International Journal of Commerce and Management

Human resource management practices among frontline employees in the Jordanian

organizations: Navigating through the crossroads of change and challenge
Khaled Aladwan Ramudu Bhanugopan Alan Fish
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IJCOMA
24,1 Human resource management
practices among frontline
employees in the Jordanian
6
organizations
Navigating through the crossroads
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of change and challenge

Khaled Aladwan, Ramudu Bhanugopan and Alan Fish
School of Management & Marketing,
Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, Australia

Abstract
Purpose – The aim of the paper is twofold. First to evaluate the latent factor structure of human
resource management (HRM) practices scales, and second, to examine the nature of HRM practices
within the Jordanian context. Further, the study identifies possible future directions for HRM strategy
development and professional practice in Jordan.
Design/methodology/approach – A survey was completed by 493 frontline employees from
Jordanian organizations. Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to determine the underlying
factor structures and multidimensional scale (PROXSCAL) method is also employed to obtain a micro
view of the latent factor structures of the consolidated scale.
Findings – This study demonstrated a good fit of data for a four-factor structure in Jordanian
samples. This is consistent with the disposition of factor structure in the original scales and lends
support to the construct validity of the consolidated HRM practices scale.
Research limitations/implications – A limited amount of research available on human resource
practices in Jordanian organizations has limited the opportunity to gather content-rich information
from previous studies. Also, the few studies that are available are not based on empirical realities and
tend to be anecdotal in nature.
Practical implications – The practice of HRM within Jordanian organizations cannot be expected
to improve whether its practitioners do not understand the nature of its current applications. Equally,
there is no clear evidence as to the participation of HR managers in strategic decision making in the
Jordanian private and public sectors.
Originality/value – This paper contributes to the knowledge in several grounds. First, it validates
the structure of HRM practices scales in Jordan. Second, it contributes to the knowledge of the topic of
HRM practices in Jordan.
Keywords Human resource management, Jordan, HRM practices
Paper type Research paper

International Journal of Commerce
and Management
Vol. 24 No. 1, 2014
pp. 6-24
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
1056-9219
DOI 10.1108/IJCoMA-09-2011-0027
Introduction
Human resource management (HRM) has come to be acknowledged as one of the
significant functions in assisting the performance of organizations in recent times
(Jain et al., 2009; Petrescu and Simmons, 2008). In the 1990s, managing businesses relied
heavily on employees’ innovation, their creativity and the receipt of appropriate
recognition. As a result, many organizations considered that if human resource issues were
 given more appropriate attention, then this would likely be followed by improvements in HRM practices
competitiveness and higher levels of productivity (Abu-Doleh, 2000; Stroh and Caligiuri, among frontline
1998). Today, many practitioners and scholars view HRM as a means of sustaining
competitive advantage for organizations (Zheng, 2009; Chang and Huang, 2005; employees
Chandrakumara and Sparrow, 2004). As a response to the need to improve competitive
advantage, many organizations are now struggling to establish a positive and dynamic
organizational climate in order to retain and sustain valuable employees (Chew and Chan, 7
2008; Milne, 2007; Heraty and Morley, 1998) and central to an effective organizational
climate is the existence of well developed and designed HR strategies and practices.
The significance of the workforce is often highlighted in the organization’s strategies,
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policies and goals, through such statements as “employees are indispensable and our
most valuable asset” (Abu Tayeh, 2010). Thus, if this level of organizational rhetoric is
true, then HR strategies and practices that value and support an organization’s
human resources are crucial and will, of necessity, play an essential role in maximizing
overall organizational productivity and effectiveness (Abu-Doleh, 2000; Davis, 1990).
The expertise and quality of those in charge of the human resources function will
also make a significant contribution to developing the HR function. For example, human
resource managers should be in a position to provide their organizations with
professional advice regarding contemporary ideas and creative ways of advancing HR
strategies and practices in the workplace. In this regard, it would be important for a
mutual and interactive relationship and understanding to exist between the human
resource manager, the other front-line managers and the senior executive of a business,
in order to consider and resolve organizational problems incorporating effective HR
responses (Abu-Doleh, 2000; Fisher et al., 1999).

HRM practices: measures and scale consolidation

This study employed three separate scales to measure the four HRM practices:
(1) recruitment and selection;
(2) training and development;
(3) performance appraisal; and
(4) rewards and benefits in Jordanian organizations.

First, the Edgar and Geare (2005) scale was considered to be appropriate to measure
recruitment and selection and training and development practices. In their study,
Edgar and Geare (2005) examined the relationship between HRM practices and
employee attitudes within organizations in New Zealand. Using a 20-item five-point
Likert scale, four areas of HRM practice were examined: good and safe working
conditions, equal employment opportunities, recruitment and selection and training
and development. Generally, the results showed that there were relatively high levels
of practice in the areas of recruitment and selection and training and development
within the New Zealand organizations. The results also showed that higher index
scores in a number of HRM practices were not related to higher levels of employee
attitudes (organizational commitment, job satisfaction and organizational fairness).
In this study, only ten items of the Edgar and Geare (2005) scale (five items to measure
recruitment and selection and five items to measure training and development) were
taken into consideration, because they are appropriate for the Middle East, specifically
 IJCOMA in Jordan. The other ten items, which measure good and safe working conditions and
24,1 equal employment opportunities, were not appropriate for use in the Jordanian cultural
context, where good and safe working conditions and the opportunities for equal
employment are different to those in New Zealand. The scale was judged to be reliable
and Cronbach’s a was (a ¼ 0.90).
Second, for performance appraisal a scale developed by Whiting et al. (2008) was
8 used in this study. Whiting et al. (2008) employed their scale in the Canadian context to
assess the congruency between employees’ current and ideal performance appraisal
systems (a ¼ 0.85). The aim of their study was to analyze the relationship between the
performance appraisal congruency (satisfaction, usefulness and fairness of performance
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appraisal) and organizational attitudes. The study indicated that there was a significant
incremental variance added for each of the three criterion variables (satisfaction,
usefulness and fairness of performance appraisal) by the congruency scores, and
the relationship was positive between the three variables. This study employed
the scale developed by Whiting et al. (2008), consisting of three items to measure the
performance appraisal practice in the Jordanian organizational context. The scale was
considered to be appropriate and applicable for use in the Middle Eastern context.
Third, rewards and benefits practice was measured by a five-item scale developed
by Chew (2004). Chew (2004) used this scale to measure the rewards and benefits
practice in Australian organizations. According to Chew (2004), the scale was judged to
be reliable and Cronbach’s a was (a ¼ 0.70). The results also show high significant
positive correlations with organizational commitment and intention to stay. Moreover,
the results indicate no multi-co linearity and singularity problems. This scale was
applicable for use in this study and was appropriate to be used within the Jordanian
context. Chew (2004) used this scale to determine the relationship between reward and
benefit and organizational commitment. The current study employed three different
scales to measure the four HRM practices, as these three scales been used and
employed in variant studies and achieved a high and acceptable reliability level
(Edgar and Geare, 2005; Whiting et al., 2008; Chew, 2004). This study employed these
three scales in Jordan, as no scales have previously been used there.
Little is known about HRM in either Jordan or other Arab countries (Altarawneh, 2009;
Al-Athari and Zairi, 2002; Abdalla and Al-Homoud, 1995). The few studies that are available
are not based on empirical realities and they tend to be anecdotal in nature, so it is not
yet possible to chart an effective awareness of either current or future HRM strategies
and practices in this part of the world (Melham, 2004; Afana, 2004; Abu-Doleh, 2000).
Nevertheless, a number of writers (Abu-Doleh, 2000; Al-Shaikh, 1997; Al-Rasheed,
1994) have stated that developing countries need to reinforce their human and other
organizational resources in order to prepare for future growth. However, as noted by
Melham (2004), Afana (2004), Abu-Doleh (2000) and Weir and Abu-Doleh (1997),
the practice of HRM within Jordanian organizations cannot be expected to improve if
its practitioners do not understand the nature of its current applications.
There is less literature on HRM in the Arab countries (Oman, Egypt, Qatar, Jordan
and Saudi Arabia) than there is in the rest of the world (Altarawneh, 2009; Al-Athari
and Zairi, 2002). An extensive search of the literature demonstrates the lack of any
systematic analysis that could present a comprehensive image of the dynamics of HRM
in Arab organizations (Altarawneh, 2009; Budhwar and Mallahi, 2006; Al-Athari and
Zairi, 2002; Abdalla and Al-Homoud, 1995).
 An important point to note here is that the HRM policies and practices that do exist HRM practices
in Jordan are impacted quite dramatically by the nation’s cultural values. These are among frontline
reflected in the government’s policies and bureaucratic procedures. Further, there is no
clear evidence regarding the participation of HR managers in strategic decision making employees
or in the design and establishment of HR practices in either the Jordanian private or
public sectors (Budhwar and Mallahi, 2006; Al-Athari and Zairi, 2002). Importantly,
Abu-Doleh (2000) stated that without understanding and highlighting the nature of the 9
HR managers’ role in Jordanian organizations, little can be expected in the development
and enhancement of effective and professional HRM strategies and practices in Jordan.
Generally, whilst most Jordanian organizations have personnel or human resource
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departments at their headquarters, including separate divisions at the local or regional

level (Budhwar and Mallahi, 2006; Abdalla and Al-Homoud, 1995), in most Arab
countries the role of the HRM departments does not go beyond the administration of
candidates’ files from the recruitment process to the retirement stage (Budhwar and
Mallahi, 2006; Melham, 2004; Afana, 2004). The objective of this study is twofold. First
to evaluate the latent factor structure of HRM practices scales and, second, to examine
the nature of HRM practices within the Jordanian context.

Methodology
Sampling design
According to Amman Stock Exchange (ASE) databases, there are 276 organizations in
the various fields of insurance, finance, services, accounting and industry in Amman, the
capital of Jordan. This study included all the organizations listed in the ASE company
guide (ASE, 2010). All 276 organizations were selected for the study. The sample
respondents were Jordanian citizens working as frontline employees in Jordanian
organizations. Anonymity was guaranteed and no data were collected that might
identify the respondents’ identities. Prior to the actual data collection, a draft version of
the questionnaire was pre-tested through a pilot study involving a sample of 55 frontline
employees to obtain their suggestions and comments on the questionnaire’s design and
questions. After the pilot sample was completed, the questionnaires were distributed to
senior management staff in respondent organizations, e.g. the public relations office or
the human resource department. These departments were requested to distribute the
questionnaires randomly to frontline employees (male/female). There is no evidence to
suggest that these departments delivered and received the questionnaires on other than
a random basis. We believe this process was conducted appropriately. A postage-paid
return envelope was attached to each questionnaire. Of the 828 questionnaires delivered
to all organizations, 501 were returned, of which 493 questionnaires were useable,
yielding a response rate of 59 percent. This research used the Statistical Program
for Social Sciences (SPSS 17) to evaluate the factor structure of HRM practices and to
perform correlation analysis. Multidimensional scaling (MSD) – PROXSCAL was also
employed to delineate a micro view of the latent structures and the dimensionality of the
factors associated with HRM practices.

Measures
A number of different scales were administered to examine and analyze the HRM
practices in the Jordanian organizations:
 IJCOMA .
Recruitment and selection. This factor was measured by employing a five-point
24,1 Likert scale (Edgar and Geare, 2005). A sample item is: “The recruitment and
selection processes in this organization are impartial.”
.
Training and development. This factor was measured by employing a five-point
Likert scale (Edgar and Geare, 2005). A sample item is: “This organization has
provided me with training opportunities enabling me to extend my range of
10 skills and abilities.”
.
Performance appraisal. This factor was measured by employing a five-point
Likert scale (Whiting et al., 2008). A sample item is: “My current performance
appraisal system is useful.”
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.
Reward and benefit. This factor was measured by employing a seven-point Likert
scale (Chew, 2004). A sample item is: “This organization offers a good benefits
package compared to other organizations.”

Analysis and results

Demographic profile of respondents
The gender of respondents was relatively evenly dispersed, with 53.5 percent being
male (n ¼ 264) and 46.5 percent being female (n ¼ 229). Most respondents were
between the ages of 20 and 30 years (43.6 percent), 31 and 40 years (36.4 percent),
leaving only 17 respondents over the age of 51 with 20 percent between the ages of
41 and 50 years. The educational attainment for the vast majority of respondents was a
Bachelor’s degree 79.9 percent (n ¼ 394) with only 20.1 percent holding a university
diploma (n ¼ 99). Furthermore, the entire respondents’ sample was comprised of local
employees with no expatriates. The organizations’ employee numbers were as follows:
39.8 percent more than 101 employees (n ¼ 99), 35.5 percent between 81 and
100 employees (n ¼ 82), 20.1 percent between 51 and 80 employees (n ¼ 78) and
4.7 percent between 20 and 50 employees (n ¼ 17). The sample includes six variant
sectors; 10 percent for financial sector (n ¼ 57), accounting sector with 14 percent
(n ¼ 71), 7 percent for insurance sector (n ¼ 36), service sector with 11 percent (n ¼ 59),
7 percent for industrial sector (n ¼ 35) and the agricultural sector with 3 percent
(n ¼ 18). Finally, the participants’ years of experience seemed relatively variant;
8 percent (n ¼ 41) less than one year, 35.6 percent (n ¼ 174) one to three years,
51.4 percent (n ¼ 251) three to five years and 5 percent (n ¼ 27) with five to seven
years of experience.

Factor analysis
A number of factors were used to determine the level of implementing the four HRM
practices (recruitment and selection, training and development, performance appraisal
and reward and benefit). For the first two factors (recruitment and selection and
training and development), respondents were asked to indicate – using a five-point
Likert scale ranging from one for “strongly disagree” to five for “strongly agree” – the
extent to which they consider each practice occurs in their organization through
answering five items for each factor (Guest, 1999; Guest and Peccei, 1992). The third
factor (performance appraisal) was measured by asking the respondents how
accurately do they describe their organization’s performance appraisal, through a
five-point Likert scale (consisting of three items), where one is “strongly disagree”
 and five is “strongly agree” (Whiting et al., 2008). Finally, the fourth factor (reward and HRM practices
benefit) was measured by asking the respondents to what extent do you consider among frontline
this practice occurs in your organization, through five items from Chew (2004), using a
seven-point Likert scale, where one is “strongly disagree” and seven “strongly agree”. employees
The factor analysis technique was applied to verify any factors with increased
correlation as a result of overlapping variation between them. Leeflang et al. (2000)
suggest employing the factor analysis in order to investigate the structure of 11
overlapping variation between predictors. In order to determine the underlying
dimension, factors based on the latent root orientation (Eigen value), communalities,
scree plot and varimax (orthogonal), total variance explained, rotated component
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matrix were determined using SPSS 17. Furthermore, given the indeterminate nature of
the factor structure, principal component analysis (PCA) as a well-established
technique for dimensionality reduction using varimax rotation to extract factors was
employed. Also, this technique is well-accepted as a means of finding underlying
dimensions in factor sets and has been widely used (Hair et al., 2006; Jolliffe, 1986;
Velicer, 1976). Additionally, Cronbach’s a coefficients were also employed to determine
the reliability of the instrument (Cronbach, 1951). According to Hair et al. (1998),
factor loadings equal to 0.50 or greater were considered practically significant.
This recommendation was followed for the purpose of this study, although there were
differing opinions (Nunnally and Bernstein, 2007; Gardner, 2001). Kaiser criterion and
scree plot were the selected technical criteria to determine the number of factors.
The Kaiser-Meyer Olkin (KMO) (0.844) was used to determine the appropriateness of
applying factor analysis; values above 0.5 for the factor matrix were appropriated
(Hair et al., 1998). The scree test (Cattell, 1966), which plots the Eigen values against
a number of components, suggested that four substantive latent factors existed in this
study. Table I shows the results of factor structure for the four human resource
practices (recruitment and selection, training and development, performance appraisal
and reward and benefit) and how the participants consider the implementation of these
four practices in their organizations.
The table shows the four orthogonal factors, with the factor loadings for each factor
and their respective reliability, co-efficient and Eigen values and their subjective
interrelations. The four significant factors, namely recruitment and selection (RS)
(a ¼ 0.905), training and development (TD) (a ¼ 0.707), performance appraisal (PA)
(a ¼ 0.774), reward and benefit (RB) (a ¼ 0.764) emerge from the analysis, explaining
68.373 percent total variance, clearly above the 60 percent threshold suggested for
research in social science (Hair et al., 1998). The Bartlett test of sphericity (x 2-value)
was 6,754.386 significant at p , 0.000, which showed significant correlation amongst a
number of factors.

Definition of the latent factors

Factor 1: recruitment and selection. This factor displayed a high factor loading on
items which were associated with the study. Within the five factors in this factor, the
highest factor loading was for the third factor; the interview procedures and panels
that are used during the recruitment and selection process in the organizations.
The Eigen value for this factor is 5.449 for all five factors in this factor. It is also noted
that this factor had the highest explanatory power, explaining 29.277 percent of the
variance and the highest communalities values of all the factors.
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12
24,1

Table I.
IJCOMA

Factor structure of
human resource practices
Factor Eigen Variance
Factors Items Mean SD loading Communalities a value (%)

Factor 1: 1.1 – the recruitment and selection processes in this organization are 3.48 1.418 0.948 0.905 0.972 5.449 29.277
recruitment impartial
and selection 1.2 – favouritism is not evident in any of the recruitment decisions 2.95 1.524 0.892 0.797
made here
1.3 – interview panels are used during the recruitment and selection 3.25 1.544 0.967 0.941
process in this organization
1.4 – this organization does not need to pay more attention to the way it 2.74 1.517 0.938 0.884
recruits people
1.5 – all appointments in this organization are based on merit (i.e. the 3.27 1.220 0.926 0.866
best person for the job is selected regardless of their personal
characteristics)
Factor 2: 2.1 – my employer encourages me to extend my abilities 2.74 1.529 0.692 0.601 0.707 3.278 14.835
training and 2.2 – this organization has provided me with training opportunities 2.25 1.487 0.592 0.513
development enabling me to extend my range of skills and abilities
2.3 – I get the opportunity to discuss my training and development 1.85 1.323 0.704 0.552
requirements with my employer
2.4 – my work pays for any work-related training and/or development I 2.13 1.413 0.820 0.696
want to undertake
2.5 – this organization is committed to the training and development of 1.93 1.377 0.709 0.607
its employees
Factor 3: 3.1 – my current performance appraisal system is useful 2.72 1.298 0.705 0.635 0.774 2.127 12.822
performance 3.2 – my current performance appraisal system is fair 2.11 1.167 0.857 0.775
appraisal 3.3 – I am satisfied with my current performance appraisal system 1.94 1.377 0.783 0.640
Factor 4: 4.1 – employees are given positive recognition when they produce high 3.73 2.299 0.671 0.568 0.764 1.454 11.440
reward and quality work
benefit 4.2 – this organization pays well 3.28 1.843 0.698 0.615
4.3 – this organization offers a good benefits package compared to 1.90 1.295 0.780 0.634
other organizations
4.4 – this organization values individual excellence over teamwork 3.08 2.110 0.782 0.614
4.5 – this organization offers good opportunities for promotion 3.23 2.334 0.666 0.463
Notes: KMO 0.810, Bartlett test (x 2) 6,754.386, total variance explained 68.373 percent; n ¼ 493, extraction method: PCA, rotation method: VARIMAX
 Factor 2: training and development. This factor contributed to 14.835 percent of the HRM practices
variance explained. Also, the Eigen value for this factor is 3.278 for all five of the among frontline
factors in this factor. High factor loading for this factor was found within the factor
relating to the organization that pays for any work-related training and development employees
the employees want to undertake.
Factor 3: performance appraisal. This factor accounted for 12.822 percent of the
variance explained. The highest factor loading within the three factors was that the 13
respondents felt that the performance appraisal system used within the organization is fair.
Factor 4: reward and benefit. High factor loadings were found with items relating to
the organization valuing individual excellence over teamwork. This factor contributed
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to 11.440 percent of variance explained and the lowest factor loading was for the factor;
the organization offers good opportunities for promotion. This factor scored the lower
Eigen value; 1.454 between the four factors.

Correlation analysis
Table III shows the correlation among the four HRM factors. A high, positive and
significant correlation is observed between the recruitment and selection factors
ranging between (r ¼ 0.948, p , 0.05; r ¼ 0.786, p , 0.05). For example, a highly
significant correlation between the third factor RS3 (interview panels are used during
the recruitment and selection process in this organization) and RS1 (the recruitment
and selection processes in this organization are impartial). This relationship represents
the strongest one among the four factors in this study.
Increasingly, both the first factor (recruitment and selection) and the second
factor (training and development) are highly correlated, since the correlation ranged
between (r ¼ 0.850, p , 0.05; r ¼ 0.56, p , 0.05). Also, training and development has
shown a strong, positive and significant correlation within the five factors as TD2 (this
organization has provided me with training opportunities enabling me to extend my
range of skills and abilities) shows a highly significant correlation (r ¼ 0.850, p , 0.05)
with TD1 (my employer encourages me to extend my abilities). On the other hand, there
is a moderately positive and significant relationship between performance appraisal and
recruitment and selection and the second factor, training and development. Weak,
significant correlation is shown between the fourth factor, reward and benefit and the
first two, factor recruitment and selection and training and development. A moderate
positive and significant relationship was observed between the reward and benefit
factor and performance appraisal factor (Table II).

Multidimensional scaling (MSD) – PROXSCAL method

Multidimensional scaling (MDS) is primarily a visualization technique existing within a
class of multivariate instruments, such as factor analysis, cluster analysis, etc. (Shepard,
1962; Webb, 1995). The MDS procedure was employed to obtain a micro view of the
latent structures and the dimensionality of the factors associated with HRM practices.
Similar to PCA, MDS is an exploratory data analysis technique designed to ascertain the
dimensionality of the space of hypothetical constructs, known as principal coordinates,
based upon a proximity matrix of perceived dissimilarities (distances) (Carroll et al.,
2005). MDS is a data reduction technique that begins with an item-item immediacy
matrix of dissimilarities and attempts to find a set of constructs of lower-dimension
based upon dissimilarities for all objects under study (Zinnes and Mackay, 1983;
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14
24,1

Table II.
IJCOMA

Correlation matrix
for the four factors
Variables RS1 RS2 RS3 RS4 RS5 TD1 TD2 TD3 TD4 TD5 PA1 PA2 PA3 RB1 RB2 RB3 RB4 RB5

RS1 1.0
RS2 0.828 * * 1.0
RS3 0.948 * * 0.879 * * 1.0
RS4 0.877 * * 0.827 * * 0.920 * * 1.0
RS5 0.938 * * 0.786 * * 0.930 * * 0.869 * * 1.0
TD1 0.547 * * 0.513 * * 0.575 * * 0.615 * * 0.506 * * 1.0
TD2 0.451 * * 0.419 * * 0.459 * * 0.472 * * 0.423 * * 0.850 * * 1.0
TD3 0.241 * * 0.192 * * 0.253 * * 0.248 * * 0.232 * * 0.292 * * 0.278 * * 1.0
TD4 0.143 * * 0.115 * * 0.149 * * 0.167 * * 0.150 * * 0.185 * * 0.192 * * 0.490 * * 1.0
TD5 0.033 * 2 0.006 0.031 * 0.027 * 0.056 * * 0.075 * * 0.049 * 0.274 * * 0.553 * * 1.0
PA1 0.061 * * 0.038 * 0.067 * * 0.060 * * 0.069 * * 0.047 * 0.008 * 0.201 * * 0.277 * * 0.419 * * 1.0
PA2 0.106 * * 0.050 * 0.094 * * 0.083 * * 0.091 * * 0.063 * * 0.031 * 0.048 * 0.127 * * 0.258 * * 0.609 * * 1.0
PA3 0.022 * 2 0.043 2 0.001 2 0.001 0.022 * 2 0.032 2 0.046 20.014 0.099 * * 0.156 * * 0.364 * * 0.662 * * 1.0
RB1 0.034 * 0.031 * 0.014 * 0.020 * 0.041 * 0.048 * 0.049 * 0.029 * 0.011 * 0.060 * * 0.207 * * 0.336 * * 0.302 * * 1.0
RB2 0.021 * 0.018 * 0.005 * 0.018 * 0.026 * 0.018 * 0.015 * 20.008 0.023 * 0.074 * * 0.197 * * 0.317 * * 0.305 * * 0.642 * * 1.0
RB3 0.020 * 2 0.023 2 0.011 2 0.001 0.018 * 2 0.030 2 0.008 20.033 2 0.024 0.018 * 0.061 * * 0.204 * * 0.206 * * 0.456 * * 0.642 * * 1.0
RB4 2 0.003 0.008 * 2 0.033 2 0.013 2 0.016 2 0.026 0.005 * 20.007 2 0.024 0.008 * 0.042 * 0.159 * * 0.143 * * 0.352 * * 0.327 * * 0.481 * * 1.0
RB5 2 0.016 2 0.018 2 0.024 2 0.017 2 0.024 2 0.029 2 0.018 20.013 0.004 * 0.028 * 0.075 * * 0.091 * * 0.068 * * 0.264 * * 0.196 * * 0.313 * * 0.575 * * 1.0

Note: Significant at: *p , 0.01 and * *p , 0.05

 Carroll, 2004). The points are arranged in a common space where two similar objects are HRM practices
represented by two points that are close together, and two dissimilar objects are among frontline
represented by two points that are far apart; this means the distances between pairs of
points have the strongest possible relation to the similarities or dissimilarities among employees
items. The space is usually a two or three-dimensional Euclidean space, but may be
non-Euclidean and may have more dimensions (Borg and Groenen, 2005; Carroll et al.,
2005). MDS has fewer and less strict assumptions than factor analysis and can be 15
applied to any kind of data (Bartholomew et al., 2002) (Table III).
In order to test the results for reliability and validity, MDS provides for each
configuration a measure of stress, referred to as Kruskal’s (1964) stress, which
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measures how well the derived configuration matches the input data. Other measures

Dimensions Dimensions
Variables 1 2 Variables 1 2

The recruitment and selection 2 0.017 0.581 This organization is 2 0.493 2 0.543
processes in this organization committed to the training and
are impartial (RS1) development of its employees
(TD5)
Favouritism is not evident in 2 0.167 0.527 My current performance 2 0.013 2 0.171
any of the recruitment appraisal system is useful
decisions made here (RS2) (PA1)
Interview panels are used 2 0.077 0.569 My current performance 2 0.127 2 0.369
during the recruitment and appraisal system is fair (PA2)
selection process in this
organization (RS3)
This organization does not 2 0.204 0.430 I am satisfied with my current 2 0.155 2 0.643
need to pay more attention to performance appraisal system
the way it recruits people (PA3)
(RS4)
All appointments in this 2 0.027 0.461 Employees are given positive 1.004 0.483
organization are based on recognition when they
merit (i.e. the best person for produce high quality work
the job is selected regardless (RB1)
of their personal
characteristics) (RS5)
My employer encourages me 2 0.453 0.322 This organization pays well 0.648 0.126
to extend my abilities (TD1) (RB2)
This organization has 2 0.583 0.186 This organization offers a 0.133 2 0.562
provided me with training good benefits package
opportunities enabling me to compared to other
extend my range of skills and organizations (RB3)
abilities (TD2)
I get the opportunity to 2 0.693 20.208 This organization values 0.723 2 0.533
discuss my training and individual excellence over
development requirements teamwork (RB4)
with my employer (TD3)
My work pays for any work- 2 0.548 20.324 This organization offers good 1.050 2 0.332
related training and/or opportunities for promotion Table III.
development I want to (RB5) MDS PROXSCAL HRM
undertake (TD4) practices structure
 IJCOMA have been proposed, such as S-stress (Takane et al., 1977), but “Stress” is generally
24,1 preferred, because it is a measure based on distances, while S-stress is based on
squared distances (Carroll, 2004; Carroll et al., 2005). However, the advantage of
normalized raw stress over raw stress is that its value is independent of the scale and
number of observations. To facilitate the investigation of how effectively the
HRM practices applied, the proximity scaling (PROXSCAL) technique was employed
16 using SPSS 17. PROXSCAL was used to generate an aggregate geometrical
representation of the data matrix and the measures of the differences between the
measured data points.
In Figure 1, the 18 items of “HRM practices” are plotted in the two-dimensional
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space. MDS has no integral procedure for categorizing dimensions, as identifying

underlying dimensions is often an intricate task. Having developed the two-dimensional
MDS map, a subjective procedure is adopted to identify the underlying dimensions.
This procedure interprets the dimensionality by inspecting the map (Carroll, 2004;
Borg and Groenen, 2005). Dimension one in the map indicates the current HRM
practices and dimension two represents the effectiveness level of employing these
four practices.
An examination of the MDS map suggests a clear division of the set of points located
in the four quadrants. Items relating to recruitment and selection and some training
and development factors (TD1, TD2) are largely clustered together to the upper-left
quadrant. This quadrant indicates that these two practices (RS, TD) have been rarely
employed or used within the Jordanian organizations, but they were highly effective
when some organizations employed these practices. In the upper-right quadrant, there
are only two factors (RB1, RB2) relating to the reward and benefit factor. These two
factors have been highly and effectively employed within the Jordanian organizations.

Figure 1.
Multidimensional scale
(MSD) PROXSCAL
mapping of 18 items
 On the other hand, all the performance appraisal factors and the remaining training HRM practices
and development factors (TD3, TD4, and TD5) are mostly grouped together in the among frontline
lower-left quadrant. This is explained by these factors or practices being rarely and
non-effectively used within the organizations. The lower-right quadrant shows the employees
other factors in the reward and benefit factor (RB3, RB4, and RB5), which are widely
used and employed, though not effectively.
17
Discussion
In Jordanian organizations, the employee recruitment and selection process is largely
inadequate and needs effective attention if it is to enhance and support the competitive
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advantage of the business it represents (Al Fayyad, 2005). This is reflected in the fact
that the job analysis process and resulting job descriptions are very often carried out
and produced, but are never referred to in the recruitment and selection process.
Indeed, most employees are not aware of, nor even ask about their job descriptions.
This is because it seems that the job description is written and produced simply as a
part of the personnel administration process, i.e. for bureaucratic and routine
procedures (Budhwar and Mallahi, 2006; Al-Athari and Zairi, 2002; Abdalla and
Al-Homoud, 1995).
Equally, in many Arab and, more specifically, Jordanian organizations, the
literature demonstrates that the recruitment and selection process is fraught with
problems. These can be explained as:
.
rarely based on merit and ability; and
.
hardly systematic or objective.

Vacant positions are usually filled through “connections”, being offered to friends,
relatives and family members with no consideration given to the person’s proficiency
and achievements (Budhwar and Mallahi, 2006; Melham, 2004; El-Said and McDonald,
2001). In this study, the recruitment and selection factor indicates a high factor loading
and the third factor (Interview panels are used during the recruitment and selection
process in this organization) scored the highest factor loading. Also, it is noted that this
factor obtained the highest Cronbach’s a coefficients between the factors. This factor
shows a high significant correlation. Furthermore, the results emerging from this study
found that the recruitment and selection process was rarely employed in the Jordanian
organizations. On the other hand, a minor number of organizations were implementing
this practice effectively (Figure 1).
Weir and Abu-Doleh (1997) argue that the arrival of the twenty-first century
heralds an essential opportunity for Arab HR scholars, practitioners and specialists to
map the future of training and development programs in Arab countries. Altarawneh
(2009) also argues that training and development is the most significant indicator or
subsystem of human resource development as it potentially enhances, increases and
modifies the capabilities, skills and knowledge of employees and managers, enabling
them to perform their job in more creative and effective ways. Such issues can also
assist in the achievement of increases in individual and organizational performance
and productivity.
As training and development plays a crucial and dynamic role in developing job and
organizational performance, Altarawneh (2009) and Mann (1996) have asked whether
or not, given the continuous investment in training and development programs,
 IJCOMA training programs and strategies in Jordan are sufficiently effective in positively
24,1 impacting organizational competitiveness. This question has been raised because in
many Arab, and more specifically Jordanian organizations, expenditure and time spent
on training and development is considered an impractical and unnecessary function
(Redshaw, 2000). Al-Athari and Zairi (2002) and Altarawneh and Al-Kilani (2010)
confirm this view, arguing that some Jordanian organizations regard training and
18 development as a waste of time and money and a function which does not contribute to
improving employees’ commitment or overall organizational performance.
In addition, Figure 1 shows that the training and development practice is rarely and
non-effectively used within the Jordanian organizations. Increasingly, the high factor
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loading was scored in the fourth factor (My work pays for any work-related training and/or
development I want to undertake) and the results show a high significant correlation
between the factors in this factor. Regarding what has been highlighted, a review of the
literature in Arab countries, including Jordan, shows that training and development is
still not regarded as a significant function that contributes to organizational success.
Instead, this function is considered a vacation or leisure time activity, which is normally
given to the managers’ friends or relatives. Furthermore, the literature also demonstrates
that the training evaluation process in some Jordanian and Arab organizations more
generally is an infrequent and uncommon practice (Altarawneh, 2009).
Nowadays, many organizations are struggling with technological trends and
revolutionary developments and paying more attention to employees’ productivity and
performance in order to survive and remain competitive. However, as the performance
appraisal practice becomes more commonplace and plays a more significant role in
HRM, it still faces systemic failure (Wright, 2002). The performance appraisal system
and performance management evaluation are a critical topic within the field of HRM
(Abu-Doleh and Weir, 2007; Guest, 1997).
A review of the literature demonstrates that the performance appraisal system has
not received appropriate attention in Jordan and is not fully appreciated. Moreover,
the performance appraisal practice appears in this study as a non-effective practice,
rarely employed in the Jordanian organizations and shows 12.822 percent of the
variance explained.
The second factor (My current performance appraisal system is fair) scored
the highest loading factor and all the factors showed a high significant correlation
within this factor. Also, Jordanian employees still express displeasure and negative
feelings towards this practice. Nevertheless, performance appraisal remains
a confounded research area in HRM and has been described as the most widely
researched and written about in the history of management (Prowse and Prowse, 2009;
Grubb, 2007).
Within the different Jordanian sectors, the government always decides and controls
the minimum levels of wages and salaries for all employees (Al-Husan and James,
2003). The reward system is also related closely to the employee’s experience, age and
position. The majority of employees receive a basic salary, in addition to bonuses and
incentives which are determined based on an employee’s position, age and type of
work. In this study, Figure 1 shows that the reward and benefit practice is highly
employed and used in the Jordanian organizations, but not in an effective way.
The results also show a high significant correlation between the factors and the lower
Eigen value scored in this factor.
 Even though the latest economic reforms have encouraged and brought HRM practices
multinational and foreign investment, along with new ways of paying and rewarding among frontline
(Budhwar and Mallahi, 2006), underlying cultural issues remain. Linking the reward
system with an employee’s productivity and performance is an attempt to establish employees
connectivity between the Jordanian salary system, international standards and an
employee’s contributions. Moreover, other variant rewards have been presented in order
to recruit and motivate skilled employees, as well as to retain knowledgeable and 19
talented staff (Al-Husan and James, 2003; Al-Faleh, 1987).

Implications for human resource managers and practitioners

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Testing predictions about the association between HRM practices and theoretically
related constructs to help place HRM in the broader theoretical context of
organizational development and employees’ attitude should assist in efforts to
develop more comprehensive theoretical models of those practices.
As a consequence, several practical implications for HR managers and practitioners
have emerged from this study. First, organizations should have a pragmatic outlook as
to the outcomes associated with HRM practices. Whilst these practices may bring
about several affirmative outcomes, negative results may occur if they are not well
implemented.
The findings of the study also suggest that employees observe problems with their
HR managers, ranging from inappropriate recruitment and selection to the ineffective
disbursement of meagre employee benefits. Thus, the organizations should not impose
HRM policies on individual employees. Rather, individuals should be provided with a
framework of policies which include internally driven factors. It also seems important
that HR managers be trained in terms of their job responsibilities to help ensure that
they have, or can learn, appropriate HRM skill sets.

Limitations and future research

As with all studies, this study has some limitations. First, the limited amount of
research available on human resource practices in Jordanian organizations has
limited the opportunity to gather content-rich information from previous studies.
Second, some organizations (more than 40 percent of the sample) refused to participate
in this study.
This paper discussed four practices of HRM: recruitment and selection, training and
development, performance appraisal and rewards and benefit. The findings show that
HRM in Jordan has not yet received due attention. The employee recruitment and
selection process is largely inadequate and needs effective attention. In many Jordanian
organizations, expenditure and time spent on training and development is not
considered to be a useful and necessary function. Jordanian organizations are facing
major problems surrounding the development of human capital and need to devote
more attention to their HRM practices.

Conclusion
The current study showed that in Jordan HRM practices have not yet received due
attention (Menafn, 2008; Ameinfo, 2006; Weir and Abu-Doleh, 1997). Reports and
anecdotal evidence from the Ministry of Industry and Trade indicate that HRM
departments in a number of Jordanian organizations seem to lack initiative and are
 IJCOMA neglecting their duties and activities (Ameinfo, 2006). As a result, they are facing major
24,1 problems surrounding the development of human capital, including high turnover
rates and a lack of skilled employees. Insufficient spending on research, training and
development has fuelled these problems (Menafn, 2008).
Increasingly, employees’ performance and skills can also be influenced by HRM
practices, which control the acquisition and development of the organization’s human
20 capital (Othman, 2009; Lopez et al., 2005; Huselid, 1995). For example, recruiting
practices based on effective and reliable selection processes will equip the organization
with qualified candidates and have a significant impact on the type and quality of the
skills and knowledge they possess (Katou, 2008; Paul and Anantharaman, 2003).
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The provision of different levels of training and development experiences, such as

basic training, on-the-job training, formal and informal training and management
development can also influence employees’ commitment and values (Tzafrir, 2006;
McGunnigle and Jameson, 2000). Furthermore, the current study found training
and development practices being rarely and non-effectively used within the
organizations.
The effectiveness of even skilled and qualified employees will be limited if they are
not encouraged and motivated to work, but through HRM practices they can be
encouraged to work harder and smarter. Examples of organizational efforts to
motivate are the use of performance appraisal systems that are closely linked with
incentive and compensation plans (Yeganeh and Su, 2008). Conversely, HRM literature
(Afana, 2004; Melham, 2004) shows that many Arab organizations, including those in
both the public and private sectors in Jordan, need to devote more attention to their
HRM practices.

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24
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Corresponding author
Khaled Aladwan can be contacted at: kaladwan@uop.edu.jo

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