuss five examples that indicate what children can learn from experience with the
different components of social and emotional development.
When answering this activity you will find it useful to start by reading section 6.4.
(1) Take note of how Peter responded to Mrs Morris ( the teacher). Is he confident about
himself? How does he feel about his abilities?
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(2) Reread section 6.4.1 about the components that shape social and emotional
development.
(3) Take note of Thando's attitude. Is she easily influenced by other children's remarks?
How is she feeling about herself?
(4) Reread section 6.4.2 and indicate what children can learn from experience with the
different components of social and emotional development. Give your own examples.
6.5 A THEORY OF SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
The discussion on factors that influence social and emotional development during the Grade R
years sensitised you to issues that you must be aware of when you deal with children in your
classroom. Under this section on theories of social and emotional development, you will learn
how this domain is formed from the beginning. The explanation will not only be on the four- to six-
year-old Grade R child, but it will also trace the development of the domain from babyhood. We
will touch briefly on Erik Erikson's and Urie Bronfenbrenner's theories of social development.
6.5.1 Erik Erikson's theory of social development
Erikson's theory of social development explains what children need to develop socially and
emotionally and how the adults in the society they grow in, contribute to their growth in later life
(Woolfolk 2014). In this theory, Erikson writes about the emergence of the self, the search for
identity and the development of relationships that are important for children's social and emotional
growth.
Self-concept and self-esteem are two phenomena frequently referred to when social and
emotional development is discussed. The self-concept was discussed in table 6.1. In addition to
that explanation, self-concept is regarded as the sum of what individuals think of themselves, the
feelings and the attitude they have about themselves (Krantz 2010). What individuals think of
themselves is referred to as self-esteem. Some people think positively of themselves and are said
to have positive self-esteem. Others see themselves in a negative light and are said to have
poor or low self-esteem.
How does positive or low self-esteem develop? Children in Grade R see themselves in terms of
their physical appearance. The child may say "I am four years old; I have black hair and big eyes".
When they grow older, they can use abstract terms such as "kind", "good" or "strong". It is this
self-awareness the child has of him-/herself that determines the nature of the self-esteem. Erikson
maintained that the family has a big role to play in shaping the child's self-esteem.
As a researcher, Erikson studied child-rearing practices in different cultures and established how
different cultures met the basic needs of their children. Children's emotional development is
determined by how their needs are satisfied and by the environment in which they live. The
realisation that all cultures aim to provide in their children's needs, albeit through different
approaches, gave rise to Erikson's framework of social development for which he is popularly
known. The framework consists of the eight stages of social development, as shown in table 6.2.
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Table 6.2: Erikson's eight stages of social development
Stages and age Critical events Positive resolution Negative resolutions
1. Trust versus basic Mutual regulation in Positive, optimistic Negative outlook on

mistrust (0-12/18 care and feeding outlook on life; "I feel life; "I am afraid"
months) safe and secure"
2. Autonomy versus Power conflicts with "I can make decisions, "I must have it my
shame/doubt (18 caregivers over toilet conform, and way". or "I must
months – 3 years) training and exploration compromise when I conform"
need to"
3. Initiative versus Conflicts in taking the "I can make things "I feel helpless"
guilt (3-6 years) initiative happen" and "I can set
goals"
4. Industry versus Struggle to learn the "I am competent and I "I feel inadequate" or "I
inferiority (6-12 skills of the culture: the take pleasure in work" am lazy"
years) value of work
5. Identity versus role Conflicts between the "I know who I am and "I don't know who I am
confusion (12- roles and what I intend to do with or where I am going"
adolescence) responsibilities of child my life"
versus adult
6. Intimacy versus Forming intimate "I can love and care for "I am only capable of
isolation (young relationships others" superficial
adulthood – over relationships"
18 years)
7. Generativity versus Marriage, parenthood, "I will have children and "I have no interest in
self-absorption / balancing work and be a competent parent" children"
stagnation (middle family
adulthood)
8. Integrity versus The meaning of one's "My life has been "I fear death for my life
despair (late life and accepting meaningful and I can has had no meaning"
adulthood) death. accept death"
Source: Krantz (2010)
In table 6.2, Erikson illustrates that in life people are faced with developmental challenges that
they must accomplish at every stage. They move to the next level once they have satisfied the
demands of the current level. If success is not achieved, they may lose self-worth and not adjust
socially. In the first stage, infants must form a loving, trusting relationship; if they do not, they
may develop a sense of mistrust for life.
In the second stage, child development is directed at the acquisition of physical skills (walking,
grasping and jumping). This stage is the beginning of self-control and self-confidence. The young
child learns to be on his or her own and assume the responsibility of self-control such as feeding,
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dressing or controlling basic needs such as visiting the toilet. If they fail to achieve this, they may
develop a sense of doubt and shame.
The third stage marks the preschool years when children are in Grade R. The child continues to
be more assertive to take initiative but realised that not all actions are permissible. They learn
which activities are allowed and feel guilty about doing what is unacceptable. Children need the
guidance and assurance of parents; however, parents must be careful not to be overprotective
and kill the initiative spirit.
Children start school in the fourth stage of Erickson's social theory. They must deal with the
demands to learn or face failure that will lead to inferiority and incompetence. At this stage,
children need the support of teachers, the school and parents to make it through. Teachers must
make sure that children get some form of success to encourage them; otherwise, children get
discouraged.
In the fifth stage, children are at the adolescence period. The teenager must achieve identity in
occupation, gender roles and religion. Identity is central to development at this stage and the
adolescent must know who he or she is; if they do not, they may experience an identity crisis and
role confusion. To go through this stage successfully, they need good role models.
Stages six, seven and eight are beyond the school age. Socialisation in the sixth stage is
intimacy versus isolation. At this stage, some people have developed a strong sense of identity
and others fear to associate with them to avoid being overwhelmed. The latter may end up
isolated.
Stage seven is generativity versus stagnation. The stage is associated with nurturing children or
others or remaining alone and stagnant. The last stage of integrity versus despair is associated
with one accepting oneself and coming to terms with death. A person with integrity has a sense
of accepting the self; those who are unable to do this may sink into despair and depression.
Reading about Erikson's social theory gives you an idea of how social and emotional skills are
developed. It is important at this stage to isolate the skills that are directly related to Grade R
children. These are represented as milestones.
6.6 SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT MILESTONES FOR THE GRADE R

CHILD
Social and emotional development is a domain that is visible in children's daily activities. It reflects
in the child's thinking/play, language/feelings, interactions with peers, and in the way the child
carries him- or herself in the presence of adults. The child's ability to manage personal feelings,
to understand others' feelings and to interact positively with others is central in this domain. For
our purpose, it is important to outline what is expected of each Grade R child's behaviour to
support those who may be lagging behind. Some of the typical developmental milestones for
social and emotional skills in the Grade R years are discussed next.
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6.6.1 Social development milestones in Grade R
Socially, the Grade R child can do the following:
❖ Participate in a group and understands the rules of the game. He or she can join in
pretend play easily and offer to play a particular character. For instance, he or she can
be a "mechanic" and the others can bring their cars for "repairs".
❖ Develop friendships with peers and can even bond with one friend. He or she knows
how to strengthen friendship by, for example, offering to share a toy with another child.
❖ Prefer to play with friends and not alone.
❖ Show sensitivity to peers who may be hurt, upset or afraid. He or she can use
appropriate language to soothe them. He or she may, for example, tell an upset friend
that he or she would approach the one who upset him or her and ask them to apologise.
❖ Gain awareness of issues that can upset another person and realises that different
friends react differently to the same situation. He or she is capable of helping a friend to
go over the hurt.
❖ Make new friends and participate in organising a game.
6.6.2 Emotional milestones in Grade R
Emotionally the Grade R child can do the following:
❖ Cope with distress by performing an action that soothes him or her, such as playing
alone with a certain toy.
❖ Withstand being alone with other siblings when parents are away.
❖ Compare him- or herself with other children and accept they are better than them in
certain ways. For instance, saying "Mary is shorter but she can jump higher than me.
❖ Learn coping strategies to deal with situations that deeply hurt or distress him or her. He
or she may, for example, resort to watching television when others are playing outside
and refusing to let him or her play.
❖ Control him- or herself much better and have fewer unexpected outbursts of anger and
sadness.
A socially and emotionally competent child can also do the following:
❖ Behave morally. For instance, he or she will not cheat in a game and will not associate
him- or herself with bad things and understands fairness.
❖ Show improvement in sharing and taking turns with other children.
❖ Work on a task up to the end, even when it is challenging.
❖ Listen while others are speaking.
❖ Become more independent and make decisions such as choosing clothes to wear for
the day or deciding what to eat for lunch.
Children can reach this level of social and emotional development if they are well supported by
teachers and parents. What should teachers do?
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6.7 TEACHERS' ROLE IN PROMOTING CHILDREN'S SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL
SKILLS
Children like to be praised and recognised for their achievements. This behaviour is evident in
the Grade R class and teachers need to take note of it. Sticking a star on the forehead of a child
after evaluating his or her work is a gesture that pleases the child greatly and urges him or her to
perform better.
Early experience with success or failure is crucial in building children's resilience. When teachers
show and emphasise to children that making mistakes is natural and that losing to someone is
normal, children learn to adopt the correct attitude to failure and are less frustrated. Teachers
must adopt this strategy because children will encounter failure at some time in their lives.
Children in the Grade R years model their behaviour to what they observe. The teacher is the
second person after their mother or parents that the child will copy. Teachers are thus obliged to
be good role models for their leaners. Regarding social and emotional development, teachers
must show patience, love, understanding, empathy and courage so that the children can imitate
these virtues.
In the daily classroom activities, children often offer to assist with something in class. The teacher
must encourage this behaviour because it is a step in the right direction for the child. Praising the
children for the task they have performed, boosts their self-esteem and promotes their self-worth.
Children need to be told that what they are doing is appreciated and they will want to do more
socially accepted interactions.
The good Grade R class that was discussed in learning unit 2 (section 2.5), is also relevant here.
However, the current focus is on supporting children to develop social and emotional skills.
Attention is on the teacher's role to promote the development of skills. We observe how the
preschool or Grade R classroom environment; the social environment and the temporal
environment can contribute towards the development of social and emotional skills. Table 6.3
sums up the contribution of the three components.
Table 6.3: Components of environment
Components of Definition Explanation

the environment
Physical The layout and design of the The classroom must have room to encourage
environment classroom, furniture and the social activity. For instance, the creative corner
learning materials with all the relevant materials can support the
development of social skills.
Social environment The interaction that happens The reading and art areas can promote verbal
between the child, teacher, interaction between children and the teacher.
peers and family members Children can tell stories from their families.
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Temporal The length of routines, the The Grade R programme can be planned
environment sequence and the activities according to themes. For instance, the theme for
that take place throughout the two weeks could be on health risks. Such a
day discussion could teach children to empathise with
those who are ill and to allay the fear of those who
are afraid to communicate with sick friends.
Source Patterson (2008)
Teachers must design these three components of the learning environment carefully to create
support for the development of social skills. The classroom arrangement must reflect the theme
of the week and be enriched with appropriate learning materials. The teacher should rearrange it
to suit another theme after exhausting the previous one. Changes in classroom environmental
arrangement, such as rearranging furniture, implementing activity schedules, and altering ways
of providing instructions around routines, have been found to increase the probability of
appropriate behaviours and effectively decrease the probability of challenging behaviour (Donald,
Lazarus & Lolwana 2013; Patterson 2008; Lefranҫois 2002).
According to Gordon, Browne and Cruz (2008), teachers must also do the following:
❖ Accept the children's developing concepts of themselves without judging them.

❖ Emphasise acceptance of the self.
❖ Recognise that they are role models and display appropriate behaviour.
❖ Encourage cooperative play with others but recognise individual needs.
❖ Make learning fun and the classroom a safe and attractive place to learn.
6.8 PARENTS' ROLE IN PROMOTING CHILDREN'S SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL SKILLS
In learning unit 2 (section 2.8), we broadly discussed the role of parents in promoting child
development. In this learning unit, we look at parental roles specific to social and emotional
development only.
All parents want their children to be healthy and happy. They want their children to say "thank
you", or "excuse me" but it is not easy. It is easier to tell if your child is developing physically
because it is observable but not so with social and emotional development.
A child will have strong social and emotional skills for later development if he or she received a
good foundation of the skills. The key to this achievement lies in the management of personal
feelings and needs, and positive interaction with others. Parents are the first people to come into
contact with the child and thus carry the responsibility of developing these skills in children.
Parents must recognise that social and emotional development is influenced by the child's genetic
makeup, the environment they grow in, and their family culture. Genetically, their social and
emotional development is controlled by their inborn attachments to mothers or caregivers, their
temperament and their aggression. It is the parents' responsibility to provide care and love that
can offset negativity in their child's social development.
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Before we embark on the influence of the home environment on the child's social and emotional
skills, go back to learning unit 1 (section 1.5.1) where the influence of the home environment, the
role of parents and their parenting styles were discussed broadly. Here, we build on that
information but direct attention to parents' role in supporting their child to acquire social and
emotional skills.
At home, parents must be aware of the fact that a child will have a strong foundation for later
development if he or she can manage personal feelings, understand others' feelings and needs,
and interact positively others (Schwartz & Copeland 2010).
Parents should also do the following:
❖ Read their child's emotional cues (signs) so that they can help them to identify their
emotions.
❖ Model appropriate social behaviour so that children can learn from their example.
❖ Interact consistently and affectionately with their children to make them feel safe and
therefore develop strong social and emotional skills.
❖ Show consideration for their feelings, desires and needs.
❖ Express interest in their daily activities and respects their viewpoints.
❖ Show genuine pride in their accomplishments with meaningful comments and provide
encouragement and support during times of stress. (Schwartz & Copeland 2010)
6.9 CONCLUSION
This learning unit aimed to educate you about the development of social and emotional skills in
the Grade R years. In realising this objective, the meaning and importance of the social and
emotional development domain were discussed. Attention was given to the components that
constitute social and emotional development; Erikson's theory was used to explain how the
development of the domain unfolds and developmental milestones were stated to indicate what
skills are expected from the Grade R child. Finally, the role of teachers and parents on how to
support this development were discussed.
❖ Explain the meaning of the social and emotional development domain in your own
words.
❖ Explain why is important for the Grade R child to acquire social and emotional skills.
❖ Discuss Erik Erikson's social theory regarding the Grade R child.
❖ List the milestones that must be reached in the development of social and emotional
skills for the Grade R child.
❖ Outline the role of teachers and parents in promoting children's social and emotional
skills in detail.
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To summarise what you have learned about the Social and Emotional Development of the Grade
R child, take a few minutes and watch the following videos:
• https://study.com/academy/lesson/how-culture-identity-impacts-early-childhood
development.html (How culture identity impacts early childhood development)
• https://study.com/academy/lesson/understanding-the-social-development-of-
children.html (social Development of children: Self- Esteem)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dmz7UN_WZ_c (What is social-Emotional
Development?)
• https://www.who.int/health-topics/children-environmental-health#tab=tab_1 (Children
environmental health)
• https://study.com/academy/lesson/the-role-of-the-school-in-development.html (The role
of the school in the children’s social and emotional development)
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LEARNING UNIT 7: THE MORAL DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
Learning unit 7 aims to explain how moral development occurs in young children more specifically
in the Grade R years and to provide you with the skills to create an environment that will promote
children's social and emotional wellbeing.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Define the concept of moral development.
• Outline and discuss theories related to moral development.
• Demonstrate an understanding of a sense of belonging.
• Demonstrate knowledge and insight into the implications of morality and a sense of
belonging.
➢ Moral development: The child's knowledge of right and wrong and ability to make the
right choice.
➢ Sense of belonging: To be with people in a place where you are accepted totally for who
you are.
7.1 INTRODUCTION
This section firstly explains the concept of moral development and then the stages of moral
development according to Jean Piaget and Lawrence Kohlberg. The main emphasis is to assist
you as a Grade R teacher to understand the concept of morality, how it develops in children and
its application in their life world.
Secondly, we will introduce you to the concept of sense of belonging and highlight the importance
of a sense of belonging. Finally, the implication of morality and a sense of belonging will be
discussed to enable you to create a supportive learning environment that allows children from all
walks of life to perform according to their potential.
7.1.1 What is moral development?
Moral development centres on the emergence, change and understanding of morality from
infancy to adulthood; it develops throughout an individual's lifetime and is influenced by their
morality experiences and behaviour when faced with moral issues through different periods of
physical, cognitive, social and emotional development. Furthermore, moral development is a
practice through which children develop attitudes and behaviour toward other people in society,
based on social and cultural norms, rules and laws (McLeod 2015).
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7.2 KOHLBERG AND PIAGET'S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT.
7.2.1 Kohlberg's theory of moral development
Moral development has been studied from diverse psychological perspectives. Recent studies of
moral development have been influenced by the cognitive-developmental approach of Jean
Piaget and Lawrence Kohlberg (Naito 2013). Kohlberg proposed that all people in all cultures use
a universal concept of morality. The basic categories of morality include life, law, property,
authority and trust. He indicated that people in all cultures are faced with conflict within these
universal domains. Kohlberg points out that since moral issues and conflicts are universal, moral
stages of individuals are measured by presenting dilemmas or problems that are supposed to be
resolved in any society. Furthermore, he argued that moral reasoning develops according to a
universal sequence of stages.
Regarding the concept development, Kohlberg adopted Piaget's cognitive development. The
developmental stages and processes of moral reasoning occur according to the following criteria:
a) Qualitative differences between the stages (each stage differs in quality from each other)
b) A stage is a structured whole (stages are not isolated responses but general patterns of
thought that will consistently show up across many kinds of different issues)
c) An invariant (unaltered) sequence of stages (sequence of stages unfolds in an unaltered
way)
d) Hierarchical integration from a previous stage to the next stage (follow hierarchical order
or build on another stage)
e) Universal sequence (stage sequence is universal meaning that is the same in all cultures)
In summary, Kohlberg's moral development occurs in stages. Each stage is different from another
stage. Every moral stage is a whole and not isolated responses but patterns of thoughts that will
always appear in many different kinds of issues. Moral developmental stages follow an orderly
sequence and cannot be altered, as children develop from one stage to the other. These moral
stages develop in a hierarchical integration. By this, Kohlberg means that people do not lose the
insight gained at the earlier stages but integrate them into new broader frameworks. This
hierarchical sequence indicates that the sequence is not wired into genes (heredity), but that each
stage provides improved skills in dealing with moral issues. Kohlberg and other theorists maintain
that his stages' sequence is universal, it is the same in all cultures and cross-sectional studies
have supported Kohlberg stages of development (Naito 2013). Figure 7.1 shows Kohlberg's
ladder of moral development that indicates that moral stages develop in a hierarchical integration.
The post-conventional level indicates a more advanced moral development that is guided by
ethical principles. Moral development moves from being concerned about yourself as an
individual, to be more concerned about society or the wider social world.
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7.2.1.1 Kohlberg's stages of moral development
Kohlberg identified three levels of moral development, namely preconventional, conventional and
postconventional moral development. Each level has two stages of development; hence, they are
known as the six stages of moral development.
PRECONVENTIONAL LEVEL I
Stage 1: Obedience and punishment
This stage is similar to Piaget's first stage of moral thought. Children assume that authorities or
parents have fixed sets of rules that they must obey. For example, "It is bad to steal". When the
child is asked to explain why he or she must not steal, he or she will say "because I will get
punished". Children see morality as something external to themselves, that is, listening to
authorities. Thus, children think that doing right is obeying authorities and avoiding punishment.
Stage 2: Individualism and exchange
At this stage, children recognise that there is not just one right view handed down by authorities,
but different individuals have different viewpoints. Children might think that it is wrong to take
drugs but the druggist would not see it that way. The moral issue is relative. Meaning that each
person is free to pursue his or her individual interest. Children at this stage speak as isolated
individuals rather than as members of society. In addition, children are no longer impressed by a
single authority, they see that there are different sides to the issue.
CONVENTIONAL LEVEL II
Stage 3: Good interpersonal relationship
Children who are entering the teenage years see morality as more than a simple deal. They
believe that people should live up to the expectations of the family or community because it is a
good way. Good behaviour means having good motives and interpersonal feelings, such as love,
empathy, trust and concern for others. The emphasis at this stage is being a good person, having
helpful motives toward people close to one.
Stage 4: Maintaining the social order
At this stage, the person becomes more broadly concerned with society as a whole than just the
family. Now the emphasis is on obeying laws, respecting authority and performing ones' duties
so that the social order is maintained. It is about obeying laws to maintain society as a whole.
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POSTCONVENTIONAL LEVEL III
Stage 5: Social contract and individual rights
At this stage, people are more concerned about society. For example, "What makes a good
society?" Firstly, people want basic rights such as liberty and life to be protected. Secondly, they
want some democratic procedures for changing unfair laws and improving society. At this stage
people understand the welfare of all people and the need for the protection of all people's rights;
a sense of contract between society and its people which is the basis of moral reasoning (Naito
2013).
Stage 6: Universal principles
This stage emanates from philosophers like Kant and Rawls as well as leaders like Gandhi and
Martin Luther King. According to these people, the principles of justice require us to treat the
claims of all parties in an impartial manner, respecting the basic dignity of all people as individuals.
The principles of justice are therefore universal, they apply to all. Moral reasoning is based upon
universal ethical principles and requires a sense of personal commitment to internalise principles
of justice (Naito 2013). For more clarity, look at figure 7.2 about Kohlberg's stages of moral
development.
7.2.2.2 Moral development of the Grade R child
During infancy (preconventional level), children have not yet developed a sense of morality and
there is no difference in doing right and avoiding punishment. The second stage of moral
development is about self-interest when children are more interested in rewards than punishment
as they are at the egocentric stage. Grade R children will most likely to be in stage 2.
During stage 3, children are at a school-going age and their moral sense is at the conventional
level where it is dominated by conformity and interpersonal relationships. At this stage, children
want to gain approval from the significant others, hence they will obey the rule and form good
interpersonal relationships so that they can say "good boy/girl".
As children develop cognitively, they also develop morally. At stage 4 (conventional level),
children are no longer concerned about gaining approval, but the purpose of morality or moral
rightness is obeying authority to maintain social order.
Stage 5 marks the postconventional level of moral development. Kohlberg indicates that the level
of moral development for teenagers is more concerned with a social contract or mutual benefit.
Teenagers now understand that moral issues such as being morally right and legally right are not
always the same. Their moral reasoning at this stage is about protecting life and people's rights,
which makes life better for all.
The last post-conventional stage is stage 6. Kohlberg indicates that this is the adulthood stage
where the sense of morality has developed at a higher level as seen in the hierarchy of moral
development. Moral reasoning at this stage is based on universal ethical principles that exceed
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mutual benefits or gains. Morality develops from infancy to adulthood. The stages of moral
development concur or agree with Piaget's cognitive development.
The development of morality from infancy to adulthood indicates how Kohlberg views moral
development. You only need to focus on middle childhood (four to six years), which is where the
Grade R learner will be. Moral development in early childhood is important, just like the sense of
belonging. All children from diverse contexts need to be accepted, as they are where their dignity
as individuals is upheld. Before discussing the concept of sense of belonging, do activity 7.1.
Activity 7.1
Case study 1
Thabo (Grade R) and his friend Paledi were teasing Tumelo during outdoor activity. Thabo
called Tumelo an ugly name, which caused him to cry. Tumelo reported the matter to his
teacher. The teacher called the two boys who were teasing Tumelo and asked them "What
have you done to Tumelo?" They said, "Nothing. We were just playing". Again, the teacher
insisted and asked, "What bad name did you call Tumelo?" Paledi, knowing that is was Thabo
who called Tumelo a bad name, told the teacher exactly what he said. The teacher praised
Paledi for telling the truth and Thabo had to stay in the naughty corner while the other children
were sleeping.
Answer the following questions:

(1) How will you handle this matter if it was reported to you?
(2) Why did Paledi lie at first?
(3) At what stage of Kohlberg's moral development are Grade R children? Elaborate your
answer.
When answering the questions, it should be useful to study section 7.2.2.1.

(1) Follow Kohlberg's theory to handle the matter in class.
(2) To avoid punishment.
(3) At stage 2 (self-interest), children, are more interested in rewards than punishment as
they are at the egocentric stage.
7.2.2 Piaget's theory of moral development
Piaget, a well-known theorist on cognitive development, contributed knowledge on moral

developed, which is in line with his theory of cognitive development. Unlike Kohlberg's six stages
of moral development, Piaget developed three stages of moral development, though he
emphasised two stages. Piaget views moral development as generally being influenced by the
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values of cultural societies in which they are reared, but also reflect the orderly unfolding of
cognitive processes. Moral development is preceded by cognitive development. This means that
cognitive structures and abilities develop first. Cognitive abilities then determine children's abilities
to reason about social situations, whereby moral reasoning takes place. Piaget indicated that
moral development progresses in predictable stages (McLeod 2015).
During his study of moral development, Piaget was not interested in what children do (i.e. in
whether they break the rules or not) but in what they think. As such, he was interested in children's
moral reasoning. Children's ideas regarding rules, moral judgement and punishment tend to
change as they grow older. He suggested two main types of moral thinking, namely heteronomous
morality (five to nine years) also known as moral realism, and autonomous morality also known
as moral relativism (10 years and older). Though Piaget emphasised these two stages of moral
development, he identified the first stage of moral development as pre-moral (birth to five years).
The three stages of moral development are discussed next (McLeod 2015).
7.2.1.1 Piaget's stages of moral development
Stage 1: Pre-moral (birth to five years)
McLeod (2015) points out that Piaget named this stage pre-moral stage since children are still at
the sensorimotor and preoperational stage of cognitive development; therefore, they cannot
carry out complex mental operations because they have little understanding of rules. Children's
behaviour at this stage is mostly regulated from the outside, for example, by parents or
caregivers. Since moral development progress gradually like cognitive development, the second
and the third stage follows from the pre-moral stage.
Stage 2: Heteronomous morality/moral realism (five to nine years)
Heteronomous morality is morals imposed from outside or external of children. Children see
morality as obeying other people's rules and laws that cannot be changed. They accept that
rules are made by some authority figure (parent, teachers, God) and that breaking the rules will
lead to immediate or speedy and severe punishment (immanent justice).
Punishment is seen as a way to make the child feel guilty or to suffer for wrongdoing. Again,
punishment should be related to the severity of wrongdoing (explanatory punishment). The parent
or teacher needs to explain why the child is being punished.
Behaviour is judged as 'bad' in terms of observable consequences, regardless of the
intentions or reasons for that behaviour. During this stage, most accidental damage or
wrongdoings are viewed as worse behaviour than a small amount of deliberate damage (McLeod
2015).
The Grade R child will most likely be in this stage.
Stage 3: Autonomous morality/moral relativism (10 years and older)
This stage is also known as relativism, meaning that morality is based on your own rules.
Children at this stage recognise that there is no absolute wrong and right and that morality
depends on intentions and not on consequences. Piaget indicated that around the age of nine
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to 10 years, children's understanding of moral issues undertook a fundamental reorganisation. By
now they are beginning to overcome the egocentrism of middle childhood and have developed
the ability to see moral rules from other people's point of view. "They see rules as the result of
social agreement and as a response to human needs rather than immutable laws" (Fein
1978:353). A child who can decentre to take other people's intentions and circumstances into
account, can move to make more independent moral judgements of the second stage. Children
have now changed their ideas on the nature of rules, on moral responsibility, on punishment and
justice and start to think like adults.
Regarding the issue of blame and moral responsibility, older children do not just take
consequences into account, they also consider motives (reasons behind). Children begin to
realise that if they behave in ways that are wrong but have good intentions, they are not going
to be necessarily punished.
Older children view lying differently than before. The seriousness of a lie is judged in terms of
betrayal of trust. They recognise that all lies are not the same and, for example, you might tell
a 'white lie' to spare someone's feelings.
The view of punishment also changes in older children. The purpose of punishment is not
primarily to make the guilty person suffer but to put things right again. Punishment is aimed at
helping the offender understand the harm he or she has caused so that he or she will be motivated
not to repeat the offence and wherever possible fit the crime, for example, when a vandal is
required to make good to the damage he or she has caused (McLeod 2015).
Activity 7.2
Prepare a story on a naughty child committing various misdeeds and ask children to evaluate how
the child's behaviour and its consequences are viewed by the children. Elaborate on how the
moral of the story relates to life in general for the learners to understand the importance of
morality.
(1) State the moral of the story.
(2) In which stage of moral development are the Grade R learners most likely?
Feedback to Activity 7.2
You will find it useful to study stage 2 (heteronomous morality) for your answer.
Stop and think

Now that you have gained knowledge about moral development, reflect on how you can use this
knowledge to promote morality in children.
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The next section discusses the sense of belonging, which is critical in the development of morality
and the child in totality.
7.3 A SENSE OF BELONGING
7.3.1 The concept of sense of belonging
A sense of belonging is a human need, just like the need for food and shelter (Hull 2014).
According to Reilly (2018), a sense of belonging is to be with people in a place where you are
accepted totally for who you are. There is no reason to hide part of yourself. Percival (2016)
indicates that humans are social creatures. We have an inherent need to belong to feel like we
are part of a group and to be accepted by that group for who we really are.
A sense of belonging is important in diverse contexts and classrooms with children from all walks
of life, backgrounds and experiences. All children or learners are equal and deserve inclusion
and respect. Teachers need to give students a safe and supportive space or environment that
enables learning.
According to the psychological perspective, a sense of belonging is so powerful that it can create
both value in life and the ability to learn healthy coping skills when experiencing intense and
painful emotions. The bottom line is that we all belong (https://study.com/academy/lesson/sense-
of-belonging-definition-theory-quiz.html)
7.3.2 The importance of a sense of belonging
The importance of belonging can be traced back from infancy where researchers have studied
skin to skin contact with babies and their parents. They found that when this contact is combined
with strong emotional engagement, a baby's developmental growth and its recognition of self,
increased significantly (study .com 2016).
Lee (2019) indicates that a sense of belonging makes us feel like there is a community behind
us. It makes us feel relaxed and receptive and motivated. A sense of belonging has a positive
impact on many other areas of our lives. Intellectual levels, social skills, mental health, motivation
and academic performance have a direct correlation with feelings of belonging, though this sense
of belonging decreases in secondary schools.
As learners come from different backgrounds, such as different ethnic or cultural groups, a sense
of belonging helps to relate to the curriculum and take ownership in learning, which ultimately
improves academic achievement significantly. Research has unveiled that a sense of belonging
is core to academic success and teachers need to pay attention and make sure that classrooms
are inclusive to support learning. When a sense of belonging is there, children throw themselves
into the learning environment and when that sense of belonging is not there, children will alienate,
they will marginalise and will step back (Lee 2019). As such, teachers must address the lack of
sense of belonging in the classroom situations and the school environment.
As Grade R teachers, it is important to take note that cultural-responsive teaching aims to address
these challenges, such as being isolated or not accepted. It tries to legitimise all cultures. It lets
learners take ownership of their cultural heritage. It also shows them the value of maintaining this
heritage and to do so with pride (Laldin 2016).
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7.3.3 Ways of promoting a sense of belonging
❖ Make instructions immediately and ensure that all learners understand what is
expected of them. Get to know your learners' names as soon as you can.
❖ Prioritise high-quality teacher-learner relationships. Arrange office hours or one-on-
one meeting times. Get to know your learners and allow them space to discuss their
individual needs with you.
❖ Create a supportive and caring learning environment. Model vulnerability and
resilience. Talk about your own stories of failure and resilience. Commend learners'
strengths.
❖ Be sensitive to learners' needs and emotions. Not all learners learn at the same pace.
It may take some time for certain learners to learn to speak up in a group. Be
accommodative of every learner and embrace their uniqueness.
❖ Set standards and expectations for dialogue. Accommodate diversity and ethnic groups.
Actively challenge stereotypes that learners might be internalising so that they can learn
to accept one another as they are.
❖ Show interest in learners. This will make them feel accepted and recognised.
❖ Foster a sense of community is the classroom by establishing classroom respect and
fair treatment. Encourage the voice of your learners. Invite your learners to brainstorm
on ground rules for your classroom (Lee 2019).
7.3.4 Implications of morality (moral development) and a sense of belonging
7.3.4.1 Implications for the children
Lack of sense of belonging impacts negatively on the learner's personal development and
academic achievement. Bray (2017) indicates that children who feel unaccepted fail to comply
with the classroom rules. They feel uncomfortable and tend to behave negatively and resist new
challenges and ideas. Children who feel unaccepted or do not have a sense of belonging, develop
low self-esteem, which makes them feel insecure, which could influence how they relate with
others. Again, such children may be afraid to take risks and tend to seek ways to avoid the
embarrassment due to fear of failure. Sometimes children come to school with issues at home
that relate to their families or peers. These could be big secrets and they find it difficult to talk
about it since these secrets probably impact on how they feel about themselves. If the child feels
unaccepted, his or her problems may be exacerbated due to a lack of sense of belonging and
being unable to disclose the challenges that are experienced.
a culture of learning is about developing relationships based on trust and respect. Each child
needs to have a sense of belonging in the classroom community and to feel that you and others
in the class care about them before you jump right into the schoolwork (Bray 2017). As a teacher,
ensure that you build a supportive environment in your class that will make learners feel
comfortable and even relate their problems to you or their peers. Children who come from different
backgrounds and with diverse experiences need to be accepted for who they are. A sense of
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belonging helps the child to develop a good sense of morality due to the good classroom culture
that you as a teacher have created.
7.3.4.2 Implications for the teacher
Lack of sense of belonging impacts on the teacher's teaching, relations with children and
colleagues as well as his or her personal development and growth. The school management and
teachers must ensure that a positive atmosphere prevails at the school specifically for their well-
being. As a teacher, you will need the support of other teachers in handling certain sections of
the curriculum or on how to assist a learner who experiences a problem. A sense of belonging is
vitally important for both teachers and learners to flourish in the school environment. Diversity is
addressed by how people are being accepted.
Read about how Mrs Molepo fostered a sense of belonging in her class.
Mrs Molepo truly believes that all human beings deserve respect, acceptance and is committed
to building a democratic community. She uses the following strategies to build positive identities
in her learners, the importance of morality and justice as well as a sense of belonging and
interdependence and a sense of personal uniqueness and agency (Engelbrecht & Green 2006).
❖ She develops a classroom climate of respect and behaves respectfully towards
colleagues and learners. She takes a firm stand with learners who call out in class and
tell other learners they are not smart enough. She simply does not allow this.
❖ She teaches children respect, for example, by acknowledging and listening to each other
and explains to them why respect is important.
❖ She uses stories and role-play activities to teach learners how to obey rules and the
importance of honesty. For example, learners act out situations they are likely to
encounter and discuss the implications in responding in different ways.
❖ She creates a sense of belonging in the class by involving everyone in some classroom
decisions and giving everyone some classroom responsibilities. She always emphasises
our classroom, our way of doing things and our learning function when she speaks to
learners to let learners feel part of the class community and being accepted as such.
❖ She invites all learners to participate in making the rules of the class and the
consequences of not obeying them. Every learner's contribution is accepted and their
sense of belonging is enhanced.
❖ She tries not to blame learners for unacceptable behaviour, but to make them aware that
if they break negotiated classroom rules, they have to live with certain consequences.
She wants to build a sense of individual responsibility (Engelbrecht & Green 2006).
Creating a sense of belonging in your classroom go a long way in developing the children's
physical, intellectual, emotional and social wellbeing. For example, children learn better in a
supportive environment and they are not afraid to try out new things or of making mistakes. Fair
treatment of children is vitally important as they can see when some learners are treated better
than others. Such treatment in class may hamper your efforts in enhancing morality among
learners and yourself.
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7.4 CONCLUSION
In this learning unit, you were exposed to the concept of moral development, the stages of moral
development according to Kohlberg and Piaget, and moral development in children. Furthermore,
you have been introduced to the concept of sense of belonging and its importance in people and
children specifically. The importance of the promotion of a sense of belonging in class was
emphasised to address diversity and considering that all children are different, and they need to
be accepted as they are to flourish.
❖ Explain the meaning of moral development in the Grade R years your own words.
❖ Name and discuss the stages of moral development according to Piaget and Kohlberg.
❖ Describe the moral development of the Grade R child.
❖ Explain sense of belonging for the Grade R child.
❖ Describe the implication of morality and a sense of belonging.
❖ Reflect and design activities that will enhance moral development and different ways in
which a sense of belonging is understood.

•
• https://www.youtube.com (Kohlberg's six stages of moral development)
• https://study.com/academy/lesson/kohlbergs-stages-of-moral-development.html
(Kohlberg's six stages of moral development)
• https://www.youtube.com › watch- (Piaget's stages on moral development)
• https://www.psychologytoday.com/za/blog/pieces-mind/201403/create-sense-belonging
(Sense of belonging)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XP8AEeT5Mz4 (Kohlberg's moral development)
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LEARNING UNIT 8: CREATIVE DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
This learning unit aims to explain the concept of creativity and creative development. You will also
learn the importance of play in developing the creative aspect of child development in totality.
Lastly, you will reflect on how you can apply this knowledge in the classroom situation to enhance
creativity among the learners.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
❖ Explain the concepts of creativity and creative development.
❖ Describe the creative development of a Grade R child.
❖ Discuss the importance of play and its benefits to children.
❖ Discuss the importance of imagination and creativity development of young children.
❖ Design activities that will enhance the children's creative development in different
contexts.
❖ Outline the role of the Grade R teacher in nurturing creativity in children.
➢ Creativity: The ability to create something from personal feelings and experiences, can
reflect and nurture children's emotional health.
➢ Creative development: A process of developing creative abilities through exploration,

decision making and expression.
8.1 INTRODUCTION
In this learning unit, you will discover that all children are creative beings and that creativity can
be developed. You will learn that creative development is a process and needs to be nurtured in
children. Play is an important aspect of creativity and the child benefits intellectually, physically,
emotionally and socially during play. The discussion includes creative methods and activities that
you can learn to apply in the classroom situation to support children in creative development.
After studying creativity and imagination, you will be able to reflect on how you can apply this
knowledge in the classroom situation to enhance creativity among your learners.
8.1.1 What is creativity?
Creativity is the open or freest form of self-expression. The ability to create something from
personal feelings and experiences can reflect and nurture children's emotional health. (Ref the
Whole child). Creativity can be referred to as the process of producing original things (Dere 2019).
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8.1.2 What is creative development?
Creative development is a process of developing creative abilities through exploration, decision

making and expression. Children's experiences during their early years can significantly enhance
the development of their creativity. Children go through various stages of creative development.
It is important to consider children's age when developing creativity in children.
8.1.3 The importance of the creative process
Any creative act is a process of self-expression. Creative experiences can help children to
express their feelings. A child's creative activity can help teachers to learn more about what the
child may be thinking or feeling. Creativity also fosters mental growth in children by providing
opportunities for trying out new ideas, and new ways of thinking and solving problems. Creative
activities help to acknowledge and celebrate children's uniqueness and diversity as well as offer
excellent opportunities to personalise teaching and focus on each child. Children need plenty of
opportunities for creative play and creative thinking. The creative process is embedded in
opportunities to be involved in creative activities. Offer children a variety of multi-ethnic and
multi-cultural experiences. Children need an opportunity to make their own choice during creative
activities. Creative play is one of the most important types of creative activities for young children.
8.2 CREATIVE DEVELOPMENT OF A GRADE R CHILD
Creativity can be developed through various ways by both parents and caregivers as they interact
with and respond to even young babies. These interactions may be seen in the diverse ways that
a caregiver might use to calm, soothe, comfort, engage, amuse, delight, charm, even confuse or
stun their child. Just as they develop language and balance, children also pass through phases
in learning creative self-expression.
At the age of three to five years, children are at the pre-schematic stage. They begin to make up
stories and to build with blocks. Their scribbling at this stage has improved and resembles objects
and can draw basic shapes. Circles are common shapes that children begin to draw. They begin
to use graphic symbols and express emotions like joy or sadness symbolically with form and
colour. At ages five to six years, children develop fine motor skills that enable them to draw a
straight line or a circle with both intention and control. Realistic imagery begins to emerge at this
stage. Furthermore, children begin to acquire symbolic vocabulary around the age of six years
when a square represents a house and a circle represents the sun. Creativity develops due to
the child's level of cognitive and physical development as well as the opportunities that are created
by caregivers or teachers. Supporting children's creativity during preschool years sets the stage
to foster its continued development in the years to come (Dere 2019).
Vygotsky maintains that when children interact with their parents, adults or peers, learning takes
place in the zone of proximal development. Thus, the children's interaction with adults or peers
offer opportunities for creative development. Providing children with a creative environment
during their early years of development plays a critical role in creative development. Children do
not fear making mistakes and taking risks in a creative atmosphere. Children's ideas and their
brainstorming attempts are respected. Therefore, positive attitudes of preschool teachers are
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another important factor in creativity. Grade R teachers should provide rich materials that mobilise
the imagination of children, offer opportunities for children to dream, to express ideas, appreciate
their individuality and encourage different perspectives (Dere 2019). Creativity just like giftedness
must be cultivated and nurtured (Louw & Louw 2014).
8.3 THE BENEFITS OF PLAY AND CREATIVE DEVELOPMENT
According to Vygotsky, play contains all developmental trends in a condensed form and is a major
source of development. Through play, children learn to regulate their behaviour, lay the
foundations for later learning, figure out the complex negotiations of social relationships and build
a repertoire for creative problem-solving skills (White 2012). Creative play is an important part of
childhood and child development. Creative experiences help a child to develop these skills and
enable them to share their thoughts, feelings and ideas. Exposing children to creative
opportunities contributes to and furthers their development. Through creative and imaginative
play, children can grow emotionally, socially, intellectually and even physically
(www.thelittlegym.com).
Emotional development: Creative play promotes social and emotional development by

integrating feelings with tasks. During play, children can be asked to paint, draw or tell a story,
about how they are feeling. These types of activities help children, who cannot verbalise their
feelings, to express it through painting or drawing. By so doing, children will learn how to express
their feelings safely and creatively, allowing them to integrate into social settings or contexts and
adjust their behaviour more appropriately.
Social development: Children can grow and increase their social development when given
opportunities to play and interact with peers. Singing, dancing, dress-up and other forms of
imaginative play are a few areas where children can grow and develop basic communication
and social interaction skills. Children can be exposed to different kinds of play according to their
cultural backgrounds than can enhance their social development.
Intellectual development: Through creative play, children can learn important problem-solving
skills. Reading, for example, gives children the opportunity to express their imaginations and
explore a world outside of their own, helping to improve both intellectual and cognitive skills.
This forms the basis of reading comprehension and retention and sets the tone for solving more
complex problems as they grow and develop. Activities like jigsaw puzzles also assist children to
develop intellectually (Anthony 2000).
Physical development: Whether your children are dancing to the rhythm of their own beat, or
exploring the great outdoors, creative play helps to grow gross and fine motor skills,
coordination and control. Building fine motor skills requires practice and sets the stage for
improving hand-eye coordination and muscle memory. Play and dancing promote the physical
and creative development of children.
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8.4 THE IMPORTANCE OF IMAGINATION AND CREATIVITY
Einstein said that imagination is more important than knowledge. Since children are generally
creative, imaginative and spontaneous, Caregivers and teachers must nurture this inborn instinct.
Vygotsky theorised a relationship between creativity and imagination. He indicates that
imagination serves as an important driver of all human creativity. Imagination involves feelings
that manifest a person's truthful experiences. However, the process of imagination is not only
guided by feelings but also the context. It is because every person, even a genius, is a product
of his environment. Imagination is a higher mental function and as such, is a consciously
directed thought process (Smolucha & Smolucha 1986 in Tsai 2012).
Teachers are an important source to facilitate learners' learning experiences and to release
learner's potentials in the classrooms. To maximise learners' potential, it is important to provide
them with opportunities to exercise their creative and imaginative abilities. It is important to
understand creative thinking and imagination.
8.4.1 Creative thinking and imagination
Imagination is a door to numerous possibilities. It is where creativity, originality and thinking

outside the box begin for child development. In most cases, imagination occurs through play in
children. Through imagination and creative play, children learn about their world. During
imaginative play, children manipulate material, express themselves verbally and non-verbally, act,
interact, and try different roles. Therefore, great opportunities open up for learning when children
participate in creative play with dolls, cars, wire cars, blocks, stones or boxes.
When children are busy manipulating objects like dough, cars, dolls, art material or splashing in
puddles, they are thinking, which further their development. Imagination fosters cognitive and
social development. Everyone wants to raise children who reach their highest intellectual and
social or emotional potential. In early childhood education, critical thinking skills and creative
problem-solving abilities are goals for children's development. Imagination builds socio-
emotional development by allowing children to contemplate different resolutions, thus boosting
their confidence, which can be used in interaction with others. Imagination and creativity are
skills that children will need when they join the workforce in the future.
8.5 THE GRADE R TEACHER'S ROLE IN FACILITATING OR NURTURING CREATIVITY

IN CHILDREN
Creativity in the early years flourishes best in an atmosphere of enthusiastic support. To

facilitate creative development in children, it is vital that supervising adults and teachers should
sit back and let a young artist develop his or her own ideas. Creative thinking develops as
children make choices and solve simple logistical problems. It is therefore important for Grade
R teachers to provide children with a variety of creative opportunities that will enhance their
creative development. Next, follow strategies that Grade R teachers can adopt to facilitate
creativity in children.
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8.5.1 Spend time outdoors with children (play)

The benefits of outdoor activities are countless. It is because nature is everchanging and provides
numerous opportunities for discovery, creativity and problem-solving skills for children. For
example, children can draw in sand, make designs with twigs, build forts with branches or simply
lie on the ground and look up in the sky. Outdoor games and activities stimulate children's tactile
development when they feel the sand as they touch it or when they take stones and write vowels
on the sand. These activities promote insight and effective learning in children (Anthony2020).
8.5.2 Invent scenarios/situations

When the child invents scenarios or situations, he or she tries on lots of different rules and
organises his or her thoughts while developing social and verbal skills. The scenario enables the
child to think, and as he or she talks about the scenario, his or her verbal skills also develop. Allow
children to create scenarios as a way of developing their creativity.
8.5.3 Verbal activities
Verbal activities such as rhymes, riddles, silly sounds to phonics games such as "I spy" or make
up lyrics to common tunes, verbal interface (boundary) activities, can inspire and nurture creative
minds.
8.5.4 Ask open-ended and thought-provoking questions
Asking questions that provoke imaginative and creative thinking, is an effective way to invite the
child to express his or her ideas and share his or her visions while giving them a message that
his or her ideas are important. Open-ended questions can be asked, like "What do you think will
happen if …?" or "What is a difference between a dog and a cat?"
8.5.5 Limit screen time (TV movies, computer, tablets, smartphones, video games)
Nurturing imagination and parenting can be tough during this technological age. Focusing on the
screen is a passive way of knowing for children. Digital devises should be minimised to promote
the kinaesthetic (movement) manner of learning where children use their bodies and senses to
learn actively. Active learning that encourages physical activity in children will help to develop
their gross motor skills while imagination and creativity are enhanced.
8.5.6 Encourage art activities
Art is a creative expression that nurtures imagination. Through painting, sculpture, collage, clay,
drawing, or any other medium, art is a way for children to work through emotions, make decisions,
and express ideas. Manipulation of art material provides a sense of freedom, yet it also promotes
focus and concentration. In addition, art activities build confidence because children gain a
sense of mastery over materials resulting in a new creation.
147
8.5.7 Share library activities
Make reading time memorable and discuss other possible scenarios or endings of the story by
using your child's imagination. Make up stories with the children and sometimes one of them as
the main character, in other stories propose a moral dilemma (The Little Gym 2017), (Anthony
2020).
8.5.8 Do not overcontrol or overprescribe
Creativity is a form of self-expression that needs a free flow of mind and imagination. Telling
children exactly how to do things makes them feel that any originality is a mistake and any
exploration is a waste of time. Allowing children to choose their interests and supporting their
preferences are less likely to destroy their natural curiosity than dictating which activities they
should engage in (Louw & Louw 2014).
8.5.9 Encourage internal motivation
The excessive use of prizes, such as gold stars, money or toys, can stifle creativity by undermining
the intrinsic pleasure children derive from creative activities (Louw & Louw 2014).
8.6 IMPORTANT FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN PLANNING CREATIVE ACTIVITIES

FOR GRADE R CHILDREN
❖ Get enough rich material that you can use to stimulate creativity in children.
❖ Ensure that the material is user friendly and there is enough variety from which children
can choose.
❖ Certain activities can be done indoors and others outdoors.
❖ Decide whether the activity is artwork or play.
❖ Ensure that all children participate in that activity and that they have a choice.
❖ If the activity is on the story, read in class, allow learners to say how the story ended to
stimulate their imagination.
❖ Praise every child for the effort and enthusiasm that he or she has displayed during the
activity. This will encourage them to be creative.
Activity 8.1
Read the scenario and answer the question.
Mrs Mabena has just been appointed at Sizanani Primary School as a Grade R teacher. On her
first day, she gave the children some pictures to draw and colour. Mrs Mabena realised that some
of the children were struggling with tasks that required creativity. Mrs Mabena was very concerned
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and thought of changing her approach. She then approached Mrs Zazi, the head of the
department, for assistance on how she can develop creativity to her learners.
What do you think will be Mrs Zazi's advice?
When responding to this question, you will find it useful to reread the role of the Grade R teacher
regarding developing the child's creativity. Use practical examples from your environment or
experience to provide discuss the statement.
Activity 8.2
Design a lesson activity for the Grade R learners by following the next instructions:
❖ Plan a lesson for the Grade R learners where you allow them to use their creativity.
❖ Decide whether it will be an indoor or outdoor activity.
❖ Indicate the material that they will use during the activity.
❖ Instructions to be short and clear for learners to follow.
❖ If the activity is play, indicate what kind of play; for example, hide and seek or fantasy
play.
❖ Indicate how the activity will benefit the learners.
When you respond to this activity, you should have incorporated the following key ideas:
❖ You need to have an idea of the type of lesson you are going to plan for the children. For
example, you have planned for a drawing activity where learners are going to draw a
picture of their choice. This will be an indoor activity.
❖ Material to be used: Pencils, white blank sheets of paper, crayons, watercolours and
paintbrushes.
❖ Instruction: Draw a picture of a person you like most.
❖ Children will be allowed to choose the colour pencils or water paint and paintbrushes to
colour their pictures. Go around and check their participation. Encourage and praise their
effort and dedication during the process of drawing and colouring.
149
❖ Learners are allowed to each talk about the person they have drawn and why they say
they like that person. The aim is to develop communication and to learn new words. To
enhance social development as they communicate and share the material that improves
their interpersonal relationships. To allow the children to be imaginative and creative,
which brings fulfilment and achievement.
8.7 CONCLUSION
This learning unit exposed you to creativity and the process of creative development in young
children. You have learned about the importance of play and how it promotes imagination and
how it benefits the development of a child in totality. Lastly, you were empowered with strategies
that you can use in developing or nurturing creativity in young children as it forms the bases of
their learning.
❖ Explain the concepts of creativity and creative development.

❖ Describe creative development in young children.
❖ Discuss the importance of play and its benefits to the children.
❖ Discuss the importance of imagination and creativity development of young children.
❖ Design activities that will enhance the children's creative development in different
contexts.
❖ Outline the role of the Grade R teacher in nurturing creativity in the children.
To summarise what you have learned about the creative development of the Grade R child, take
• https://study.com/academy/lesson/sense-of-belonging-definition-theory-quiz.html (Play)
• https://youtu.be/0GQyooXc3_k (Creativity)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PoWgkrpQKjg (Creative play)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iiaOZh7rOQ0 (- How to dDevelop creativity in the
kindergarten classroom)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RwGlaCTnNys (Why do we need creativity?)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=181bh2OTcDo (The importance of creativity)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OCG_2G5FYJM (What is creativity, why is it
important, and how can you help children develop it?))
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Tutorial Letter 501/0/2023

Child Development in the Early Years

Department of Early Childhood Education

This tutorial letter contains important information about the module.

LEARNING UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORIES .................................... 15

1.5 THE INFLUENCE OF THE ENVIRONMENT ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN

LEARNING UNIT 2: UNDERSTANDING THE GRADE R YEARS .......................................................... 47

LEARNING UNIT 3: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF THE GRADE R CHILD ..................................... 63

3.7.3 Knowledge of thinking at different cognitive levels .................................................................... 72

LEARNING UNIT 4: LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT OF THE GRADE R CHILD ..................................... 76

LEARNING UNIT 5: PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN ........................................... 92

6.6.2 Emotional milestones in Grade R ............................................................................................ 127

LEARNING UNIT 7: THE MORAL DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN ...................................... 132

LEARNING UNIT 8: CREATIVE DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN ......................................... 143

REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................................... 151

The foundation phase curriculum is what we call an integrated curriculum. It consists of

Emergent Mathematics is a development-based module where tasks are matched to children's

Figure 1.1: Holistic development of the child

1.1 Getting started

We wish you much success in your studies!

In this module, you will have to master the following outcomes:

The above-mentioned outcomes constitute the learning units of this module.

3 LECTURER AND CONTACT DETAILS

The primary lecturer for this module is Dr T Dyosini

4.1 Join myUnisa

4.2 Recommended book

4.3 Electronic reserves (e-reserves)

4.4 myUnisa tools

Enjoy the journey!

LEARNING UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORIES

THE AIMS OF LEARNING UNIT 1

• Define the concepts of child development and early childhood development.

DEFINING KEY CONCEPTS

Feedback to activity 1.1

1.2 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND EARLY CHILDHOOD

1.2.1 What is child development?

❖ Child development is the biological and psychological development in human beings

1.3 WHAT IS EARLY CHILDHOOD?

The following are different definitions of ECD:

❖ ECD encompasses the holistic emotional, physical, and cognitive development of

❖ ECD encompasses physical, socio-emotional, cognitive and motor development

1.4 UNDERSTANDING THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN IN THE GRADE R YEARS

1.4.1 The preschooler

1.4.1.1 Who is the preschooler?

❖ A preschooler or toddler is a child between 12 to 36 months old. The preschool years

1.4.1.2 Explanations of preschool institutions

1.4.1.3 Characteristics of the preschooler

The preschooler's stage of development is explained in terms of the different aspects of

1.4.2.1 The preschooler's cognitive development

1.4.2.2 The preschooler's language development

1.4.2.3 The preschooler's physical development

1.4.2.4 The preschooler's social and emotional development

1.5 THE INFLUENCE OF THE ENVIRONMENT ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG

1.5.1 The home environment

1.5.1.1 The nature of the family

1.5.1.2 Parenting styles

d) Neglecting/uninvolved parenting style