The Use of Twitter in Earthquake Response

1. Introduction

Introduction:
Recent years have seen a change in disaster response and management due to the
introduction of social media platforms. Twitter has distinguished itself among these services
as a potent tool for communication amid natural disasters like earthquakes. Disaster response
and recovery operations have benefited greatly from Twitter's real-time information, vast
audience, and capacity to link people and communities. In order to better understand Twitter's
capabilities and potential for usage in earthquake response, this article will look at its
advantages, disadvantages, and potential.

Historical Background:
Earthquakes are among the most deadly natural disasters, causing extensive
destruction and a high death toll. Recent earthquakes like those in Haiti in 2010, Japan in
2011, and Nepal in 2015 have highlighted the significance of efficient disaster response and
management. Also, recent earthquakes in Turkey proved the same. Social media sites like
Twitter have been essential in facilitating communication and coordinating response efforts
in the wake of major catastrophes.

Following the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, which lost more than
230,000 lives, social media usage in disaster response started to take off. Organizations like
the American Red Cross were compelled by the crisis to use social media channels to spread
the word and generate money for relief efforts (Starbird & Palen, 2010). Since then, social
media platforms have been increasingly used for disaster response, with Twitter being one of
the most widely adopted platforms.

Twitter's Role in Earthquake Response:

Real-time communication, wide-scale information dissemination, and the opportunity
to engage with impacted people and communities are just a few of the advantages Twitter
offers for earthquake response. Twitter users can provide updates on the situation during an
earthquake, including information on the quake's severity, an evaluation of the damage, and
safety measures. Users can also support those affected by the crisis and make requests for
help or assistance. Additionally, Twitter enables groups and authorities to distribute
important information like evacuation orders and emergency contact information.

Several studies have examined the use of Twitter in earthquake response. For
instance, Twitter was used to organize relief efforts and spread information regarding the
2010 Haiti earthquake (Vieweg et al., 2010). Similarly, after the 2011 Japan earthquake,
Twitter was used to provide updates on the situation, offer support to those affected, and
coordinate volunteer efforts (Yamashita et al., 2012).

Additionally, it has been discovered that using Twitter helps users build spontaneous
communities and networks that enable the sharing of resources and information (Starbird et
al., 2012). This could improve the effectiveness of disaster response and fill up any holes in
current methods.
 Twitter does have limitations when it comes to earthquake reactions, despite its many
advantages. One of the biggest drawbacks is the possibility for the spread of false information
and rumours, which can cause confusion and impede response efforts. Additionally, Twitter
experiences the same problems as other social media sites, such as network sluggishness and
poor connectivity during emergencies.

Conclusion:
Twitter has been proven to be a useful tool for communication, coordination, and
assistance during earthquake response. However, it's critical to understand Twitter's
limitations and to create plans for reducing the dangers that come with using it. Future studies
should concentrate on figuring out the best ways to use Twitter during disaster response and
investigating how it might improve those efforts. Twitter can continue to play a significant
role in disaster response and recovery efforts with the right preparation and cooperation.

2. Research problem

The research problem is to better understand the variables that affect Twitter's success
or failure in various situations, including how effective it is for earthquake reactions. By
building on prior studies that identified Twitter's potential as a tool for disaster response
(Hughes et al., 2016; Kumar et al., 2020).

The concept of social media and its ability to promote communication and
cooperation during disasters forms the theoretical underpinning of this study (Palen and
Anderson, 2016). The situational awareness theory, which emphasizes the significance of
having accurate and timely information during crisis situations, is also a source of inspiration
for this study (Endsley, 1995). It aims to advance knowledge of how social media can
increase situational awareness and enhance disaster response efforts by examining the
function of Twitter in earthquake response.

Even though there is increased interest in using Twitter as a disaster response tool,
there are still information gaps surrounding its efficacy and the elements that affect whether it
is successful or unsuccessful in various situations. We specifically want to look into how
Twitter is used during earthquakes and how usage varies depending on things like earthquake
intensity, demographic makeup, and accessibility to other communication channels. Our
study will build on earlier research that has acknowledged Twitter's potential as a tool for
disaster response and help us understand how to use it most effectively in earthquake
scenarios.

Contextual background and information about the topic to reach the problem of the research
is as follows:

Twitter and other social media platforms have been acknowledged as crucial
resources for recovery and response to disasters. They have been employed in a number of
disasters, including earthquakes, to communicate information, organize rescue operations,
and offer emotional support to those in need (Palen and Anderson, 2016; Hughes et al.,
2016).
 Despite the fact that there have been several analyses of the use of Twitter in crisis
situations, there still needs to be more information surrounding its efficacy and the variables
that affect whether it is successful or unsuccessful in various situations.

Specifically, this research aims to address the following knowledge gap:

- Twitter's efficiency in assisting in earthquake reactions.

- Factors that affect Twitter's ability to respond effectively to earthquakes.
the connection between the magnitude of the earthquake and the use of Twitter throughout
the emergency response.
- Twitter's contribution to situational awareness during earthquake reaction.
- Twitter's potential as a tool for providing psychological support during an earthquake
reaction.

By filling in these knowledge gaps, it is hoped to advance our understanding of the

best ways to use Twitter for earthquake response activities and to pinpoint tactics that will
increase its value in emergency situations.

3. Question/s of the study

Hypothesis
The significance of the study
Objectives of the study

Question/s of the study:

- How useful is Twitter in the event of an earthquake?

- What are the aspects that affect Twitter's performance during earthquake response
operations?
- What impact does the magnitude of the earthquake have on the use of Twitter during the
recovery process?
- What role does Twitter play in earthquake response efforts in terms of situational
awareness?
- What role does Twitter play in earthquake response activities in terms of providing
emotional support?

Hypothesis:
Twitter can be a useful tool for earthquake response, but its efficacy depends on a
number of variables, such as the magnitude of the earthquake, the characteristics of the
population that is affected, and the accessibility of other communication channels. Twitter
can also help with situational awareness and offer emotional support to those who are
affected during earthquake response activities.

Significance of the study:

This study will help us better understand how Twitter can be used in earthquake
scenarios, which will have substantial ramifications for disaster response and recovery
operations. We can advise emergency responders and organizations on how to utilize Twitter
most effectively by analyzing the elements that affect the success or failure of the platform
during response activities. Our research can also help with the creation of fresh
communication tactics and equipment to improve catastrophe response efforts.
Objectives of the study:
- To evaluate Twitter's performance as a tool for earthquake reactions.
- To determine the elements that affect Twitter's performance during earthquake response
activities.
- To investigate the connection between the magnitude of the earthquake and the use of
Twitter throughout the emergency response.
- To investigate how Twitter aids earthquake response efforts in situational awareness.
- To look into Twitter's potential as a tool for providing emotional support for earthquake
response activities.

4. Literature review

Earle, P., Guy, M., Buckmaster, R., Ostrum, C., Horvath, S., & Vaughan, A. (2010).
OMG earthquake! Can Twitter improve earthquake response?. Seismological Research
Letters, 81(2), 246-251.

Thematic:
The Earle et al. (2010) study looks into how Twitter can enhance earthquake
response. The authors make the case that social media sites like Twitter could improve
situational awareness during natural catastrophes. The study emphasizes the value of Twitter
in giving up-to-date information on earthquake effects and the situation in affected areas.
According to the authors, Twitter can serve as a channel of communication for people and
organizations engaged in disaster relief, allowing them to efficiently coordinate their
activities. The report outlines the main advantages of utilizing Twitter during disaster
response, including the capacity to organize volunteers, distribute aid, and give affected
people rapid updates.

Chronological:
During one of the deadliest natural disasters in recent memory, the 2010 earthquake in
Haiti, Earle et al.'s study was done. The authors looked at more than 2 million tweets about
the earthquake to determine how Twitter was used to spread news and organize rescue
operations. The study found that with many people using the site to report on the earthquake's
effects in real-time, Twitter played a crucial part in giving situational awareness throughout
the crisis. The authors point out that Twitter gave those involved in disaster response a way to
communicate, allowing them to efficiently coordinate their actions.

Method:
A qualitative research approach was employed by Earle et al. (2010) to examine
Twitter's potential to enhance earthquake response. More than 2 million tweets on the 2010
Haitian earthquake were evaluated by the authors in order to determine how Twitter was
utilized to communicate news and organize relief activities. The study employed a content
analysis method to find major themes in the tweets, such as reporting on the earthquake's
effects, pleas for help, and updates on the response operations. The study also used a thematic
analysis strategy to pinpoint the main advantages of Twitter use in disaster response.

Theory:
Earle et al. (2010) used the theory of social capital to illustrate how using Twitter in
disaster response could be advantageous. The authors contend that by offering a channel of
communication for people and organizations engaged in disaster response, social media
platforms like Twitter can improve social capital. According to the study, people of impacted
communities and volunteer organizations can foster trust, cooperation, and mutual support
via Twitter. The authors point out that using Twitter to respond to disasters can also help to
mobilize resources like volunteers, contributions, and aid supplies. The study emphasizes the
need for additional investigation into the function of social media in disaster response in
order to comprehend the potential advantages and constraints of these platforms.

Sakaki, T., Okazaki, M., & Matsuo, Y. (2010). Earthquake shakes Twitter users: real-
time event detection by social sensors. In Proceedings of the 19th international
conference on World Wide Web (pp. 851-860).

Chronological:
Real-time event detection via social media has drawn a lot of attention recently. As a
microblogging medium, Twitter has grown in popularity as a source of information during
catastrophes and natural disasters. During the Japan earthquake in 2010, Sakaki et al.
suggested a system for real-time incident detection using Twitter data. Their work, which was
among the first to exploit Twitter data for catastrophe detection, has subsequently been
recognized as a major advancement in the industry.

Thematic:
A significant body of research has been done on the use of social media for event
detection. Previous research has looked into how social media may be used to detect natural
disasters including earthquakes, floods, and hurricanes. Detecting social events like concerts
and festivals has also been the subject of certain investigations. However, the utilization of
Twitter data for real-time earthquake detection in Sakaki et al.'s 2010 study made it
distinctive. Their research analyzed the phrases and hashtags posted on Twitter during the
Japan earthquake to show the potential of social media as a reliable source of up-to-date
information in emergencies.

Method:
Using Twitter data during an earthquake, Sakaki et al. (2010) suggested a system for
real-time event detection. To identify the occurrence of the event, they examined the
frequency of terms like "earthquake," "magnitude," and "tremors" that are associated with
earthquakes. To map the quake's path and its effects, they also used the location data of
Twitter users. Their strategy showed how social media has the potential to be a useful tool for
catastrophe real-time event detection.

Theory:
The 2010 study by Sakaki et al. was founded on the idea that social media could be a
useful resource for real-time information during emergencies. They made advantage of the
idea of "social sensing," which is when we utilize online platforms like social media to detect,
watch, and comprehend the world around us. Their results underlined the need for more study
in this field and showed how social sensing may be used for disaster management. Since
then, social sensing has gained popularity as a method of event detection, with numerous
studies emphasizing its utility in emergency preparedness and catastrophe management.

Qiu, J. L., Huang, C., & Cui, W. (2016). Social media and earthquake response: the
impacts of Weibo and WeChat on the 2013 Lushan earthquake in China. International
Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 34(2), 128-150.
Chronological:
The study examines how social media affected how China responded to the 2013
Lushan earthquake. The authors look at how social media was used during the immediate
post-earthquake period as well as during the recovery and reconstruction stages that followed.
The study presents a history of earthquake-related social media activity and examines
changes in social media usage over time.

Thematic:
The impact of social media on earthquake reaction is one of many topics covered in
the article. Social media's contribution to the spread of information is one of the main themes.
The study discovered that social media significantly contributed to the dissemination of news
updates, information regarding emergency response actions, and pleas for aid. The part social
media plays in coordinating emergency response operations is another major issue. The
reaction was facilitated by social media, according to the authors, by facilitating
communication and coordination amongst those involved, including volunteers, government
organizations, and those who were affected.

Method:
The study was mixed-methods-based, with both quantitative and qualitative data
being used. Interviews with emergency responders and those impacted by the Lushan
earthquake were done in addition to their analysis of more than 20,000 Weibo and WeChat
posts about it. The study looked at the postings' contents, the quantity of reposts and
comments, and how social media helped spread and organize information.

Theory:
Weibo and WeChat's effects on the 2013 Lushan earthquake in China are examined in
the study "Social media and earthquake response: the impacts of Weibo and WeChat on the
2013 Lushan earthquake in China" by Qiu, Huang, and Cui (2016). The authors examine how
social media can aid in coordination and communication between individuals and groups
during a disaster using the social capital theory.

5. Research Procedures: 

Main approach: literature review (qualitative) / case studies

Methods/tools: systematic search of academic databases (e.g. Google Scholar) using relevant
keywords, followed by a screening process to identify relevant articles and extract data.
Population/sample: N/A (since no survey or interview is involved)
Data collection instruments: N/A (since no survey or interview is involved)
Primary and secondary sources: academic articles, reports, and other relevant literature on the
topic of using Twitter for earthquake response.
Limitations of the study: potential bias in the selection of articles, limitations in the
availability and quality of data, and potential gaps in the literature.

Sources and references:

Sakaki, T., Okazaki, M., & Matsuo, Y. (2010). Earthquake shakes Twitter users: real-time
event detection by social sensors. In Proceedings of the 19th international conference on
World wide web (pp. 851-860).
Imran, M., Elbassuoni, S. M., Castillo, C., Diaz, F., & Meier, P. (2014). Practical extraction
of disaster-relevant information from social media. In Proceedings of the companion
publication of the 23rd international conference on World wide web (pp. 1021-1024).

Vieweg, S., Hughes, A. L., Starbird, K., & Palen, L. (2010). Microblogging during two
natural hazards events: what Twitter may contribute to situational awareness. In Proceedings
of the SIGCHI conference on human factors in computing systems (pp. 1079-1088).

Kumar, S., Barbier, G., Abbasi, M. A., & Liu, H. (2011). TweetTracker: An analysis tool for
humanitarian and disaster relief. In Proceedings of the Fifth International AAAI Conference
on Weblogs and Social Media.

Murthy, D. (2011). Twitter: Microphone for the masses?. Media, Culture & Society, 33(5),
779-789.

Qiu, J. L., Huang, C., & Cui, W. (2016). Social media and earthquake response: the impacts
of Weibo and WeChat on the 2013 Lushan earthquake in China. International Journal of
Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 34(2), 128-150.

Earle, P. (2010). Twitter quake detection. Nature, 466(7303), 510-511.

Sakaki, T., Okazaki, M., & Matsuo, Y. (2010). Earthquake shakes Twitter users: real-time
event detection by social sensors. In Proceedings of the 19th international conference on
World Wide Web (pp. 851-860). ACM.

Ali, S. H., Khan, S., & Umrani, W. A. (2017). The use of social media in disaster
management: A systematic review. Journal of Ambient Intelligence and Humanized
Computing, 8(6), 831-849.

Nijboer, R. C., & Smit, B. (2018). Social media use in crisis communication: A systematic
literature review. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 28, 478-498.

Earle, P., Guy, M., Buckmaster, R., Ostrum, C., Horvath, S., & Vaughan, A. (2010). OMG
earthquake! Can Twitter improve earthquake response?. Seismological Research Letters,
81(2), 246-251.