BOTAONE: Long Exam 4 Carpel and Stamen Evolution

Reproduction in Flowering
Plants (Angiosperms)

Asexual Vs Sexual Reproduction

● Asexual reproduction results in Stamen vs Carpel
new individuals genetically Stamen Carpel
identical to the parent. The parent
and all progeny are equally updated The male fertilizing The female
organ of a flower, productive organ of a
to the habitat
typically consisting flower, consisting of
● Sexual reproduction results in of a an ovary, a stigma,
progeny that differ from each other pollen-containing and usually a style
genetically, There is a range of anther and a and occurring singly
filament or as one fo fa rgoup
fitness, and some progeny may
have a combination of maternal The male The femeake
and paternal genes that causes reproductive reprductove
structure structure
them to be even better adapted
than the parents Refers to the Refers to a single set
collection of anthers of the oivary style,
Sexual and filaments and stigma
● Sexual reproduction in Aka androecium Aka gynoeciym
angiosperms involves flowers,
which produce the necessary cells Occurs surrounding Occurs at athe center
and structures the female of the floeer
reproductive
structure
Flower Parts
Produces pollen Produces ovules
grains

Releases pollen The stigma capture

grains to the pollen grains
environment during
pollination

Pollen grains Ovules possess eggs

germinate, inside the embryo
Floral Whorls producing male sac
gametes
● Accessory parts
○ Sepals (calyx)
○ Petals (corolla)
● Essential parts
○ Stamen (androecium)
○ Carpel or pistil (gynoecium) Gynoecium
 ● All female parts of a flower
Carpel
Pistil ● Conduplicate megasporophyll
● Structure consisting of ovary, ● Can be unit of pistil, if pistil
style(s), and stigma(s) compound (composed of >1 carpel)

Comparison of Gynoecium Terminology Using Carpel and Pistil

Gynoecium Carpel Pistil Examples

composition terminology terminology

Single carpel Monocarpous A pistil Avocado

(unicarpellate) (simple)
gynoecium (Perse asp.)

Most legumes
(Fabaceae)

Multiple distinct Apocarpous Pistils Strawberry

(“unfused”) carpels (choricarpous) (simple) (Fragaria sp.)
gynoecium
Buttercup
(Ranunculus sp.)

Multiple connate Syncarpous A pistil Tulip (Tulipa sp.)

(“fused”) carpels gynoecium (compound)
Most flowers

Gynoecium

Gynoecial Fusion
 i. Both stamen and
pistil present
(hermaphroditic)
b. Imperfect
i. Either stamen or
pistil is absent
3. Flora symmetry
a. Radial symmetry
Androecium
(actinomorphic)
i. Can be divided into 2
equal halves along
any plant
b. Bilateral symmetry
(zygomorphic)
i. Divided into 2 equal
Stamen Arrangement and Cycle halves only by medial
cut through central
axis
ii. Orchidaceous,
papilionaceous,
caesalpinaceuous,
bilabiate (2-lipped)
Fusion of Floral Parts
● Connation
○ Fusion of floral parts from
the same whorl

Floral Variations
1. Floral whorls
a. Complete
i. Sepal, petal, stamen,
pistil
b. Incomplete
i. Lacking one or more
of the worls
2. Essential parts
a. Perfect
4. Nature of corolla i. Terminal
a. Polypetalous (free petals) ● Develops from
b. Gamopetalous (fused the apical
petals) meristem of
c. Apetalous (no petals) primary shoot
5. Position of ovary or of an
a. Superior extended
b. Inferior lateral
6. Attachment of floral parts branch, with
a. Perigynous vegetative
b. Epigynous leaves
c. Hypogynous ii. Axillary
● Develops from
axillary bud of
a vegetative
leaf, does not
develop into
an extended
7. Insertion of parts
branch
system

8. Placentation types
b. Inflorescence Development
a. Marginal
i. Determinate
b. Axile
● Terminal
c. Basal
flower
d. Free central
develops first
e. Parietal
○ Dichas
ium is
termin
ated
by the
oldest
flower
a. and
9. Inflorescence flanke
● A collection or aggregation d by
of flowers two
● Boundaries defined by lateral
vegetative leaves below young
a. Inflorescence Position er
 flower
s
○ Clemati
s or
vrigin’
s
bower ● Spadix
ii. Indeterminate
● Basal flower
develops first
1. Solitar
y
2. Racem
es
3. Cyme ● Hypanthodium
4. Umbel
5. Panicl
es
6. Spikes
7. Catkin
s (or ● Cyathium
ament
s)
8. Corym
bs
9. Heads
10. Compo
● Spikelet (grass)
site

● Head/capitulum

Specialized Inflorescences Flowers are for sexual

● Catkin/ament reproduction
 ● Sexual reproduction is Method Explanation
important for evolution
● Sexual reproduction a. Dichogamy a. Anthers and
i. Protandry stigmas at
produces variable
ii. Protogyny different times
offspring, creating diversity, to minimize
and variation among self-pollination
population s(shuffling of i. Androec
ium
genes)
ii. Ripens
● Variation is needed for first
natural selection to occur iii. Gynoeci
● Sexual reproduction is umum
ripens
advantageous to an first
organism only if it happens
with someone other than b. Unisexual flowers Only male or female
flowers on a plant,
itself
monoecious (one plant)
● Most plants (97%) have both or dioecious (2 plants)
sexes on body
(hermaphroditic) c. Incompatibility Produce chemical in
stigma to prevent
germination of their
Selfing own pollens
- Around 10-15% of flowering plant
sare predominantly selfers d. Heterostyly Thrum-eyed: anthers
up and stigmas low
- requires self-comaptibility down
- Often accompanied by strucually Pin-eyed: stigmas high
enforced mechanism up and anthers low
down
(cleistogamous flowers)
- Some species are obligate sliders
(e.g., some grasses, some orchids), Heterostyly
other produce self-fertilzing flowers ● The relative lengths or heights of
seasonally stigmas and anthers vary among
different flowers
Methods of Preventing Inbreeding ● Found in entomophilous species
● Different floral forms on different
individuals
● Each form differs
from others in
relative position of
stigma and anthers
● Pollen transfer only
successful with
visits between forms
Pollination
Methods to Prevent Self-Pollination
(Outcrossing Mechanisms)
Pollination
● In seed plants, the transfer of
pollen grains from the anther to the
stigma
● After pollination, fertilization, or
fusion of gametes occurs
● Flowering plants rely on living
(biotic) and nonliving (abiotic)
pollinating agents
● Approxiamlety 80% is biotic
● Among the abiotic factors, 98% rely
on wind and 2% on water
Fertilization
● Fusion of male and female gametes
● After fertilization, flowering plants
produce seeds inside fruits
Coevolution
● Interactions between two different
species as selective forces act on
each other, resulting in adapations
that increase their interdependency
● Plants evolve elaborate methods to
attract aniaml pollinators
● Animals evolved specialized body
parts and behaviors that aid plant
pollinators
● Animals evolved specialized body
parts and behaviors that aid plant
pollination
● Occurs when two different
organisms (flowering plants and
their animal pollinators) form such
an interdependent relationship that
they affect the course of each
other’s evolution
● While plants were coevolving
specialized features (petals, scent,
nectar) to attract pollinators,
animal polliantors coeveolved
specialized body aprts and
behaviors that enabled them to aid
pollination and obtain nectar and
pollen grains as a reward
● Coevolution is rpesonsible for long,
curved beaks of honeycreepers,
which insert their beaks into
tubular flowers to obtain nectar
● Long, tubular corollas of flowers
that honeycreepers visit also
developed through coevolution
● Distinct visual cues: flowering
plants have evolved bright colors,
stripes, patterns, and colors
specific to the pollinator. For
example, flowering plants seeking
to attract insect pollinators are
typically blue are ultraviolet,
whereas red and orange are
designed to attract birds
● Scent: flowering plants use scents
as a means of instructing insects
as to their location. Since scents
become stronger closer to the
plant, the insect is able to hone-in
and land on that plant to extract
its nectar
● Some flowers use chemical and
tactile means to mimic female
insect species to attract the male
 species. For example, orchids
secrete a chemical that is the same
as the pheromones of bee and wasp
species. When the male insect
lands on the flower and attempts to
copulate, the pollen is transferred
to him
Agents of Pollination
1. Wind (anemophily)
● Gymnosperms and some
flowering plants (grasses,
trees) use wind pollination
● Flowers are small, grouped
together
● Not a very efficient method
(too chancy and wasteful)
● Hazel staminate flowers
(stamens only) releasing
clouds of pollen
2. Animals (zoophily)
● Insects
○ Bees, wasps,
butterflies, moths
● Birds
○ Hummingbirds,
honeycreepers
● Mammals
○ Bats, mice, monkeys
● Even some reptiles and
amphibians
3. Water (hydrophilly)
● Certain plants, as those fo
the families Naiadaceae,
Certophyllaceae,
Potamogetonacaeae,
Hydrocharitaceae, etc., are
completely aquatic so tha
their pollination is adapted
to such conditions
● Pollination takes place
completely under water
(hypohydrogamous) in
Naias and Ceratophyllum
while it takes place on the
water surface
(epihydrogamous) in the
common water weeds
Vallisneria, Hydrilla, and
Elodea of Hydrocharitaceae
Animal Pollinators
● Bees
○ The most important group
of flower pollinators
○ They live on the nectar and
feed larvae, also eat the
pollen
○ Bees are guided by the sight
and smell
○ See yellow and blue colors,
also ultraviolet light (not
red)
○ Flowers have ‘honey guides’
and bee landing platforms
● Butterflies and moths
○ Also guided by sight and
smell
○ Butterflies can see red and
orange flowers
○ Flowers are usually shaped
as a long tube because of
insect’s proboscis - to get
nectar
○ Moth-pollinated flowers are
usually white or pale, with
sweet, strong odor - for
night pollination
● Flies and beetles
○ Flies like flowers that smell
like dung or rotten meat
○ Lay their eggs there, but
larvae die due to their lack
of food
 ○ Beetles pollinate flowers ○ Pollen
that are dull in color but ■ Is high in protein,
have a very strong odor some bees and
● Birds beetles eat it
○ Birds have a good sense of ● Flowers can
color, they like yellow or red produce two
flowers kinds of
○ But birds do not have a good pollen: a
sense of smell, so normal and a
bird-pollinated flowers sterile, but
usually have little odor tasty, kind, for
○ Flowers provide fluid nectar the insect
in greater quantities than
insects Getting the pollinator’s attention
○ Hummingbird-pollinated ● Plants advertise their pollen and
flowers usually java long, nectar rewards with
tubular corolla 1. Colors
○ Pollen is large and sticky ■ Bees see blue, yellow,
● Mammals: bats and mice UV; while birds see
○ Mouse-pollinated flowers red
are usually inconspicuous, ● Bats don’t see
they open at night well, so
○ Bats pollinate at night, so flowers are
flowers are white, and often white
have dusky white petals are 2. Nectar/honey guides
scented ■ A visual guide for
pollinator to locate
Why do animals pollinate plants? the reward (pansy
● They get a reward i.e. food! In flower)
exchange for moving their pollen to 3. Aromas
another flower ■ For insects
○ Nectar ■ Can also be carrion
■ A sugary solution or dung smell
produced in special
flower glands called Plant Mimicry
nectaries ● Some plants take advantage of the
■ Nectar concentration sex drive of certain insects
matches energy ● Certain orchids look like female
requirements of the wasps and even smell like them
pollinator: bird and ● Male try to to mate with them, and
bee pollinate flower in the process they pollinate the
have different sugar plant
concentrations
 ● The orchid gets pollinated, but the ● The multicellular diploid stage is
male wasp only gets frustrated called the sporophyte
● Meiosis in the sporophyte produces
The male and female productive parts haploid cells called spores
● Unlike a gamete, a haploid spore
doesn’t fuse with another cell but
divides mitotically, generating a
multicellular haploid stage called
the gametophyte
● Cells of the gametophyte give rise
to gametes by mitosis
● Fusion of two haploid gametes at
fertilization results in a diploid
zygote, which develops into the
next sporophyte generation
Alternation of Generation ● Therefore, in this type of life cycle,
the sporophyte generation
● The alteration of a sexual phase produces a gametophyte as as its
and an asexual phase in the life offspring, and the gametophyte
cycle of an organism. The two generation produces the next
phases, or generations, are often sporophyte generation
morphologically (external features),
and sometimes chromosomally
(genetic make-up), distinct
● Fertilization, the fusion of gametes
results in a diploid zygote, which
divides by mitosis and forms a new
sporophyte
● In angiosperms, the sporophyte is
the dominant generation: it is
larger, more conspicuous, and
longer lived than the gametophyte
● The gametophyte develops inside
the ovary and the male develop
inside the pollen grain
● The key traits of the angiosperm life
cycle can be remembered as the
“three Fs” flowers, double
fertilization, and fruits
● This type includes both diploid and
haploid stages that are Life Cycle of Angiosperms
multicellular

Gametophyte Development
Development of the Embryo Sac, the
female gametophyte
Development of Pollen Grains, the male
gametophyte
● Cells within anther undergo
meiosis
● Produce 4 spores
● Each spore undergoes mitosis
● Results in pollen grain containing 2
cells
● The stamen is composed of an
anther which is the saclike
structure on top of the filament
● Each anther has 2 thecae (thecae 1
and thecae 2)
● There are 4 microsporangia/pollen
sacs
● Each pollen sac has diploid
microsporocytes/pollen mother
cells which undergo meiosis that
forms 4 haploid microspores that
will undergo mitosis that will forms
2 cells, the generative cell, tube cell,
and spore wall which comprise the
pollen grain
● During maturation of the male
gametophyte, the generative cell
passes into the tube cell: the tube
cell now has a completely
freestanding cell inside it
● As a carpel develops, one or more
ovules form deep within its ovary,
its swollen base
● A female gametophyte, also known
as embryo sac, develops inside
each ovule. The process of embryo
sac formation occurs in a tissue
called the megasporangium within
each ovule
● Two integuments (layers of
protective saprophytic tissue that
will develop into the seed coat)
surround each megasporangium,
except at a gap called the
micropyle.
● Female gametophyte begins when Double Fertilization (in plants)
one cell in the megasporangium of
each ovule, the megasporocyte,
Double Fetilization
enlarges and undergoes meiosis,
● The fusion of gametes
producing 4 haploid cells
● Occurs after the two sperm reach
● Usually only 1 megaspore survives;
the female gametophute
the other three degenerate
○ One sperm fertilizes the egg
● The nucleus of the surviving
forming the zygote
megaspore divides by mitosis three
○ Another sperm combines
time without cytokinesis, resulting
with the two polar nuclei
in one large cell with eight haploid
forming a triploid (3n)
nuclei
nucleus forming endosperm
● The multinucleate mass is then
● Ensures that endosperms develops
divided by membranes to form the
only in ovules where egg has been
embryo sac
fertilized
● Near the micropyle of the embryo
● During pollination, pollen lands on
sac, two synergid cells flank the egg
stigma
and help attract and guide the
● 2 sperms travel down pollen tube
pollen tube to the embryo sac
● 1 sperm fertilizes egg and becomes
● At the opposite end of the embryo
the zygote
sac are three antipodal cells of
● Another sperm fertilizes the polar
unknown function
nuclei and forms the endosperm,
● The other two nuclei, called polar
the tissue that will nourish the
nuclei, are not partitioned into
embryo
separate cells but share the
cytoplasm of the large central cell
of the embryo sac
● The mature embryo sac thus
consists of eight nuclei contained
with seven cells. The ovule, which
will become a seed if fertilized, now
consists of the embryo sac,
enclosed by the megasporangium
(which eventually whites) and two
surrounding integuments
Growth of the pollen tube and double
fertilization
Ovule develops into seed Fruits and Seeds

Fruit
● Fruit is a mature, ripened ovary that
contains the seeds
● Fruit types
○ Based on origin
1. Simple
2. Aggregate
3. Multiple
○ Based on nature of pericarp
Fate of floral parts after fertilization (= ovary wall)
1. Fleshy
Floral part Fate after
fertilization 2. Dry
a. Dehiscent
a. Sepals. Petals, and All white and drop b. Indehiscent
stamens off

b. Ovary i. Fruit
i. Ovary wall ii. Fruit wall
1. Simple fruits
ii. Ovule iii. Seed
iii. Integuments iv. Seed coat ● is derived from a single
iv. Fertilized egg (testa) ovary (consisting of one or
v. Fertilized v. Embryo several fused carpels) of one
polar bodies vi. Endosperm
flower (ex. Banana)
● Can either be fleshy or dry
when mature
● Include:
a. Berry
b. Hesperidium
c. Pepo
d. Pome
e. Drupe
 3. Pepo
1. Berry ● the pericarp is thick, and the
● a pulpy fruit throughout rind is hard (mesocarp).
from one or more carpels ● Modified berry in which the
that develops few to many fruit wall is a leathery rind
seeds. ● Pumpkin, squash,
● Has soft tissues (exocarp cucumber, and watermelon
mesocarp, and endocarp) fruits which belongs to the
throughout and contains Cucurbitaceae family are
few to many seeds pepos
● A tomato is a berry, as are ● The inner soft tissues may
grapes, blueberries, not be differentiated into
cranberries, and bananas two distinct layers
● Many so-called berries do
not fir the botanical
definition
● Strawberries, raspberries,
and mulberries, for example,
4. Drupe
are not berries
● one-seeded fruit with the
pericarp distinctly divided
into thin skin-like exocarp,
thick fleshy mesocarp and
hard, stony endocarp.
● Fibrous fruit that contains a
2. Hesperidium (pl., hesperidia)
hard stone surrounding a
● a fruit from several carpels
single seed (inner wall of the
with inner pulp juice sacs or
fruit)
vesicles enclosed in leathery
● Examples of drupes include
rind (exocarp).
peaches, cherries, avocados,
● Has a leathery fruit wall with
olives, and almonds
numerous oil glands
● The almond shell is actually
surrounding the succulent
the stone, which remains
cavities where the seeds
when the rest of the fruit
occur
has been removed
● Citrus fruits (lemons, limes,
● Similar to a berry except for
oranges, and grapefruits)
the endocarp is hard and
belong to the Rutaceae
sclerenchymatous
family are hesperidia

5. Pome
● fleshy part of the fruit
develops from the
receptacle of the flower. It is
usually characterized by a
papery/leathery pericarp
(endocarp).
● Most part of the fleshy part
of pome develops from the
enlarged base of the
perianth (corolla and calyx)
that has fused with the
ovary wall
● Accessory fruit
○ A fruit composed
primarily of
nonovarian tissues
(such as the
receptacle or floral
tube)
○ Apple (Malus
sylvestris) consists
of the core, ovary,
and a little
adjustment tissue
○ Differ from other
fruits in that other
plant tissues in
addition to ovary
tissue make up the
fruit (other floral
parts contribute)
○ For example, the
edible portion of a
strawberry is the red,
fleshy receptacle
○ Each tiny “seed” on a
strawberry is a fruit –
an achene - that
contains a single
seed
○ Apples and pears are
accessory fruits
called pomes; the
outer part form each
pome is an enlarged
floral tube,
consisting of
receptacle tissue,
along with the
portions of the calyx,
that surround the
ovary
Simple dry fruits
● Dehiscent
○ Pericarp splits open ay
maturity and releases the
seeds
1. Follicle
2. Legumes or pods
3. Capsule
4. Loment
5. Silique
● Indehiscent
○ Pericarp remains intact
when the fruit is shed from
the plant
1. Achene

2. Cypsela
3. Caryopsis or grain
2. Aggregate Fruit
● originates from one flower
with many ovaries (ex.
Sugarapple (“atis”)
● Formed from a single flower
that contains several
separate (free) carpels
● After fertilization, each ovary
from each individual carpel
4. Nut enlarges
● As they enlarge, the ovaries
may fuse to form a single
fruit
● STrawberries, raspberries,
blackberries, and magnolia
fruits are examples
5. Samara

6. Schizocarp
7. Utricle 3. Multiple fruits
● several flowers of an
inflorescence crowded
 together on one stem (ex.
Pineapple)
● Forms from the carpels of
many flowers that grow
close to one another on a
common floral stalk
● The carpel from each flower
fuses with nearby carpels as
it develops and enlarges
after fertilization
● Pineapples, figs, and
mulberries are examples
● The individual flowers are
fused together in a fleshy
axis and the fruitlets
coalesce into a single
Fruit ripening
● Changes that occur as fruit ripens
○ Fruit softens as a result of
enzymes digesting
components of the cell walls
○ Color changes from green to
red, yellow, orange
(chromoplasts replace
chloroplasts)
○ Taste and smell becomes
sweeter as organic acids or
starch molecules are
converted to sugars
● Ethylene, a plant hormone, triggers
ripening
○ One bad fruit spoons the
whole bunch
○ Climacteric vs
non-climactic fruits
■ Climacteric fruits
produce high levels
of ethylene during
ripening; can ripen
after harvest
■ non-climacteric
fruits only ripen
while still in the
mother plant
Fruits enable successful seed dispersal
● Diaspore
○ Dispersal unit (seeds and/or
fruits)
● Atelochory
○ Absence of specialized
dispersal unit
● Dispersal is important because
○ It spreads the progeny in
order to colonize new
environments
○ Reduces competition for
resources with parents
○ Rreduces the chances of
predators destroying all of
the plant’s yearly seed
production
Four types of seed dispersal
1. Self dispersal (autochory)
2. Wind dispersal (anemochory)
3. Water dispersal (hydrochory)
4. Animal dispersal
a. Myrmecochory
● Ants dispersal
b. Exozoic
● Diaspored attached
to animals
c. Endozoic
 ● Diaspore eaten,
passes through guts
Self dispersal
● Plants disperse their seeds by
forceful ejection - explosive fruits
● The peanut plant sows (buries) its
own seeds
○ Geocarpic
■ Carpel grows inside
the earth (soil)
Fruits can be carried by wind, water, or
animals to new locations, enhancing seed
dispersal
● Wings enable maple fruits to be
easily carried by the wind
● Plumes catch wind currents:
dandelion
● Seeds within berries and other
edible fruits are often dispersed in
animal feces
● The barbs of cockleburs facilitate
seed dispersal by allowing the
fruits to “hitchhike” on animals
Flying Seeds and Fruits
● The remarkable winged seed of the
tropical Asian climbing gourd
Alsomitra macrocarpa. The entire
seed has a wingspan of 5 inches (13
cm) and is capable of gliding
through the air of the rainforest in
wide circles. This seed reportedly
inspired the design of early aircraft
and gliders
● The winged fruits of the quipo tree
(Cavanillesia platanifolia)
Water Dispersal
● Fruits and/or seeds use flotation
devices to travel by water (in rivers,
oceans, etc)
● Fruit may have air spaces and corky
floats
Seed Structure
● The embryo and its food supply are
enclosed by a hard, protective seed
coat
● The seed coat originates from the
integuments that surround the
common gametophyte
● In a common garden bean, a
eudicot, the embryo consists of the
hypocotyl, radicle, and thick
cotyledons (seed leaves)
● Hypocotyl
○ The embryonic axis below
cotyledon attachment point
and above radicle
● Epicotyl
○ o The embryonic axis
above point of cotyledon
attachment
● Radicle
○ The embryonic root
● Common garden bean, a eudicot
with thick cotyledons. The fleshy
cotyledons store food absorbed
from the endosperm before the
seed germinates
The seeds of other eudicots, such as castor
beans have similar structures, but thin
cotyledons
● Castor bean, a eudicot with thin
cotyledons. The narrow,
membranous cotyledons (shown in
edge and flat views) absorb food
from the endosperm when the seed
germinates
 How are seedless fruits formed?
1. Pollination failure
2. Chromosomal imbalance,
e.g. banana, seedless
watermelon
Monocot Seed 3. Application of auxin
● The embryo of a monocot has a a. In some plants, e.g.
single cotyledon, a coleoptile, and tomato and
coleorhiza cucumber,
● Maize, a monocot. Like all application of auxin
monocots, maize has only one to flowers before
cotyledon. Maize and other grasses pollen matures can
have a large cotyledon called a promote
scutellum. The rudimentary shoot parthenocarpy
is sheathed in a structure called
the coleoptile, and the coleorhiza
covers the young root

Hypogeal or cryptocotylar germination in

Monocots
● Cotyledons remain inside the soil

Epigeal or phanerocotylar germination in

Eudicots
● Germination of a plant takes place
above the ground