CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS, LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

1.1 FUNCTIONS
1.1.1 Relation and Function
Given two sets denoted as X and Y, if each element from set X is paired to element in set Y,
then there is a relation between X and Y. Set X is said to be the domain and set Y is the
codomain. There are various type of relation between X and Y.

Type of Relationship Diagram

X is a square root of Y

1 • • 1
One-to-One
2 • • 4

3 • • 9

X is a square root of Y

-1• • 0

Many-to-One
0• • 1

1• • 2

X is a square of Y

• -3
4•
One-to-Many • -2

• 2
9•
• 3

1
 X Y

1 • • 1

Many-to-Many 2 • • 4

3 • • 9

A function is one of the relation that relating two sets of data. A relation is considered as a
function if and only if each element in the domain set is mapped to only one element in the
codomain set. Therefore, the relation of one-to-one and many-to-one are called function. If
each output in the codomain Y is produced by an input in the domain X, then the function is
called onto function from X to Y, denoted as f(x) = y. x is the independent variable and y = f(x)
is dependent variable.

Function, f

Input Output
x y = f (x)

Example 1
Given that f (x) = 3x – 2, determine the value for the following.
(a) f (–3) (b) f (0)
(c) f (4) (d) f (10)
(e) Find the value of x if f (x) = 13.

2
Solution
(a) f (–3) = 3(–3) – 2 = –9 – 2 = –11
(b) f (0) = 3(0) – 2 = 0 – 2 = –2
(c) f (4) = 3(4) – 2 = 12 – 2 = 10
(d) f (10) = 3(10) – 2 = 28
(e) f ( x ) = 13
Common mistake
3 x − 2 = 13 f ( x ) = 13
3 x = 13 + 2 f (13) = 3(13) − 2
3 x = 15 = 37
15
x=
3 ◇T he Truth

=5 f ( x ) = 13
3x − 2 = 13
1.1.2 Domain and Range
Domain of a function is the set of all possible inputs while range of a function is the set of all
possible outputs. If given y = f (x), then the domain is the set of all values of x where y is
defined and the range is the set of all values of y where x is defined. The domain and range of
a function can be determined by using graph sketching method or algebraic approach method.

f (x) = x – 1
X Y

• –2
0 •
• –1
1 • • 0
2 • • 1
• 2

Domain Codomain
Figure 1.1
From Figure 1.1,
Domain = {0, 1, 2}
Range = {–1, 0, 1}

3
Inequality Notation and Interval Notation:
Interval
Inequality Real number line
notation
a < x <b (a, b)

a b
a ≤ x≤ b [a, b]

a b
a≤x<b [a, b)

a b
a<x≤b (a, b]

a b
x<a (-∞, a)

x≤a (-∞, a]
a
x >a (a, ∞)

a
x≥a [a, ∞)

4
1.1.2.1 Polynomial Function
Example 2
Find the domain and range for the following functions.
(a) f ( x ) = 3x − 4 [Linear]

(b) f (x) = x 2 + 1 [Quadratic]

(c) f (x ) = − x 2 + 4 [Quadratic]

(d) f (x) = x 3 + 1 [Cubic]

Solution
(a) f ( x ) = 3x − 4
Graphing Method:
Domain:
Refer to x-axis, the straight line is continuous for all
values of x. Thus, domain of f (x) is (− ,+) .

Range:
Refer to y-axis, the straight line is continuous for all
values of y=f (x). Thus, the range of f(x) is (− ,+) .

Algebraic Method:
Domain:
According to the given equation, f (x) is defined for all values of x. Thus, the domain of
f (x) is (− ,+) .
Range:
y = f (x ) According to the equation shown on left hand side, x is defined
y = 3x − 4 for all values of y = f (x). Thus, the range of f (x) is (− ,+) .
y + 4 = 3x

y+4
x=
3

5
(b) f (x) = x 2 + 1
Graphing Method:
Domain:
Refer to x-axis, the curve is continuous for all values of
x. Thus, the domain of f (x) is (− ,+) .

Range:
Refer to y-axis, the curve start from the point y = 1 and
continuous for all positive values of y = f (x) after that.
Thus, the range of f (x) is 1,+ ) .

Algebraic Method:
Domain:
According to the given equation, f (x) is defined for all values of x. Thus, the domain of
f (x) is (− ,+) .
Range:
y = f (x ) According to the equation shown on left hand side, x is defined

y = x2 + 1 for y − 1  0 ➔ y  1

y − 1 = x2 Thus, the range of f (x) is 1,+ ) .

x = y −1

(c) f (x ) = − x 2 + 4
Graphing Method:
Domain:
Refer to x-axis, the curve is continuous for all values of x.
Thus, the domain of f (x) is (− ,+) .

Range:
Refer to y-axis, the curve start from all negative values to
y = 1. Thus, the range of f (x) is (− ,4 .

6
 Algebraic Method:
Domain:
According to the given equation, f (x) is defined for all values of x. Thus, the domain of
f (x) is (− ,+) .
Range:
y = f (x ) According to the equation shown on left hand side,

y = −x 2 + 4 x is defined for − ( y − 4)  0 .

y − 4 = −x2 y − 4  0➔ y  4

− ( y − 4) = x 2 Thus, the range of f (x) is (− ,4 .

x = − ( y − 4)

(d) f (x) = x 3 + 1
Graphing Method:
Domain:
Refer to x-axis, the curve is continuous for all values of x.
Thus, the domain of f (x) is (− ,+) .

Range:
Refer to y-axis, the curve is continuous for all values of y.
Thus, the range of f (x) is (− ,+) .

Algebraic Method:
Domain:
According to the given equation, f (x) is defined for all values of x. Thus, the domain of
f (x) is (− ,+) .
Range:
y = f (x ) According to the equation shown on left hand side, x is

y = x3 + 1 defined for values of y. Thus, the range of f (x) is (− ,+) .

y − 1 = x3

x = 3 y −1

7
Alternative Methods:
1) Linear Functions → f (x ) = ax + b

Domain of f = all real numbers or (− ,+)

Range of f = all real numbers or (− ,+)

2) Quadratic Functions

(a) f ( x ) = ax 2 + k

Domain of f = all real numbers or (− ,+)

Range of f = k ,+ ) or f (x )  k

(b) g (x ) = −ax 2 + k

Domain of g = all real numbers or (− ,+)

Range of g = (− , k  or g (x )  k

(c) h(x ) = ax 2 + bx + c

Completing Square Method:

h(x ) = ax 2 + bx + c
 b c
= a x 2 + x + 
 a a
  b 
2
 b 
2
c
2 b
= ax + x +   −   + 
 a  2a   2a  a

 b 
2
 b 
2
c
= a  x +  −  + 
 2a   2a  a

 b 
2   b 2 c 
= a x +  + k where k = a −   + 
 2a    2a  a


Domain of h = all real numbers or (− ,+)

Range of h = k ,+ ) or h(x )  k

8
 (d) j ( x ) = − ax 2 + bx + c

Completing Square Method:

j ( x ) = −ax 2 + bx + c
 b c
= − a x 2 − x − 
 a a
 b  b 
2
 b 
2
c
= −a  x 2 − x +   −   − 
 a  2a   2a  a

 b 
2
 b 
2
c
= −a  x −  −   − 
 2a   2a  a

 b 
2   b 2 c 
= −a x −  + k where k = −a −   − 
 2a    2a  a


Domain of j = all real numbers or (− ,+)

Range of j = (− , k  or j (x )  k

1.1.2.2 Radical Function

(A) Radical Functions → Square Root (Even Roots)

g ( x ) = − ax f ( x ) = ax

h(x) = − − ax j ( x ) = − ax

9
Example 3
Find the domain and range for the following functions.

(a) f (x ) = x−2

(b) f (x ) = 6 − 2 x

Solution

(a) f (x ) = x−2
Graphing Method:
Domain:
Refer to x-axis, the curve start from the value of x = 2
and continuous for all positive values of x. Thus, the
domain of f (x) is 2,+ ).

Range:
Refer to y-axis, the curve start from the value of y = 0
and continuous for all positive values of y. Thus, the
range of f (x) is 0,+ ) .

Algebraic Method:
Domain:
According to the given equation, f (x) is defined for x − 2  0 ➔ x  2 .
Thus, the domain of f (x) is 2,+ ).
Range:
y = f (x ) According to the equation shown on left hand side, x is defined

y= x−2 for all values of y = f (x). Since f (x) = x − 2  0 , thus the

y2 = x − 2 range of f (x) is 0,+ ) .

y2 + 2 = x

10
(b) f (x ) = 6 − 2 x
Graphing Method:
Domain:
Refer to x-axis, the curve start from all negative values
of x to the value of x = 3. Thus, the domain of
f (x) is (− ,3 .

Range:
Refer to y-axis, the curve start from the value of y = 0
and continuous for all positive values of y. Thus, the
range of f (x) is 0,+ ) .

Algebraic Method:
Domain:
According to the given equation, f (x) is defined for 6 − 2x  0 .
− 2 x  −6
−6
x
−2
x3
Thus, the domain of f (x) is (− ,3 .
Range:
y = f (x ) According to the equation shown on left hand side, x is defined

y = 6 − 2x for all values of y = f (x). Since f ( x ) = 6 − 2 x  0 , thus the

y 2 = 6 − 2x range of f (x) is 0,+ ) .

y 2 − 6 = −2 x

y2 − 6
x=
−2
(B) Radical Functions → Cubic Root (Odd Roots)

f (x ) = 3 ax + b

Domain of f = all real numbers or (− ,+)

Range of f = all real numbers or (− ,+)

11
1.1.2.3 Rational Function

Example 4
Find the domain and range for the following functions.

f (x ) =
1
(a)
3x − 6

f (x ) =
3
(b)
4−x

Solution

f (x ) =
1
(a)
3x − 6
Graphing Method:
Domain:
f(x) is undefined when x  2. So, x = 2 is vertical
asymptote of f(x). Thus, the domain of f(x) is
(− ,2)  (2,+) .

Range:
y = 0 (x-axis) is the horizontal asymptote where the
curve cannot passed through the line. Refer to the y-
axis, the curve start from all the negative values of y
by ended before the point y = 2 and start from the
point after y = 0 then continuous for all positive values of y after that. Thus, the range of
f (x) is (− ,0)  (0,+) .

Algebraic Method:
Domain:
According to the given equation, f (x) is undefined when 3x − 6 = 0 , x=2.
Thus, the domain of f (x) is (− ,2)  (2,+) .

12
 Range:
y = f (x ) According to the equation shown on left hand side, x is defined

for y  0 . Thus the range of f (x) is (− ,0)  (0,+) .

1
y =
3x − 6
1
= 3x − 6
y
1
+ 6 = 3x
y
1
x= +2
3y
3
(b) f (x ) =
4− x
Graphing Method:
Domain:
x = 4 is the vertical asymptote where the curve cannot
passed through the line. Refer to the x-axis, the curve
start from all the negative values of x by ended before
the value of x = 4 and start from the value of x = 4
then continuous for all positive values of x. Thus, the
domain of f (x) is (− ,4)  (4,+) .

Range:
y = 0 (x-axis) is the horizontal asymptote where the curve cannot passed through the
line. Refer to the y-axis, the curve start from all the negative values of y then ended
before the value of y = 0 and start from after the value of y = 0 then continuous for all
positive values of y. Thus, the range of f (x) is (− ,0)  (0,+) .
Algebraic Method:
Domain:
According to the given equation, f (x) is defined for 4 − x  0 .
x4
Thus, the domain of f (x) is (− ,4)  (4,+) .

13
 Range:
y = f (x ) According to the equation shown on left hand side, x is defined

for y  0 . Thus the range of f (x) is (− ,0)  (0,+) .

3
y =
4−x
3
=4−x
y
3
x =4−
y

1.1.2.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

y = ex

y = loge x

y = ex y = loge x

Domain (− ,+) (0,+)

Range (0,+) (− ,+)

14
1.1.2.5 Piecewise-Defined Function

A function can be defined in different equations on different domains and it is called

piecewise-defined function. For example, the absolute function has two different equation for
the domain x  0 and x  0 . Therefore, the absolute function, f (x ) = x can be written as

 x, x  0
f (x ) = 
− x , x  0
Example 5
 x + 1, x  −2
 2
Given that f ( x ) =  x , − 2  x  1
3 − x , x 1

(a) Determine f (–3), f (–2), f (0), f (1) and f (5).
(b) Determine the domain of f (x).
(c) Sketch the graph of f (x).
(d) From the graph, find the range of f (x).

Solution
(a) When x = –3, the equation for f is f ( x ) = x + 1 . Thus, f (− 3) = −3 + 1 = −2 .

When x = –2, the equation for f is f ( x ) = x 2 . Thus, f (− 2) = (− 2) = 4 .

2

When x = 0, the equation for f is f ( x ) = x 2 . Thus, f (0) = (0) = 0 .

2

When x = 1, there is no equation for f. Thus, f (1) = undefined or no image.

When x = 5, the equation for f is f ( x ) = 3 − x . Thus, f (5) = 3 − 5 = −2 .
(b) Domain of f (x): x  1  x  1 or (−  ,1)  (1,+ )
(c)

(d) Range of f (x): f ( x )  4 or (−  ,4 .

15
Example 6
 − 3 x, x  −1

Given that g ( x ) =  5, x = −1 .
 x 2 + 2, x  −1

(a) Determine g(–2), g(–1) and g(0).
(b) Determine the domain of g(x).
(c) Sketch the graph of g(x).
(d) Find the range for g(x).

Solution
(a) When x = –2, the equation for g is g (x ) = −3x . Thus, g (− 2) = −3(− 2) = 6

When x = –1, the equation for g is g (x) = 5 . Thus, g (− 1) = 5

When x = 0, the equation for g is g (x ) = x 2 + 2 . Thus, g (0) = 0 2 + 2 = 2

(b) Domain of g(x): x  −1  x = −1  x  −1 ➔ all values of x

 (− ,+)
(c)

(d) Range of g(x): g ( x )  0 or 0 +  ) .

Exercise 1.1

Given that p( x ) = 3x − 8 and q(x) = 6x − 5 . Find

2
1)
(a) p (2 ) (b) q(1)
(c) the values of a and b if p (a ) = 19 and q(b ) = 25 .

2) Given that f (x ) = 6 − x and g ( x ) = 3 − 2 x . Find

(a) the domain and range for f (x ) .

(c) the domain and range for g (x ) .

16
 3x 2 − 2, x  0

3) Given that f ( x ) =  10, x = 0 . Determine
 5 − x, x  0

(a) Determine f (–3), f (0) and f (1).
(b) Determine the domain of f (x).
(c) Sketch the graph of f (x).
(d) Find the range for f (x) using the graph. y
Answer Exercise 1.1 3c
1a) 4 b) 1 c) a = 3; b = 105
 3
2a) Domain= ( −,  ) , Range= ( −,  ) b)  −, 
 2
3a) 25; 10; 4 b) ( −,  ) c) graph d) ( −,  )

1.1.3 Operation on Function

Similar to the operation on two or more real numbers, there are four operations on function
such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Let f(x) and g(x) be any functions.

Addition (f + g )(x ) = f (x ) + g (x )

Subtraction (f − g )(x ) = f (x ) − g (x )

Multiplication ( fg )(x) = f (x)  g (x)

f  f (x )
Division  ( x ) = , g (x )  0
g g (x )

Example 7
Given that f (x ) = x − 3x + 8 and g (x ) = x + 5 x − 3 . Determine
2 3

(a) (f + g )(x ) and calculate the value for the function when x = 1.

(b) (f − g )(x ) and calculate the value for the function when x = 2.

(c) ( fg )(x ) and calculate the value for the function when x = –1.
 f 
(d)  ( x ) and calculate the value for the function when x = 0.
g

17
Solution
(a) (f + g )(x ) = f (x ) + g (x )
(f + g )(1) = (1) + (1) + 2(1) + 5 = 9
3 2

(
= x 2 − 3x + 8 + x 3 + 5 x − 3 ) Or
= x 2 − 3x + 8 + x 3 + 5 x − 3
(f + g )(1) = f (1) + g (1)
= x3 + x 2 + 2x + 5
(b) (f − g )(x ) = f (x ) − g (x )
( f − g )(2) = −(2)3 + (2)2 − 8(2) + 11 = −9
(
= x 2 − 3x + 8 − x 3 + 5 x − 3 ) Or ( f − g )(2) = f (2) − g (2)
= x − 3x + 8 − x − 5 x + 3
2 3

= − x 3 + x 2 − 8 x + 11

(c) ( fg )(x) = f (x)  g (x)

( )(
= x 2 − 3x + 8 x 3 + 5 x − 3 )
= x 5 + 5 x 3 − 3x 2 − 3x 4 − 15x 2 + 9 x + 8 x 3 + 40x − 24
= x 5 − 3x 4 + 13x 3 − 18x 2 + 49x − 24
( fg )(− 1) = (− 1)5 − 3(− 1) + 13(− 1) − 18(− 1) + 49(− 1) − 24 = −108
4 3 2

f  f (x )
 ( x ) =
(0) − 3(0) + 8
(d)
g g (x ) f 2
 (0) =
8
=−
x 2 − 3x + 8
= 3
g (0) + 5(0) − 3
3
3
x + 5x − 3
Exercise 1.2

Given that f (x ) = and g (x ) = 2 x 3 − 9 . Determine

2
x − 8x + 5
2

(a) (f + g )(2) (b) (f − g )(− 2)

f
(c) ( fg )(0) (d)  (1)
g
Answer Exercise 1.2
47 627 18 1
a) b) c) − d)
4 25 5 7

18
1.1.4 Composition Function

Composition function is substituting the output of a function into another function. For
example, the composition of f with g is

(f  g )( x ) = f g ( x )
Normally, ( f  g )( x )  ( g  f )( x )
Example 8

Given f ( x ) = 3x 2 − 8 and g ( x ) = 5 x + 5 . Determine

(a) (f  g )( x ) (b) ( g  f )( x )
(c) (f  g )(2 ) (d) ( g  f )(2)

Solution
(a) (f  g )( x ) = f g ( x ) (b) ( g  f )( x ) = g  f ( x )
= f  5 x + 5  
= g 3x 2 − 8 
= 5(3 x 2 − 8) + 5
( )
2
=3 5x + 5 −8
= 15x 2 − 40 + 5
= 3 ( 5 x + 5) − 8
= 15 x + 7 = 15x 2 − 35

(c) (f  g )( x ) = 15x + 7 (d) (g  f )(x ) = 15x 2 − 35

(f  g )(2) = 15(2) + 7 ( g  f )(2) = 15(2 )2 − 35

= 30 + 7 = 60 − 35
= 37 =5

Example 9
x2
( )
Given f x = 4 x + 1 , g ( x ) = and h( x ) = 3 − x . Determine
x +1
(a) (f  g  h )( x ) (b) (h  g  f )( x )
(c) (h  f  g )( x ) (d) (h  f  g )(1)

19
Solution
(a) (f  g  h )( x ) = f  g h( x ) (b) (h  g  f )( x ) = h  g  f ( x )
= f  g 3− x   = h  g 4 x + 1

= f
( 3− x 
2
)

 (4 x + 1)2 
= h 
 ( )
3 − x + 1  (4 x + 1) + 1
 (4 x + 1)2 
 3− x  = h 
= f   4x + 2 
 3 − x + 1
 3− x   (4 x + 1)2 
= 4  +1 = 3−  
 3 − x +1  4x + 2 

 4x 2 
(c) (h  f  g )( x ) = h  f g ( x ) (d) (h  f  g )( x ) = 3 −  + 1
 x +1 

 x2   4(1)2 
=h f   (h  f  g )(1) = 3 −  + 1
 x + 1  1+1 

  x2   = 3−3
= h 4  + 1
  x +1  =0

 4x 2 
= h + 1
 x +1 

 4x 2 
= 3 −  + 1
 x +1 
Exercise 1.3
4x − 3
1) Given f ( x ) = x 3 − 5 and g ( x ) = . Determine
2
(a) (f  g )( x ) (b) ( g  f )( x )
(c) (f  g )(1) (d) ( g  f )(1)

2) Given g (x ) = x 2 − 4 and f (x ) = x − 2 , find the value of x when (g  f )(x) = 5 .

Answer 1.3

( 4 x − 3) − 40
3
64 x3 − 144 x 2 + 108 x − 67 4 x 3 − 23 39 19
1a) or b) c) − d) − 2) −1 or 5
8 8 2 8 2

20
1.2 LIMITS
lim f ( x) is defined as limit of f(x) when x approaches a.
x→ a

x2 − 4
Consider, F ( x) = , x  2.
x−2
At x=2, F(2) is undefined.
We use calculator to compute the value of F(x) as x approaches 2 from the left side.
x 1.97 1.98 1.99 1.999
F(x) 3.97 3.98 3.99 3.999
Value of F(x) approaches 4.
The limit of F(x) as x approaches 2 from the left side ➔ lim− F ( x) =4.
x →2

We use calculator to compute the value of F(x) as x approaches 2 from the right side.
x 2.03 2.02 2.01 2.001
F(x) 4.03 4.02 4.01 4.001
Value of F(x) approaches 4.
The limit of F(x) as x approaches 2 from the right side ➔ lim+ F ( x) =4.
x →2

Since lim− F ( x) = lim+ F ( x) = 4 , so lim F ( x) = 4 (Exist).

x →2 x →2 x →2

sin x
Example 10 Guess the value of lim .
x→ 0 x
Solution
When x approaches from the left side of 0:
x -0.1 -0.01 -0.001 -0.0001
sin x 0.998334 0.999983 0.999999 0.999999998
x

When x approaches from the right side of 0:

x 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1
sin x 0.999999998 0.999999 0.999983 0.998334
x
sin x sin x sin x
Since lim = lim = 1 so, lim = 1 (exist).
x →0− x x →0+ x x→0 x

21
 Relationship between One-sided limits and Two-sided limit
One-sided limits
The limit of f (x) as x approaches from the left of a: lim f ( x )
x→ a−

The limit of f (x) as x approaches from the right of a: lim f ( x )

x→ a+

Two-sided limit
The two-sided limit of a function f (x) exists if and only if both of the one-sided limits exist
at x=a and have the same value, such that
If lim f ( x ) = lim f ( x ) = L , then lim f ( x ) = L
x→ a− x→ a+ x→ a

Example 11 Evaluate the following limits (if exist).

(b) lim 
1 
(a) lim (2 x + 7 ) 
x→ 2 x → 5 x −5
Solution
lim (2 x + 7 ) = 2(2) + 7 = 11  1 
x → 2− lim   = −
− x −5
(a) x→ 5  
lim (2 x + 7 ) = 2(2) + 7 = 11 (b)
x → 2+  1 
lim   = +
Since lim (2x + 7) = lim (2x + 7) = 11 , then x→ 5+  x − 5 
x → 2+ x → 2+
Since lim 
1   1 
lim (2x + 7) = 11 (exist)   lim  ,
x→ 2
−
x→ 5  x −5
+
x→ 5  x −5

then lim 
1 
 does not exist.
x → 5 x −5

Example 12
 3
x +2 x  −2

Given a piecewise-defined function, f (x ) = x 2 − 5 − 2  x  3 . Evaluate
 x + 13 x 3


(a) lim f (x ) (b) lim f (x )
x→0 x → −8
(c) lim f (x ) (d) lim f (x )
x → −2 x→3

22
 Solution
3
x2 − 5 x + 13
x+2

–2 3
(a) lim f (x ) (b) lim f (x )
x→0 x → −8

x → 0−
(
lim f ( x) = lim− x 2 − 5 = −5 ) lim− f (x) = lim− 
 3 
 =
3
=−
1
( −8) + 2 2
x →0
x →−8 x →−8  x + 2 
lim f ( x) = lim ( x 2
− 5 ) = −5
 3 
+ +
x →0 x →0 3 1
lim+ f (x) = lim+   = =−
x →−8 x →−8  x + 2  ( −8) + 2 2
Since lim− f (x) = lim+ f ( x) = −5, 1
x →0 x →0
Since lim− f (x) = lim+ f (x) = − ,
therefore, lim f ( x) = −5 (exist). x →−8 x →−8 2
x →0
1
therefore, lim f (x) = − (exist).
x →−8 2
(c) lim f (x ) (d) lim f (x )
x → −2 x→3
 3 
lim− f (x) = lim− 
lim− f (x) = lim− ( x 2 − 5 ) = 4
x →−2
 = −
x →−2  x + 2 
x →3 x →3

(
lim+ f ( x) = lim+ x 2 − 5 = −1 )
lim f (x) = lim+
x →3+ x →3
( )
x + 13 = 4
x →−2 x →−2

Since lim− f (x) = lim+ f (x) = 4,

Since lim− f (x)  lim+ f ( x), x →3 x →3
x →−2 x →−2
therefore, lim f (x) = 4 (exist).
therefore, lim f (x) does not exist . x →3
x →−2

Exercise 1.4
 x + 2, x  0

1. Given f ( x ) =  , evaluate lim f ( x ) if exist.
 x − 2, x  0
2 x→ 0

−5, x  −4

2. Given f ( x ) =  x − 1, − 4  x  3 , evaluate lim f ( x ) and lim f ( x )
 x→−4 x→3
4 − x , x  3
2

3 − 3 x 2 , x  −1
3. Evaluate lim f ( x ) where f ( x ) =  .
x → −1
 x 2 − 1, x  −1
x 2, x  1

4. Evaluate lim f ( x ) and lim f ( x ) where f ( x ) = 2 − x 3 ,1  x  2
x →1 x→ 2
5, x  2

Answer 1.4
1. Not exist 2. Exist; Not exist 3. Exist 4. Exist; Not exist

23
 Basic Properties of Limits:
Properties Example
1) lim m = m
x→a lim 100 = 100
x→5

2) lim x = a
x→a lim x = 20
x → 20

3) lim x n = an
x →a lim x 3 = 2 3 = 8
x →2

4) lim cf (x ) = c lim f (x )

x→a x→a lim 5 (x + 3) = 5 lim (x + 3) = 5 (3 + 3) = 30
x→3 x→3

lim f (x ) + g (x ) = lim f (x ) + lim g(x )

5)
x→a x→a x→a
 
lim x 3 + x 2 = lim x 3 + lim x 2
x →2 x →2 x →2
=2 +23 2

= 12
6) lim f (x ) − g (x ) = lim f (x ) − lim g(x )  
lim x 3 − x 2 = lim x 3 − lim x 2
x→a x→a x→a
x →2 x →2 x →2
=2 −23 2

=4
7) lim f (x )  g (x ) = lim f (x )  lim g(x ) lim (x + 3)(x − 2) = lim (x + 3)  lim (x − 2)
x→a x→a x→a x→5 x→5 x→5
= (5 + 3)(5 − 2)
= 24
8) lim f (x ) lim (x + 5)
 f (x )  x → a
lim   = lim g (x ) , lim g (x )  0  x + 5  x → 10
x → a  g(x )  x →a
lim   = lim (x − 5)
x →a x → 10  x − 5 
x → 10
10 + 5
=
10 − 5
=3
9)  
lim n f (x ) = n lim f (x )
 
lim 3 x 3 + 10x − 1 = 3 lim (x 3 + 10x − 1)
x →a x →a
x →2 x →2

= 3 2 3 + 10 (2) − 1
=3

24
10) n
lim f ( x ) =  lim f ( x )
n 5
 x →a  lim x  =  lim x 
5
x →a
x →2  x →2 
= 25
= 32

Example 13
Let lim f (x ) = 6 , lim g (x ) = − 2 , find the limits that exist (if any).
x →c x→c
a) lim 3f (x ) + 2 g (x ) b) lim 50 − 5 f (x ) − 10 g (x )
x →c x→c
c) lim f (x ) g (x )  3 g (x ) 
x→c d) lim  
x → c  f (x) 

e) lim g (x )3 f) lim 8 f(x) 

x→c x→c

Solution
a ) lim 3f ( x ) + 2g ( x ) b ) lim 50 − 5f ( x ) − 10 g ( x )
x →c x →c
= 3 lim f ( x ) + 2 lim g ( x ) = lim 50 − 5 lim f ( x ) + 10 lim g ( x )
x →c x →c x →c x →c x →c
= 36 + 2− 2 = 50 − 56 − 10− 2
= 14 = 40

c ) lim f ( x )g ( x ) = lim f ( x )  lim g ( x ) 3 lim g ( x )

x →c x →c x →c 3g ( x )
d ) lim = x →c
= 6− 2 x →c f ( x ) lim f ( x )
x →c
= −12 3− 2
=
6
= −1

e ) lim g ( x ) =  lim g ( x )
3
3
f ) lim
x →c
 f (x) =
8 8 lim f ( x )
x →c
x →c  x →c 
=86
= − 2
3
= 1.2510 ( 4 d.p. )
= −8

Exercise 1.5
Given lim f ( x ) = −4 and lim g( x ) = 3 , evaluate the following limits.
x →a x →a
g( x )
a) lim 3f ( x ) b) lim 3f ( x ) − 4g ( x ) c) lim
x →a x →a x →a f ( x )

2
 g( x ) − f ( x )  3
d) lim f ( x )
5
e) lim g ( x ) f) lim  
x →a x →a x →a  f (x) 

25
Answer 1.5
3
a ) − 12 b ) − 24 c) − d ) − 1024 e) 3 f )1.4522 (4 d.p.)
4

1.2.1 COMPUTING LIMITS: X APPROACHES a (A REAL NUMBER)

(A) LIMIT OF POLYNOMIAL FUNCTION

For any polynomial p (x ) = c 0 + c1 x + c2 x 2 + ... + cn x n and any real number a,
lim p (x ) = c 0 + c 1 a + c 2 a2 + ... + c n an = p (a)
x →a
Example 14
Evaluate lim (2x 4
− 5x 3 + 7x 2 − 3x + 10 . )
x → −2

Solution
lim ( 2 x 4 − 5 x 3 + 7 x 2 − 3 x + 10 )
x →−2

= 2 ( −2 ) − 5 ( −2 ) 3 +7 ( −2 ) − 3 ( −2 ) + 10
4 2

= 116

(B) LIMIT OF RATIONAL FUNCTION

p (x )
Rational function is in the form of f (x ) = where p(x) and q(x) are polynomials.
q (x )
For any real number a, substitute x=a into the function to test:
(a) if q(a) ≠ 0, then lim f (x ) = f (a) , the limit does exist.
x→a
(b) if q(a) = 0 but p(a) ≠ 0, then lim f (x ) is does not exist.
x→a
0
(c) If p(a) = 0 and q(a) = 0, f (a ) = , then the function f (x) needs to simplify before
0
substitute x=a into the function. There are two methods to use:
i. Factorization method (cancelling off all the common factors)
ii. Rationalization method (multiplying numerator and denominator by the
conjugates of the surd).

Example 15 Evaluate the following limits.

x2 + 2  3x − 9  2x 2 + 12 x + 18
(a) lim (b) lim  2  (c) lim
x →2 x + 2 x →3 x −x −6 x →−3 x +3

 x −1  x −2 
(d) lim  
 (e) lim  
x →1  x −1  x →2 3− x +7 

26
Solution

x2 + 2  3x − 9 
(a) lim (b) lim  2 
x →2 x + 2 x →3 x −x −6
Testing: Testing:
x + 2 (2 ) + 2 6 3
2
2
3x − 9 3(3) − 9 0
lim = = = lim = =
x →2 x+2 (2) + 2 4 2 x →3 x −x −62
(3 )
2
− (3 ) − 6 0
x2 + 2 3 Use factorization to simplify:
So, lim = .
x →2 x + 2 2 3x − 9 3( x − 3)
lim = lim
x →3 x − x − 6
2 x →3 ( x − 3)( x + 2)

3
= lim
x →3 ( x + 2)

3
=
(3) + 2
3
=
5
2x 2 + 12 x + 18  x −1
(c) lim (d) lim   Ans: ½

x →−3 x +3 x →1  x −1 
Testing:
x −1 1 −1 0
2 x 2 + 12 x + 18 2( −3) 2 + 12( −3) + 18 0 Testing: lim = =
lim = = x →1 x −1 1− 1 0
x → −3 x+3 (− 3 ) + 3 0
Use Rationalize to simplify:
Use factorization to simplify: x −1 x −1 x +1
lim = lim 
2 x + 12 x + 18
2
2( x + 6 x + 9) 2
x →1 x − 1 x →1 x − 1 x +1
lim = lim
x →−3 x +3 x →−3 x +3 x −1
2( x + 3)( x + 3) = lim
x →1 ( x − 1)( x + 1)
= lim
x →−3 x +3 1 1
= lim 2( x + 3) = lim =
x →−3 x →1 x + 1 2

= 2( −3 + 3) = 0
 x −2 
e) lim  
x →2 3− x +7  = lim
( x − 2)(3 + x + 7 )
( 2) − 2 0 x →2 − ( x − 2)
Testing: lim =
x →2 3 − ( 2) + 7 0 (3 + x + 7 )
= lim
x →2 −1
Use Rationalize to simplify:
3 + ( 2) + 7
x −2 x −2 3+ x+7 =
lim = lim  −1
x →2 3 − x+7 x →2 3 − x+7 3+ x+7 = −6
( x − 2)(3 + x + 7 )
= lim
x →2 9 − ( x + 7)
( x − 2)(3 + x + 7 )
= lim
x →2 2−x
…continue to the right…

27
Exercise 1.6
Evaluate the following limits if exist.
x−4 1− x
a) lim b) lim
x →4 x − 16
2
x →1 x − 1

5−x − 2  x 2 − 3x − 10 
c) lim d) lim  2 

x →3 3−x x → 5  x − 10x + 25 

x 4 − 16 x 4 − 16
e) lim f) lim
x →2 x + 2 x →2 2 x − 4

 x −2  2x + 6
g) lim   h) lim
x → −3 9 x + 3 x 2
x →2 3− x +7 
2+ x e 2x − e x
i) lim j) lim
x → −2 x + 2x
2
x→ 0 ex −1

Answer 1.6
1 1 1 2 1
a) b) − c) 2 d) The limit does not exist. e) 0 f) 16 g) −6 h) − i) − j) 1
8 2 4 9 2

(C) LIMITS OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTION

Important: Squeezing Theorem
sin( x ) sin(nx )
(a) lim = 1 or lim =1
x→ 0 x x→ 0 nx
 1 − cos x 
(b) lim  =0
x→0  x 

Example 16 Evaluate the following limits.

 sin x   sin 5x 
(a) lim   (b) lim  
x → 0  5x  x → 0  sin 3x 
 tan x  4sin x
(c) lim   (d) lim+
x→0  x  x →0 x
5 x − sin(3 x ) sin(5 x )
(e) lim (f) lim
x→ 0 2x x → 0 2 x cos(3 x )

28
 Solution:
 sin x   sin 5x 
(a) lim   (b) lim  
x → 0  5x  x → 0  sin 3x 
1  sin x  5x
lim sin 5 x 
= lim   x →0
5 x → 0
 x  = 5x
3x
1 lim sin 3 x 
= (1) x →0 3x
5
1 sin 5 x
= lim
5 =
x →0 5 x  lim 5 x
sin 3 x x →0 3 x
lim
x →0 3x

=
(1)  5 = 5
(1) 3 3

 tan x  4sin x
(c) lim   d) lim+
x→0  x  x →0 x
  sin x   = lim+
4sin x

x
  cos x  
= lim    x →0 x x
x →0
 x  = 4 lim+
sin x
 lim x
  x →0 x x → 0+
 sin x  = 4 (1)( 0 )
= lim  

x → 0 x cos x
 = 0.
 sin x   1 
= lim   lim  
x →0
 x  x →0  cos x 
1
= (1)  = 1
1

5 x − sin(3 x ) sin(5 x )
e) lim f) lim
x→ 0 2x x → 0 2 x cos(3 x )

sin(5 x ) 1
= lim  lim
5x sin(3 x ) x→ 02x x → 0 cos 3 x
= lim − lim
x→ 0 2x x→ 0 2x sin(5 x ) 5 1
= lim  
5 sin(3 x ) 3 x→ 0 2x 5 cos(3(0))
= lim − lim 
x→ 0 2 x→ 0 2x 3  5 sin(5 x ) 1
= lim 
5 3 sin(3 x ) 2 x→ 0 5 x 1
= − lim
2 2 x→ 0 3 x 5
= (1)(1)
5 3 2
= − (1)
2 2 5
=
=1 2

29
Exercise 1.7
Evaluate the following limits.
3 sin( x ) sin( x )
a) lim b) lim
x →0 sin(4 x ) x →0 2 x

c) lim 
3x  sin( x )
 d) lim
x →0
x → 0  sin 2x  x

sin( x ) + 2 x 3 x 2 − 2 sin(5 x )
e) lim f) lim
x →0 4x x →0 4x
sin(2 x ) x −2 sin 2x
g) lim h) lim 2 − lim
x →0 3 x (1 − 5 cos 4 x ) x →2 x − 4 x →0 4 x

sin3 x + x 3 sin x(1 − cos x )

i) lim j) lim
x→ 0 5x x→ 0 2x 2

Answer 1.7
3 1 3 3 5 1 1 4
a) b) c) d) 0 e) f) − g) − h) − i) j) 0
4 2 2 4 2 6 4 5

TUTORIAL 1.1 (2006-2010)

 2x − 3 − 1   x 2 − 49 
1) lim   2) lim  
x →2  x − 2  x →7  x −7 


 x +4 −2  1 
3) lim    1− 
 x 
x→0  x  4) lim 
x → 1  x − 1 
 
 x 2 − 3x   4e2x + 2ex − 6 
5) lim  
 6) lim  
x→5  4x + 5  x→0  3e x
− 3 


 2 − 8 − x2  sin 3x x2 − 1
7) lim   8) lim + lim
x → 2  x −2 
 x → 0 2x x →1 x2 − x

 1 1  27 − 3 x 
 −  10) lim  
9+x 3 
9) lim  x →8  x −3 
x→0  x 
 
 
Hints: Common denominator & Conjugate of
surd
sin 5x  2x − 4 
11) lim 12) lim  
x → 0 2x (1 + 4 cos 2x ) x → 2  x + 14 − 4 

30
  3x2 − 9x  3x − 1, x  2
13) lim  2 + 2x + 1  14) lim f (x ) where f (x ) =  2
x →3  x −9  x →2 x − 1, x  2

15) Suppose that f (x) and g (x) are defined for all x and that lim f (x ) = 2 and
x→0

lim g (x ) = 0 , find the limit of the following: lim

f (x )5  cos g (x ) .
x→0 x→0 6 − f (x )

Answer Tutorial 1.1

1 10 7 1
1)1 2)14 3) 4)2 5)2 6) 7)1 8) 9) − 10)5
4 3 2 54
1 17
11) 12)16 13) 14) The limit does not exist 15)8
2 2

1.2.2 INFINITE LIMITS / END BEHAVIOR: X APPROACHES  

Properties
Let m be real number,
(a) lim m = m (b) lim m = m
x → − x → +
(c) lim x = − (d) lim x = +
x → − x → +
1 1
(e) lim =0 (f) lim =0
x → − x x → + x

(A) Limits of x n as x → 
lim x n = +  , n = 1, 2, 3, …
x → +
−  , n = 1, 3, 5, ...
lim xn = 
x → − +  , n = 2, 4, 6, ...

Example 17 Evaluate the following limits.

(a) lim 2x 5 (b) lim 2x 5 (c) lim − 7x 6 (d) lim − 7x 6

x → + x → − x → + x → −
Solution
(a) lim 2x 5 (b) lim 2x 5
x → + x → −
= 2 lim x 5
= 2 lim x5
x →+ x →−

= + = −

31
(c) lim − 7x 6 (d) lim − 7x 6
x → + x → −
= −7 lim x 6 = −7 lim x 6
x →+ x →−

= − = −

(B) Limits of polynomials as x → 

The end behavior of a polynomial is the end behavior of its highest degree term of x.
If cn  0 , then

lim c0 + c1x + c2x2 + ... + cnxn = lim c xn

n
x →  x → 
Example 18 Evaluate
(a) lim
x → −
(8x 6
x →
(
− 9x 4 + 15x 2 − 12x + 3) (b) lim −5 x 3 + 4 x 5 − 6 x 2 + 100 )

Solution
(a) lim (8x 6
− 9x 4 + 15x 2 − 12x + 3) (
(b) lim −5 x 3 + 4 x 5 − 6 x 2 + 100 )
x → − x →

= lim 8x6
x →−
( ) = lim 4x5
x →−
( )
= + = −

Exercise 1.8
Evaluate the following limits.
(
a) lim −5 x 3 + 4 x 5 − 6 x 6
x →
) ( )
b) lim − x 4 + 4 x 6 − 7 x 9 − 10
x →

c) lim ( x 3
+ 4x5 − 6x7 + x9 ) d) lim ( 0.5 x + 4 x + 2 ) 3
x → x →

e) lim (1 − x )
x →
f) 2 lim ( 4 x − 6 x ) 10 11
x →−

x →−
(
g) lim x 3 + x 4 − 6 x 4 ) h) lim ( − x + 4 x − 16 x )
x →−
2 7

i) lim
x →−
(x − x ) 2
j) lim x ( x + x + 2 )
x →−
2 3 6

Answer 1.8
a) −  b) −  c ) d ) e) −  f ) g) −  h ) i) −  j )

32
(C) Limits of rational functions as x → 
p( x ) 
lim = , we can simplify the rational function by divide the numerator and
x →  q( x ) 
denominator with the simplest highest power of x that occurs in the denominator.

Example 19

4x + 7 12x2 − 7x + 13 7x 3 − 3x2 + 5
(a) lim (b) lim (c) lim
x → + 8x − 11 x → − − 5x3 − 11x + 11 x → − 6x − 2
Solution
4x + 7 12x2 − 7x + 13 7x 3 − 3x2 + 5
(a) lim (b) lim (c) lim
x → + 8x − 11 x → − − 5x3 − 11x + 11 x → − 6x − 2
4x 7 12 x 2 7 x 13 7 x3 3x 2 5
+ − 3+ 3 − +
= lim x x x 3
x x x x x
x →+ 8 x 11 = lim = lim
x →− −5 x 3
− 11x 11
− 3 + 3
x →− 6x 2
−
x x x 3
x x x x
7
4+ 12 7 13
− 2+ 3 7 x 2 − 3x +
5
= lim x x
x →+ 11 = lim x x x = lim
8− x →− 11 11
−5 − 2 + 3
x →−
6−
2
x x x x
4+0 1 0−0+0 = +
= = . = = 0.
8−0 2 −5 − 0 + 0

Since both of the numerator and denominator of the rational function are polynomial,
therefore an alternative method can be applied.
4x + 7 12x2 − 7x + 13 7x 3 − 3x2 + 5
(a) lim (b) lim (c) lim
x → + 8x − 11 − 5x3 − 11x + 11
x → − 6x − 2
x → −
 4x   12 x 2
 7 x3 
= lim   = lim  = lim 
 
x → 8 x
x →− −5 x 3
 
  x →−
 6x 
1
= lim   1
= lim ( x 2 )
12 7
 
x → 2 = − lim  
5 x →−
 x 6 x →−
1
= . = 0. = .
2

Exercise 1.9
Evaluate the following limits.
6x − 7 x2 − x
a) lim b) lim
x → 3 x + 4 x →− − x + 2

33
 1 − 3x 7
c) lim d) lim
x →− x +22 x →− x +1
2x − 7 9 − 2x 2
e) lim f) lim
x → 3x3 + 4x 2 x →− 2 − x

x3 h) lim
5x
g) lim x →− 3 − x
x → 3x2 − 1
2x 3 − 7 x 2 + x 3 − 3x
i) lim j) lim
x → −x + 1
3 x →− 3 + 3x

Answer 1.9
a )2 b ) c )0 d )0 e )0 f)− g ) h) − 5 i) − 2 j) −1

(D) Limit involving radicals as x → 

Important radical rules
x = x2
x2 = x4
x3 = x6

Example 20 Evaluate the following limits.

3
4x + 9 1 x2 + 5 1
(a) lim ans : 3 (b) lim ans :
x → + 8x − 9 2 x → + 3x − 5 3

x2 + 5 1
(c) lim ans : − (d) lim  x 6 + 2 x3 − x3  ans :1
x → − 3x − 5 3 
x →+ 
Solution
4x + 9 4x + 9 4x 3 1
( a ) xlim 3 = 3 lim = 3 lim = .
→+ 8x − 9 x →+ 8 x − 9 x →+ 8 x 2

34
 x2 + 5 x2 + 5
x2 + 5 x x2 + 5 x
( b ) lim
x → 3 x − 5
= lim
x → 3 x − 5
( c ) xlim
→− 3 x − 5
= lim
x →− 3 x − 5

x x
x2 + 5 x2 + 5

= lim
(+x) = lim
(−x)
x →+ 3 x − 5 x →− 3 x − 5

(+x) (−x)
x2 + 5 x2 + 5
x2 (−x)
2
= lim = lim
x →+ 3x − 5 x →− 3x − 5
(+x) (−x)
x2 + 5 x2 + 5
= lim x2 x2
x →+ 3 x 5 = lim
− x →− 3 x
−
5
x x
(−x) (−x)
5
1+ 5
= lim x2 1+
x →+ 5 = lim x2
3− x →+ 5
x −3 +
x
1+ 0 1
= = 1+ 0 1
3−0 3 = =−
−3 + 0 3

 3 x6 + 2 x3 − x3 x6 + 2 x3 + x3
( d ) xlim
→+ 
x + 2 x − x = lim
6 3
 x →+
conjugate of surd
1 x6 + 2 x3 + x3
x6 + 2 x3 − x 6
= lim radical limit
x →+
x6 + 2 x3 + x3
2 x3
= lim x3
x →+
x 6 + 2 x3 + x3
x3
2
= lim
x →+
x 6 + 2 x3 x3
+
x6 x3
2 2 2
= lim = lim = = 1.
x →+
2 x3 x3 x →+ 2 1+ 0 +1
1+ + 3 1+ 3 +1
x6 x x

35
Exercise 1.10
Evaluate the following limits.
3x − 2 3+x
a) lim b) lim 3
x →− x +1 x →− x − 25

3 1 + 3x2 1 + 2x
c) lim d) lim
x →−
x →− 2−x x2 − 5
4x − 3 1− x
e) lim f) lim
x → x →−
3x + 4x 2 2 + x2
x 5x 2 − 1
g) lim h) lim
x →
3x − 1
2
x → 3−x
2x 4 − 7 x 2 + x 6x3
i) lim j) lim
x2 + 1 x →−
x →− 3 + 3x 6
Answer 1.10
1
a) 3 b )1 c )3 3 d) − 2 e )2 f )1 g ) 3 h ) i) 2 j) − 2 3
3

(E) Vertical asymptote and horizontal asymptote

The reciprocal graph consists of vertical asymptote(s) and horizontal asymptote(s).
✓ The line x=a is a vertical asymptote of the graph if
lim+ f ( x) = + & lim− f ( x) = − or lim+ f ( x) = − & lim− f ( x) = +
x →a x →a x →a x →a

lim f ( x) = + lim f ( x) = +
x →0+ x →0−

lim f ( x) = −
x →0−
lim f ( x) = −
x →0+

1 1
The vertical asymptote of f ( x ) = is x = 0. The vertical asymptote of f ( x ) = − is x = 0.
x x

36
 ✓ The line y=b is a horizontal asymptote of the graph if
lim f ( x) = b & lim f ( x) = b .
x →− x →+

lim f ( x) = 0
lim f ( x) = 0 x →−
x →+

lim f ( x) = 0 lim f ( x) = 0
x →+
x →−

1 1
The horizontal asymptote of f ( x ) = is y = 0. The horizontal asymptote of f ( x ) = − is
x x
y = 0.

Example 21
3
Find vertical asymptote and horizontal asymptote of f ( x) = .
x −1
Solution
Denominator = 0 ➔ x = 1. 3 3
lim f ( x) = lim = lim = 0
x →− x →− x − 1 x →− x
3
lim f ( x) = lim+ = + 3 3
x →1+ x −1
x →1
lim f ( x) = lim = lim = 0
x →+ x →+ x − 1 x →+ x
3
lim f ( x) = lim− = −
x →1− x →1 x − 1 Thus, the horizontal asymptote is y=0.
Thus, the vertical asymptote is x =1.

Exercise 1.11
Find the vertical asymptote and horizontal asymptote for the following functions.
5 3x − 4
a) f ( x) = b) f ( x) =
2x +1 x+4
3 − 2x 10 x
c) f ( x) = d) f ( x) =
x+5 2x + 4
3x − 3 −x
e) f ( x) = f) f ( x) =
1− x 1− 4x
3x − 5 4x − 3
g) f ( x) = h) f ( x) =
6x − 5 1− x
4 6x − 2
i) f ( x) = − j) f ( x) = −
x 2x + 3

37
Answer 1.11
1
a )x = − ; y = 0 b )x = −4; y = 3 c )x = −5; y = −2 d )x = −2; y = 5 e )x = 1; y = −3
2
1 1 5 1 3
f )x = ; y = g )x = ; y = h )x = 1; y = −4 i )x = 0; y = 0 j )x = − ; y = −3
4 4 6 2 2

(F) Limits involving trigonometric as x → 

Basic properties
lim sin f ( x)  = sin  lim f ( x )  lim  cos f ( x)  = cos  lim f ( x ) 
x →  x →  x →  x→ 

Example 22 Evaluate the following

 3  2π x 
(a) lim cos   (b) lim sin  
x → +  8x  x → +  2x − 3 
Solution
 3  2π x 
(a) lim cos   (b) lim sin  
x → +  8x  x → +  2x − 3 

 3  2 x 
= sin  lim
= cos  lim  x →+ 2 x − 3 
 x →+ 8 x   
3 1   2 x  
= cos  lim  = sin  lim  
8 x →+ x  x →+
 2 x 
= cos  0 = 1. = sin  lim ( )  = 0.
 x →+ 

Exercise 1.12
Evaluate the following limits.
 1   x 
a) lim sin   b) lim cos  
x →
 x +1 x →
 x +1 
 1− x   1− x 
c) lim sin   d) lim cos  
x →−
 2x +1  x →−
 x −1 
 3x + 1   5− x 
e) lim sin   f) lim cos  
x →
 1− 2x 
x →
 5x − 5 

Answer 1.12
a )0 b )0.5403 c ) − 0.4794 d )0.5403 e) − 0.7618 f )0.9017

38
TUTORIAL 1.2
3
 x  4x + 1 
2 3x2 − x
1) lim   2 
2) lim
x →   3x + 1  2x + x  x → − 4x − 5

x 4 + 3x2 − 3 2 + 9x 3
3) lim
x→ 4x 3 − 2x2 + 5x
4) lim
(
x →  (1 + x ) 3 + x
2
)
 x 2 − 2x  4 5x2 − 2
5) lim  
 2x + 1  6) lim
x → +   x → − 5 (x + 3)

7) lim
(3x2 + 4x )
3
8) lim
5x

x → + (4x 3 − 3)
2 x → + 2 x 2 + 4

x2 + x − 2 17 + 2x
9) Let g(x ) = , find 10) Let h (x ) = 2 , find
x2 − x x − 2x + 1
lim g(x) + lim g(x) . lim h(x) + lim h(x) .
x →1 x → + x →2 x→

2x − 6 3x + 5 1− t − 1+ t
11) lim + lim
. 12) lim
x → −2 x + x − 12 x →  6x − 8
2 t →0 t

5 − t2 + 9 ( x + h)2 − x 2
13) lim 14) lim
t →−4 t+4 h→0 h

(2 + h)−1 − 2−1 1
−
1
15) lim
h→0 h ( x + h) 2
x2
16) lim
h →0 h

Answer Tutorial 1.2

8 3 27 5 3
1) 2) − 3) 4)9 5) 6) − 4 7) 8) 9)4 10)21 11) 12) − 1
3 4 16 2 2
4 1 2
13) 14)2h 15) − 16) −
5 4 x3

39
1.3 CONTINUITY
A function f(x) is said to be continuous at x = a if and only if ALL three rules are satisfied:
1 st condition: f ( a ) is defined; means f(a) is a real number.
2 nd condition: lim f ( x ) exists; means lim− f ( x ) = lim+ f ( x ) = L .
x →a x →a x →a

3 rd condition: 1 st condition = 2 nd condition, thus f ( a ) = lim f ( x ) .

x →a

If the first or the second condition is failed, then it can be concluded as the function is not
continuous at x=a.
Example 1.22
Determine whether the following functions are continuous at x = 3.
 x2 − 9  x2 − 9
x −9
2
 ,x 3  ,x 3
(a) f ( x ) = (b) g ( x ) =  x − 3 (c) h ( x ) =  x − 3
x−3 4, 6,
 x=3  x=3
Solution:
x2 − 9
(a) f ( x ) =
x−3
st
1 Condition
(3)2 − 9 0
f ( 3) = = ( Indetermine/undefined )
(3) − 3 0
Conclusion
Therefore, f(x) is not continuous at x=3.

40
  x2 − 9  x2 − 9
 ,x 3  ,x 3
(b) g ( x ) =  x − 3 (c) h ( x ) =  x − 3
4, x=3 6, x=3
 
1 st condition: g(x) is defined at x=3? 1 st condition: g(x) is defined at x=3?
g(3)=4. h(3) = 6
So, g(x) is defined at x=3. So, h(x) is defined at x=3.

2 nd condition: lim g ( x) exist? 2 nd condition: lim h( x) exist?

x →3 x →3

lim g ( x) lim g ( x) lim h( x) lim h( x)

x →3− x →3− x →3− x →3+

 x2 − 9   x2 − 9   x2 − 9   x2 − 9 
= lim−   = lim−   = lim−   = lim+  
x →3
 x−3  x →3
 x−3  x →3
 x−3  x →3
 x−3 

= lim−
( x − 3)( x + 3) = lim−
( x − 3)( x + 3) = lim−
( x − 3)( x + 3) = lim+
( x − 3)( x + 3)
x →3 x −3 x →3 x −3 x →3 x −3 x →3 x−3
= lim− ( x + 3) = 6 = lim− ( x + 3) = 6 = lim− ( x + 3) = 6 = lim+ ( x + 3) = 6
x →3 x →3 x →3 x →3

Since lim− g ( x) = lim+ g ( x) = 6 , lim h( x) = lim+ h( x) = 6 ,

x →3 x →3 x →3− x →3

thus, lim g ( x)=6 (exist) thus, lim h( x)=6 (exist).

x →3 x →3

3 rd condition 3 rd condition
g (3)  lim g ( x) h(3) = lim h( x) = 6
x →3 x →3

Conclusion Conclusion
Therefore, g(x) is not continuous at x=3. Therefore, h(x) is continuous at x=3.

Solution:
Example 1.23 Given f(x) is continuous at x = 3, so ALL
 x2 , x  3 conditions are fulfilled.
 f (3) = lim− f ( x) = lim+ f ( x)
Given f ( x) = mx + 3, 3  x  4 x →3 x →3

9, x  4 m(3) + 3 = lim− ( x 2

) = lim ( mx + 3)
x →3 x →3+

3m + 3 = 9 = 3m + 3
Find the value of m if f(x) is continuous at x = 3.
3m = 6
m = 2.

Example 1.24
Find the value of k if lim f ( x)is exist? Solution:
x →2
Given lim f ( x) is exist,
x →2
3 − x3 , x  −2
 so the 2 nd condition is fulfilled.
f ( x) = 3 − kx, − 2  x  2 lim− f ( x) = lim+ f ( x)
7, x  2 x →2 x →2
 lim ( 3 − kx ) = lim+ ( 7 )
x → 2− x →2

3 − 2k = 7
41 k = −2.
 Example 1.25 Solution:
Find the value of k if f(x) is continuous at x=0. Given f(x) is continuous at x = 0, so ALL
 sin 3x conditions are fulfilled.
;x  0
f (x ) =  2x
 k ;x = 0 f (0) = lim− f ( x) = lim+ f ( x)
x →0 x →0

 sin 3 x   sin 3 x 
k = lim−   = lim+  
x →0  2 x  x →0  2 x 

 sin 3 x 
= lim−  32 xx 
x →0
 3x 
sin 3 x
lim
x → 0− 3x
=
2x
Example 1.26 lim−
x →0 3 x

 mx − n ; for x  1 (1) 3
= 2 = .

Let f (x ) =  5 ; for x = 1 3 2
2mx + n ; for x  1

Find the values of m and n so that f(x) is continuous at x = 1.

Solution:
Given f(x) is continuous at x = 1, so ALL conditions are fulfilled.

f (1) = lim− f ( x) = lim+ f ( x)

x →1 x →1

5 = lim− ( mx − n ) = lim+ ( 2mx + n )

x →1 x →1

5 = m − n = 2m + n

Separate the above equations into two linear equations and solve simultaneously.
m−n =5 (1)
2m + n = 5 (2)
(1) + (2) :
3m = 10
10
m=
3
10
Substitute m = into (1)
3
10
−n =5
3
10 5
n = −5 = −
3 3
10 5
Therefore, m = , n = − .
3 3

42
Exercise 1.13
 2 1
2x + m , x  2
1) Given that f (x ) = 
1
 4x ,x 
 2
1
(a) Find the value of m if f(x) is continuous at x = .
2
1
(b) Determine whether the function is continuous at x = .
4
 3x ;− 5 x 1

2) Given that k (x ) =  m ;1  x  6
x − 3 ; 6  x  10
2

(a) Find the value of m if k(x) is continuous at x = 1.
(b) Using the m value obtained in (a), determine whether the function is continuous at
x = 6.

3) Find the values of m and n if h(x) is continuous at x = 0.

 sin mx
 x ,x  0

h (x ) =  n ,x = 0
 x + 5 ,x  0

4) The function f(x) is defined as follows:

 ax − 1 , x 1

f (x ) =  3x + b ,1  x  4
 x 2 − 5x + 4 ,x  4
 x − 4
Given that lim f (x ) = 4 ,
x →1
(a) find the values of a and b.
(b) determine whether f(x) is continuous at x = 4.
 5x + 7 , x  −1
 2
5) Given that f (x ) = 2x + kx + 1 , − 1  x  3 .
 28 ,x  3

(a) Find the value of k such that f(x) is continuous at x = –1.
(b) Using the value of k in (a), determine whether the function is continuous at x = 3.

43
6) Determine whether the function of f(x) is continuous at x = –2.
x2 − 4
 , x  −2
f (x ) =  x + 2
 x +6 , x  −2
 4
 x 4 − 16

 x +2 , x  −2

7) Given that f (x ) =  kx 2 − 4 ,− 2  x  2.
16 − 5x 3 ,x 2

 x

(a) Find the value of k such that lim f (x ) exists.

x → −2
(b) Using the value of k in (a), determine whether the function is continuous at x = 2.

(c) Find lim f (x ) .

x → −
 x2 ,x 1

8) Let g (x ) = ax + b ,1  x  2 .
 x3 ,x 2

(a) Find constant a and b that will make g(x) continuous for all x.
(b) Hence, find lim g (x ) .
3
x→
2
 2β + x 3 ,x  1
 2
9) Let h(x ) =  x − 1 .
 2
x + x − 2 , x  1
(a) Find h(1).
(b) Determine the value of β if lim h(x ) exists.
x→1
(c) Using the value of β obtained in (b), show that h(x) is continuous at x = 1.

Answer 1.13
3
1a ) b )Yes 2a)3 b)No 3)m = 5, n = 5 4a)a = 5, b = 1 b)No
2
9
5a)1 b)No 6)No 7a) − 7 b)No c) −  8a )a = 7, b = −6 b)
2
1
9a )2 + 1 b ) − c )shown
6

44
 TUTORIAL CHAPTER 1 (2011 – 2020)
Apr 1 a) Evaluate the following:
2011
1 1
−
4+x 2  3 x 3 − 2x 2   x −1 x −1 
i ) lim ii ) lim   iii ) lim  + 2 
x →0 x +1 x →  x 2 + x x →1  x − 1 x − 1 
  

b) The function f(x) is defines as follows:

 9x − 2 , x  1

f ( x ) = −kx 2 − 2 , 1  x  3

 x2 , x  3
i ) Find the value of k such that f(x) is continuous at x=3.
ii ) Using the valus of k in (i), determine whether the function f(x) is continuous at x=1.

Oct 2 a) Find:
2011
x2 sin 2 x 4 − 6−x
i ) lim ii ) lim iii ) lim
x → x −5
3 x →0 3x x →2 x2 − 4

b) The function g(x) is defined as follows:

 mx − 2 , x2



g( x ) =  4x + n , 2 x 3
 2
 x −9 (
,
) x 3
 x − 3
Given that lim g( x ) = 6 , find the values of m and n. Hence, using values of m and
x →2
n, determine whether the function is continuous at x=3. (10 marks)

Apr 3 a) Evaluate each of the following limits.

2012
x −1 tan3 x 4x8 + 3
i ) lim ii ) lim iii ) lim
x →1 x3 − x x →0 2x x → x 8 − 6x

 2x 2 − k , x  1

Let g ( x ) = 16 x − 21 , 1  x  3

 2x 3 , x  3
i) Find the value of k such that g(x) is continuous at x=1.
ii) Determine whether the function is continuous at x=3.

Oct 4 a) Evaluate each of the following limits.

2012
4x 2 + 1 sin( x − 1) x
i ) lim ii ) lim iii ) lim
x → x + 5x
3 x →1 x −1
2 x →0 9x + 4 − 2

45
 kx + 3 , x  3

b) Let g ( x ) =  x 2 , 3  x  4
 8 , x4

i) Find the value of k if g(x) is continuous at x=3.
ii) Determine whether g(x) is continuous at x=4.
Apr 5 a) Evaluate each of the following limits.
2013
x
sin
x −3 2 2−x
i ) lim ii ) lim iii ) lim
x →3 x − x − 6x
3 2 x →0 x cos x x →2 x + 2 − 3x − 2
b) The function is defined as follows:
 kx , x  5

f( x ) = 20 − 2 x , 5  x  6
 x +3 , x 6

i) Determine whether f(x) is continuous at x=6.
6

ii) Find the value of k if

 f ( x )dx = 18 .
4
Oct 6 a) Evaluate each of the following limits.
2013 4
−2
t2 + 8 − 3 2x
i ) lim x ii ) lim iii ) lim
x →2 x − 2 t →−1 t +1 x →0 tan x

b) The function g(x) is defined as follows:

 −2 x , x  −1

g( x ) = 3 x 2 , − 1  x  1
 3 , x 1

i) Find lim g ( x ) and lim g ( x )
x →0 x →−1 −
ii) Determine whether g(x) is continuous at x=-1 and x=1.

Apr 7 a) Evaluate each of the following limits.

2014

x −1 sin 4 x 2x 2 − 3
i ) lim ii ) lim iii ) lim
x →1 x −1 x →0 5 x x →+ x+2
 1 − 3x , x  4

b) Let f( x ) = mx 2 + 2x − 3 , 4x6

 −x2 + 9 , x6
i) Find the value of m such that lim f ( x ) is exists.
x →4
ii) Determine whether the function is continuous at x=6.

Oct 8 a) Evaluate each of the following limits.

2014
e2 x − e x sin x x4 + 3
i ) lim ii ) lim iii ) lim
x →0 1− ex x →0 2 x x → x 2 − 8x

46
  x +1 , x  0

b) Let g( x ) =  2x 2 , 0  x  2
−2 x + k , x  2

i) Determine whether g(x) is continuous at x=0.
ii) Find the value of k such that g(x) is continuous at x=2.

Apr 9
2015
a) Given f ( x ) = x 3 − 2 x 2 and g ( x ) = 2 x 2 − 8 . Evaluate
f (x) g( x )
i ) lim ii ) lim
x →2 g( x ) x → f (x)

b) Evaluate
f (x) tan 2 x
i ) lim ii ) lim
x →2 g( x ) x →0 2x


x 2 + 4x − 5 , x  1
c) Let f( x ) = 

 2bx + 3 , 1  x  3
Use the definition of continuity to find the value of b so that f(x) is continuous at
x=1.

Oct 10 a) Evaluate each of the following limits.

2015
16 − 4 x 4x5 − x + 1  sin5 x x cos x 
i ) lim ii ) lim iii ) lim  −
x →4 x − x − 12
2 x →+ 3 x − 2x
4 2 x →0  3 x tan x 

 1
 3x , x 
2

 x − 4x − 5
2
1
b) f( x ) =  , x 5
 x −5 2
 x 2 − 2k , x  5


i) Find the value of k such that lim f ( x ) exists.
x →5
1
ii) Determine whether the function is continuous at x = .
2

Mar 11 a) Evaluate the following:

2016
2t 3 + 3t 2 3
27 x 6 + 5 x 3 + 4 sin 7 x
i ) lim ii ) lim iii ) lim
t →0 3t 4 − 2t 2 x → x 6 − 11x 3 x →0 x

b) The function f(x) is defined as follows.


 kx + 1 , x  2

f( x ) =  kx 2 − 3 , 2  x  4
 2
 3x + 5 , x  4
 2

47
 i) Compute the value of k such that lim f ( x ) exists.
x →2
ii) Hence, determine whether f is continuous at x=4.

Oct 12 a) Evaluate each of the following limits.

2016
x 2 − 4 x − 12 3 + 2x sin 6 x
i ) lim ii ) lim iii ) lim
x → −2 x − 2x − 8
2 x → 8 + 10 x 2 x →0 tan 5 x

 3 x 3 + 2 x + 8 , x  −2

3
b) Let f( x ) =  (2 x + 2) + k , − 2  x  0
2
 2x 2 + 6 , x  0

i) Find the value of k such that lim f ( x ) exists.
x → −2
ii) Determine whether the function is continuous at x=0.

March 13 a) Evaluate each of the following limits.

2017
3− x x3 − 3x 2 + x x + tan 4 x
i ) lim ii ) lim iii ) lim
x →3 x −3 x → − 4 x + 2x − 7
3 x →0 2x

4 + k − x , x  −1

b) Let f( x ) =  x 2 − 5 x , − 1  x  3
 −4 x + 6 , x  3

i) Find the value of k such that lim f ( x ) exists.
x → −1

ii) Determine whether the function is continuous at x=3.

Jan 14 a) Evaluate each of the following limits.

2018
x2 + x − 2 1 + 9x 2 6 x − sin(4 x )
i ) lim ii ) lim iii ) lim
x →1 x −1
2 x → − 1 − 3x x →0 2x

b) The function f(x) is defined as follows.

 6
 , x2
 x +1
f( x ) =  x − 4 , x = 2

 x+2 , x 2
 x + 2
i) Find lim f ( x ) and. lim f ( x )
x → − x→ 7
ii) Determine whether the function is continuous at x = 2.

Jun 15 a) Evaluate each of the following limits.

2018
x 2 − 3x − 4 3
8x 6 − 3 x 2 + 3 sin(5 x )
i ) lim ii ) lim iii ) lim
x →4 x 2 − 16 x→  x 6 + 2x 3 x →0 x

48
 b) The function f(x) is defined as follows:

 2 x 3 + x + 4 , x  −1

 2x
f( x ) =  + 1+ w , − 1 x  0
3
 5
 3x 2 + , x 0
 3
i) Find the value of k such that lim f ( x ) exists.
x → −1
ii) Determine whether the function is continuous at x = 0.

Dec 16 a) Evaluate each of the following limits.

2018
x 2 − 49 3x 2 − 5 sin 4 x
i ) lim ii ) lim iii ) lim
x →7 x − 4 x − 21
2 x→  7 + 2x x →0 2 x(1 + cos 3 x )

b) The function f(x) is defined as follows:


 kx 2 , x  2

f( x ) = (1 − k )x , 2  x  3
 1
 , x3
 2x + 6
i) Find the value of k such that lim f ( x ) exists.
x→ 2
ii) Determine whether the function is continuous at x = 3.

ANSWER TUTORIAL CHAPTER 1

11 2 1
1ai )0 ii ) iii )1 bi ) − ii )Not 2ai )0 ii ) iii )b )m = 4, n = −2; Not
9 3 16
1 3 1 4
3ai ) ii ) iii )2 bi )7 ii )Not 4ai )0 ii )iii ) bi )2 ii )Not
2 2 2 9
1 1 1
5ai ) ii ) iii )2 bi )Not ii )2 6ai ) − 1 ii ) − iii )2 bi )0; 2 ii )Not ;Yes
15 2 3
1 4
7ai ) ii ) iii ) 2 bi ) − 1 ii )Yes 8ai ) − 1 ii )0 iii )1 bi )Not ii )12
2 5
1 3 3 4 2 19
9ai ) ii )1 bi ) ii )1 c ) − 10ai ) − ii ) iii ) bi ) ii )Yes
2 4 2 7 3 2
3 4 6
11ai ) − ii )3 iii )28 bi )2 ii )Yes 12ai ) ii )0 iii ) bi ) − 17 ii )No
2 3 5
−1 1 5 3
13ai ) ii ) iii ) bi )3 ii )Yes 14ai ) ii )1 iii )1 bi )0; 3 ii )Yes
2 3 2 2 2
5 2 7 3 1
15ai ) ii )2 iii )15 bi ) ii )Yes 16ai ) ii ) iii )1 bi ) ii )No
8 3 5 2 3

49