Steady flow: This refers to a condition where the flow rate and other hydraulic parameters (such

as velocity, pressure, and water depth) remain constant over time at any given point in a system.
In other words, the system is in a state of equilibrium and the flow is not changing over time.
Steady flow is often assumed in many hydraulic engineering calculations and designs.

Non-steady flow: This refers to a condition where the flow rate and other hydraulic parameters
are changing over time at any given point in a system. In other words, the system is not in a
state of equilibrium and the flow is changing over time. Non-steady flow can occur in a variety
of situations, such as during floods, dam releases, tidal cycles, and storm water runoff.

*An economical channel section is a cross-sectional shape of a channel that minimizes the cost
of construction and maintenance for a given flow rate and other hydraulic parameters, while
meeting the hydraulic and other design requirements. In other words, it is the section that
provides the most efficient use of materials and resources, while still achieving the desired
hydraulic performance.

The factors that affect Manning's coefficient (also known as Manning's roughness coefficient or
Manning's n) include:

1. Channel shape and roughness: The roughness of the channel walls and the
cross-sectional shape of the channel can affect the frictional resistance to flow
and thus affect Manning's n. Channels with smoother walls and more regular
shapes tend to have lower n values.
2. Channel slope: The slope of the channel affects the velocity of the flow and the
depth of the water, which in turn affect Manning's n. Higher channel slopes tend
to increase n values.
3. Flow rate and depth: The flow rate and depth of the water in the channel can
affect the roughness of the channel walls, turbulence, and other factors that
affect Manning's n. Higher flow rates and deeper water tend to increase n values.
4. Vegetation and debris: The presence of vegetation, debris, or other obstructions
in the channel can affect the roughness of the channel walls and the turbulence
of the flow, which in turn affect Manning's n. Channels with more vegetation or
debris tend to have higher n values.
5. Temperature and water quality: The temperature and quality of the water in
the channel can affect the viscosity and density of the water, which in turn affect
Manning's n. Water with higher temperatures or lower quality (e.g. containing
sediment or pollutants) tend to have higher n values.

In general, Manning's n is an important parameter in hydraulic engineering calculations

related to open-channel flow, such as designing and analyzing channels, culverts, weirs,
and other hydraulic structures.
Advantages of Irrigation:

1. Increased crop yields: Irrigation can help increase crop yields by providing water
to crops during dry periods, which can help plants grow faster and healthier.
2. Improved crop quality: By providing consistent moisture to crops, irrigation can
help improve the quality and size of crops, making them more marketable.
3. Year-round farming: Irrigation can allow farming to occur year-round, even in
areas that would otherwise be too dry to support crops.
4. Drought mitigation: Irrigation can help mitigate the impacts of drought by
providing water to crops during periods of low rainfall, reducing the risk of crop
failure and economic losses.
5. Economic benefits: Irrigation can provide economic benefits to farmers and rural
communities by increasing crop yields and providing jobs related to irrigation
infrastructure and maintenance.

Disadvantages of Irrigation:

1. Water depletion: Irrigation can deplete local water resources, reducing the
availability of water for other uses such as drinking, recreation, and wildlife
habitat.
2. Waterlogging and soil salinization: Poorly designed or managed irrigation
systems can cause waterlogging and soil salinization, which can damage crops
and degrade soil quality over time.
3. Energy consumption: Irrigation often requires large amounts of energy to pump
and distribute water, leading to greenhouse gas emissions and other
environmental impacts.
4. High cost: Irrigation infrastructure can be expensive to install and maintain,
particularly in areas with limited water resources or difficult terrain.
5. Environmental impacts: Irrigation can have negative environmental impacts
such as reducing downstream flows, altering natural water cycles, and
contributing to water pollution through agricultural runoff and other factors.
***
1. Surface Irrigation: In surface irrigation, water is distributed over the surface of
the soil by gravity flow, usually from canals or ditches. This method is commonly
used for low-lying agricultural fields and can be relatively simple and inexpensive.
However, it can also lead to waterlogging, soil erosion, and uneven distribution of
water.
2. Sprinkler Irrigation: Sprinkler irrigation involves distributing water through a
network of pipes with sprinkler heads, which spray water over the crops or
vegetation. This method is more efficient than surface irrigation, as it can reduce
 water loss due to evaporation and wind drift. However, it can be more expensive
and energy-intensive than surface irrigation.
3. Drip Irrigation: Drip irrigation involves applying water directly to the roots of
plants through a network of tubes or emitters. This method is highly efficient, as
it can reduce water loss due to evaporation and runoff, and can also improve
crop yields and quality. However, it can be more expensive to install and maintain
than other methods.
4. Subsurface Irrigation: Subsurface irrigation involves applying water directly to
the root zone of plants through buried pipes or emitters. This method can be
highly efficient and can reduce water loss due to evaporation and runoff, but can
be more expensive to install and maintain than other methods.
5. Center Pivot Irrigation: Center pivot irrigation involves a large circular sprinkler
system that moves around a pivot point, distributing water in a circular pattern.
This method is commonly used for large-scale agriculture and can be highly
efficient, but can also be expensive to install and maintain.
6. Flood Irrigation: Flood irrigation involves flooding fields with water, usually from
nearby water sources such as rivers or lakes. This method can be inexpensive and
relatively easy to manage, but can also lead to soil erosion and waterlogging.

Vi) The trapezoidal channel section is commonly used for open channel flow, such as in
irrigation, drainage, and stormwater management systems. An economical trapezoidal
section should be designed to meet the hydraulic requirements of the flow while
minimizing the material and construction costs. Here are some criteria that should be
considered when designing an economical trapezoidal section:

1. Flow capacity: The trapezoidal section should be designed to meet the required
flow capacity for the intended use, such as irrigation or drainage.
2. Velocity: The velocity of flow in the channel should be within an acceptable range
to prevent erosion and sediment transport. The velocity can be controlled by
adjusting the channel slope and hydraulic roughness.
3. Sediment transport: The trapezoidal section should be designed to prevent
sediment buildup and clogging, which can reduce the flow capacity and increase
maintenance costs. The design should consider the expected sediment load and
the ability to remove sediment through flushing or other means.
4. Structural stability: The trapezoidal section should be stable and resistant to
erosion, scour, and other hydraulic forces. The design should consider the soil
type, channel slope, and flow characteristics to ensure adequate structural
stability.
 5. Material and construction costs: The trapezoidal section should be designed to
minimize the material and construction costs while meeting the hydraulic
requirements. This can be achieved by optimizing the channel dimensions, slope,
and other design parameters.
6. Environmental impact: The design should consider the potential environmental
impacts, such as habitat destruction or water quality degradation, and
incorporate measures to mitigate or minimize these impacts.

In summary, an economical trapezoidal section should be designed to meet the

hydraulic requirements of the flow while minimizing the material and construction costs,
considering factors such as flow capacity, velocity, sediment transport, structural
stability, material and construction costs, and environmental impact.

10
The quality of water required for irrigation depends on the crop type, soil type, and
irrigation method. Generally, the water should be free from harmful levels of salts,
minerals, heavy metals, and pathogens that can damage the crops or soil quality. The
most important water quality parameters for irrigation include electrical conductivity
(EC), pH, sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), and total dissolved solids (TDS). The ideal water
quality parameters for irrigation depend on the specific crop, but in general, the EC
should be less than 1.5 dS/m, the pH should be between 6.5 and 8.5, the SAR should be
less than 6, and the TDS should be less than 1000 ppm.

Leaching is the process of removing excess salts or other soluble contaminants from soil
or other materials by the application of water. In the context of irrigation, leaching can
be used to prevent salt buildup in the soil that can damage crops or reduce crop yield.
Excessive salt levels in the soil can lead to poor soil structure, reduced water infiltration,
and increased soil erosion. Leaching can be achieved by applying excess water to the
soil, which washes out the excess salts and contaminants. However, excessive leaching
can also lead to waterlogging, which can harm plant growth and soil structure. The
amount of leaching required depends on the specific soil type and irrigation method,
but generally, a leaching fraction of 10-20% is recommended to maintain soil quality
and crop yield.